GENDER AND SOCIETY

Course Description:

This is a subject meant to re-study, re-introduce and reformulate, in

simpler ways, the different theories and concepts in society and culture. The
concepts learned in this subject will be imbibed and applied to the society for its
development and progress. In addition to the effect, guidelines, norms of other
gender/sexuality which is present in our time

Course Learning Outcomes:

After completing this course, the students will be able to:

1. Discusses an overview of the Sociology and some important facts about its
scope and limitations

2.Discusses/ Tackles Anthropology as a discipline.

3.Provides valuable information about Culture and understand the components

that make up culture.

4. Know the significance of social interactions and social influence on social

behavior.

5. Make an assessment on the social life of students and to help them become
more sociable.

6. Acquaints students to the importance of a group to the development of one’s

self.

7.Educate students on the implication of inequality and stratification

8.Enumerate the different social institutions and know their roles in the society in
molding the youth

9.Inculcate enough knowledge in students about Social Issues

10.Tackles important things and topics about sexuality

11.Comprehend the effects of population explosion and combat the country’s

problem of overpopulation.

12.Teach responsible parenthood

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CHAPTER 12
GENDER STUDIES

DEFINITION OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Gender refers to the persona! traits and social roles of the male and
female members of society. Biological, social or cognitive factors
influence gender. Sex, a biological characteristic, is determined from
birth. However with today's scientific progress, pre-natal determination of
sex can now be achieved. There are only two kinds of sexes-either male or
female. Each has 23 human chromosomes, and one of these determines
the sex of the infant, Males have an XY chromosome pair white the
females have XX pair.
Sexuality is the state of being either masculine or feminine. If a person
does not accept or understand his/her sexuality, he faces what is known as
"identity crisis," or one's inability to understand definitely his /her status.
Sexual behavior is learned. Unlike animals, human beings do not possess
sex instinct but only sex drives. Humans adopt the ways and means of
sexual behavior, which were approved and allowed by their culture.
FACTORS INFLUENCING GENDER
1. BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCE
Hormonal changes during puberty of individuals influence and
affect sexual behavior. Udry (1990) observed that rising androgen (male
sex hormones) in boys during puberty increased sexual activity. On the
other hand, the increased sexual activity among adolescent girls is
somewhat influenced by their peer groups.
According to Freud, human behavior and history are directly
related to the reproduction process. Erik Erikson's "anatomy is destiny"
pointed out that anatomical differences influence psychological
differences. Both Freud and Erikson observed that males are aggressive
while the females are passive.
2. SOCIAL INFLUENCES
A. Parents are the initial models from where the children develop
their notions of gender. From their parents' influence, children learn the
kind of behavior their sex is supposed to assume. Usually, boys are given
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 more freedom than the girls, who are usually perceived weaker and
vulnerable by the parents. However recent studies show that harsh
restrictions imposed on adolescents can affect their social development.
B. Peers- From peer approval or disapproval, children and
adolescents model their gender behavior
C. Schools-students learn from their schools the appropriate
behavior their sexes are expected to perform. The schools can
scientifically enlighten the attitudes of students on gender issues like .
sexual discrimination, homosexuality, sexual harassment, same-sex
relationships, wife abuse, feminist issues, etc.
D. Media-the media may discourage or perpetuate gender-
stereotyped messages that can be biased or discriminatory of the sexes. In
some instances, some sexist or chauvinist messages from media
discriminate women.
3. COGNITIVE INFLUENCES mean that children organize their
perceptions of the world they live in terms of gender after identifying
themselves as either male or female
GENDER SENSIVITY

CONCEPTS ON THE EQUALITY OF THE SEXES

A. The Early PRO-FEMINIST ADVOCATES
I. Plato-The first advocacy of the social and political equality for
women was proposed in his work, Republic. According to Plato,
there is nothing that a man can do in public affairs that a woman
cannot also achieve equity well. He declares:
"There is no special faculty of administration in a state which a
woman has because she is a woman, or which a man has by virtue
of his sex, but the gifts of nature are alike diffused in both; all the
pursuits of men are the pursuits of women also.
2. John Stuart Mill- In his pamphlet, "The Subjection of Women,"
Mill advocated for the complete social, economic, and political equality
between men and women, In his book "Representative Government," the
right to vote is a natural right that belongs not only men but to women as

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 well to have their voices in the government. Mill wrote his plea for
equality and women's suffrage with these words:
"No man now holds that women should be in persona/ servitude;
that they should have no thought, wish or occupation, but to be the
domestic drudges of husbands, fathers or brothers. "
3. Frederick Engels- He argued that the oppression of women is
related to the exploitative class relations, and insisted that the control of
private property allows some individuals to control other men but also
allows all men to control women. Engels also considers women as the
"reserve army of labor as they can be called to provide assistance in time
of war or to provide a hand when production expands" (Waters, 1994).
Stressing on his argument on the subjugation of women, Engels
writes:
"The peculiar character of the supremacy of the husband over the
wife on the modern family.,. will only be seen in the clear light of the day
when both possess legally complete equality of rights.... Then it will be
plain that the first condition for the liberation of the wife is to bring the
whole female sex back into public industry, and that this in turn demands
that the characteristic of the monogamous family as the economic unit of
society be abolished. "
3. William James- He believes a female comes to maturity at an
earlier age than males. At 20 James says, a woman is completely formed
mentally, and well advanced over her comparatively formless male
contemporary (Adler)
B. SOURCES OFANTI-FEMINIST CONCEPTS
1. The Biblical doctrine- Both the Old and New Testaments place
women in a subordinate position. St Paul enjoins wives to be
submissive to their husbands and imposes silence and passivity on
them on matters of church, government and doctrine (Adler, 1963).
Fundamentalist Christianity associates women with sex, seduction,
and sin.
2. The Patriarchal System- Patriarchy is based on the principle of
male dominance in family and society. In the ancient patriarchal
systems, the women were regarded as weak and inferior and were
subordinates to male members of the community.
Ancient Roman law, which was based on a patriarchal system
discriminated married women who became "daughters" to their
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 husbands. As such, these women could be completely dominated by
their husbands to the point of having their behavior controlled without
expecting any legal or state protection (Waters, 1994).
3. Political Ideology. By its non-egalitarian nature, Conservatism as a
political ideology tends to oppdse gender equality, The
conservatives' basic principles of order, loyalty, piety, and
continuity oppose change (especially in patriarchal systems) in
established institutions and methods. Likewise, Fascism, which
asserts the superiority of race, usually regards the women as inferior
to men. Fascists think that some human beings are naturally better
than others; and place the destiny of the nation above that of the
people. Fascist states repress human rights.
4. Educational system. As perpetuator of culture, education plays a
vital role in promoting gender sensitivity. However, in patriarchal and
paternalistic societies, the educational system may breed consciousness
of gender inequality. In the Philippines for example, more female
students take nursing courses than males; males outnumber the females
in the engineering courses; more men than women enroll at the
Philippine Military Academy and the Police Academy, and more men
study theology to become priests, while

the women reserve the privilege to be nuns.

OTHER CONCEPTS ON WOMEN
1. Aristotle's concept of women-He considers man naturally superior to
a woman; the female is a kind of mutilated male, suffering from a
natural deficiency.
2. Rousseau- He thinks that the proper sphere of influence of women

is in the home, where she can persuasively impel recalcitrant

males to virtue and duty (Adler, 1963)
3. Sigmund Freud- He posits the psychoanalytical theory that women
accept inferiority because of penis envy.
4. Cervantes romantic concept treats a woman as a tender flower, to be
prized and protected and shielded from trespassers. In his Don
Quixote, Cervantes describes a woman:

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 "She must be treated as relics are: adored, not touched She
must be protected and prized as one protects and prizes fair
garden full of roses and flowers, the owner of which
allows no one to trespass or pluck a blossom, "
CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTS ON GENDER
1. Talcott Parsons. In his Structure of Social Action (1949), Parson
explained that gender differentiation began when within the family
the woman performed expressive tasks, while the men assigned
to themselves the instrumental tasks. The assignment of these tasks,
according to Parsons is based On biology. As women were expected
to care and nurture (expressive acts) their children and because
men are not supposed to perform such tasks, "they must therefore
specialized in alternative instrumental direction"(Waters 1994)
2. Simone de Beauvoir. In her "Second Sex" (1972), after rejecting
the concepts on gender of Freud, Engels, and the other
sociobiological viewpoints on the same subject, Beauvoir advanced her
own theoretical position on gender, which she explained in two
stages:
A. Biological and primitive environmental stage-In the early

stages of the development of society, simple technology was

used as men depended only in hunting and foraging for food.
The male were hunters and the women were foragers. Added to this
set-up is the biological task of the women in the reproduction of the
young, and the mother's consequent care and nurture of children.
Thus, women were prevented from actively and equally participating
jn the economic activities of society. That strengthened maie
domination over them.

B. Agricultural stage-Horticultural stage allowed women to cultivate

the land. But with the advent of the agricultural stage, men took back
the cultivation and control of land from women. Religious practices and
rituals (e.g. rain dance for good harvest, sacrifices, etc) associated with
land use were initiated by the males. The rise of patriarchal family in
such societies later further perpetuated not only man's domination of
economic production, but also of their families and members,
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3. Kate Millet- Like Maine and Weber, Millet considered patriarchy
as a form of male domination. The unjust treatment and unequal position
of women in society are based on a form of power relationship within
society. Cited by Panopio and Rolda (2000) Millet's sexual politics
operates in the following ways:
a. Males are aggressive, dominant, intelligent, efficacious; females, on
the other hand, are passive, docile, and ineffectual
b. Sex roles relegated women to domestic and child-rearing task, while
they relegated men to achievements outside 'the home.
c. Women are given the biological status of child-bearing while men
occupy the superior status

GENDER SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

1. Physical and biological- except for the organs of their reproductive
systems, both male and female have the same organs and systems
(respiratory, digestive, circulatory, nervous, etc.) within their
physical structures. Both male and female use the same style of
locomotion and the same facial movements in expression of
happiness or despair. Both use speech and language in
communicating with others. , Both sexes can love, be angry, hate,
and can kill anybody. Most women, however, have the capacity to
bear children, whereas the males do not. Men's capacity for
reproduction (unless sterile) is not limited by virtue of his old age,
whereas women's capacity for childbearing stops after her
menopause.

2. Psychological and emotional-Buss (1995) noted that men and

women differ psychologically in situations where they may have
previously encountered different (negative or difficult) problems.
Some social psychologists (notably Darwin) believe that women
tend to have keener intuition and perception than men. As earlier
stated, William James observed that a woman mentally matures
earlier than men as she is completely formed mentally at the age of
20. Others perceive women to be more emotional than men-this is
partly reinforced by society's traditional beliefs such as "boys don't
cry" or palibhasa'y babae kasi. "

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 GENDER STEREOTYPES
Gender stereotypes refer to perceptions, impressions, images and
beliefs about masculinity and femininity. They are generally negative in
nature and may discriminate or prejudice any of the sexes, An example of
the stereotype on rape of women is that "women could be raped by
leading or provoking men through their appearance and behavior" or the
stereotype of believing that "men's uncontrollable urges cause them to
rape." A Boston Hospital study (1998, cited by Diagram Group) showed
that of the 225 rape cases they had analyzed, three elements were
constant: power, anger and sexuality. Power and anger were always
present; sexuality played a. secondary role. The study concluded that in
rape, sex is simply a way of expressing power and anger, and that rape
itself is not an expression of sexual desire.
SEXISM
It is the biased endorsement of traditional gender roles. It is the
prejudiced treatment of men and women particularly using the stereotype
thinking that women is physically, psychologically, and therefore, are
naturally inferior to men. Male chauvinism is characterized by a male's
excessive and blindly prejudiced sexism. Gender- sensitive persons
usually Calf such men "male chauvinist pigs"
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL COMPARISONS OF GENDER
Women today represent more than half of the world's population,
yet no country in the world do they share the same status as men,
According to the United Nation's report (1980): "Women constitute half
of the world's population, receive one-tenth of the word's income, and
own less than one hundredth of the world's property."
Women tend to work longer hours than men, and still have the
exclusive and primary responsibility for having and rearing children. In
most Third World countries, they also have the primary responsibility for
sick and the aged and all aspects of domestic work, even when they have
already outside jobs. Even in prosperous countries like the US and Great
Britain, women have less economic and social power. There is still a
wide gap of imbalance within professional jobs and positions of authority
favoring men over the women. Women are more likely than men to be in
unskilled, underpaid employment, with much less economic and political
power.

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 Women throughout the world are still victims of sexual abuse and
harassment, domestic violence, rape, pornographic exploitation, sex
trafficking, and white slavery.
EXPLOITATION OF WOMEN
Spanish period The principal place of the Filipino woman during the
Spanish regime was the home, where she was prepared for the job of
caring and rearing the children. Religion also was the woman's imperative
concern and convenient refuge in times of adversities. The friars taught
Filipino women the virtues of patience, forbearance, and the promise of
eternal reward in God's kingdom
Aida Santos Maranan in her article, Do Women Really Hold up
Half the Sky? In Essays on Women (1987) described Filipino Women
during the Spanish Period:
"When the Spanish masters brought in their institutions and
transplanted them on native soil, the social being of women was invested
with new meanings, new dimensions; or rather, these were imposed on
them; and their social consciousness- ...their perception of themselves and
the world changed accordingly. The new Filipina (or female Indio) was
now the father's meek daughter, her husband's faithful subject, the
Church's obedient servant, and before her marriage, a chaste virgin who
would yield only to her husband (and occasionally to the friar). But of
course, like her peasant husband, she was also a slave-like toiler who
worked the rich man's and his descendants' land of pittance.
WOMEN'S ISSUES TODAY
1. Sexual harassment-It happens when the woman is unable to
perform her work due to unwanted sexual advances (or even
insinuations of sex remarks) from superiors or co—workers of the
opposite sex. However, the position, authority, power or influence
of employers and superiors provide opportunities for them to make
sexual advances on their female subordinates, Sexual harassment
may take the form of vulgar sexual innuendoes, sexist remarks or
the covert or deliberate touching of the sensitive parts of the
woman's body. There are many of unreported cases of sexual
harassment because the victims feared the loss or termination from
their jobs. Teachers who promise high or passing grades to female
students in exchange for sexual favors are also guilty of sexual
harassment
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 2. Equal work opportunities and wages-There are still many business
establishments practicing discrimination against women in terms of
salaries and opportunities up the business ladder. Certain positions
are still reserved for the men, while the women are just posted in
secretarial and other clerical tasks.
3. Domestic violence-Women are sometimes beaten by sons or
brothers or often by male partners. Battered wives are victims and the
receiving end ("punching bags") of the distorted sense of machismo of
some Filipino husbands. Yet those who seem to sympathize with the
victims would patronizingly say: "Ang babae mamahalin, hindi
binubugbog,f' instead of the gender sensitive: Ang babae igagalang ang
karapatan, di binubugbog." This form of violence is closely related to
the oppression of women and the maie views of women as possessions.
Women often do not report such abusive treatment because of the
prospect of leaving the children and fear and insecurity of having no
money for subsistence. Marital rape or rape of the wife by the husband
is not allowed now in the Philippines; the Anti-Rape Law had elevated
rape as a crime against person from a crime against chastity.
4. Adolescent Mothers and Single Parents-The concept of female
single parents, whether they are adolescents or adults are still not
popularly accepted by Filipinos especially in the rural areas even in
these modern times.
5. Sexism in media and other social institutions-Media is often
accused of projecting women and even female adolescents as sex
objects, Remember the liquor Ad "Nakatikim ka na ba ng kinse
anyos? There are also practitioners in' the music industry who continue
to produce music with sexual meanings. The recent song hits Bulaklak,
Spaghetti, Oh ang Babae, etc., are examples of sexism directed against
women. Thus, the better qualities and attributes of Filipino women
get lost in such presentation of women as objects of male sexual
desires. Azarcon (1987) in her Women in Advertisements cited
some of her observations on women in advertisements:
a. A Woman's ultimate worth is gauged by her ability to attract and catch
a man.
b. Women are part of a man's conquest and enhance their manhood

c. Women have to be soft, beautiful and loving

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d. Success, leisure and the good life are male prerogatives
e. Women are silly, stupid, dumb or superstitious, prone to old wives'

tales and other traditional beliefs that go against scientific claims and
discoveries

f. A woman's place is in the home, taking care of her family, serving

her husband and dressing the wounds of bratty little boys

6. Discriminatory Laws against women There are still laws in our
jurisprudence wherein the women receive harsher punishment for
similar crimes than the men. Different punishment faces the
adulterous wife than what the husband is meted when found guilty
of concubinage The Family Code in some of its provisions is still a
sexist Code. The husband for instance, may travel without the
knowledge and consent of the wife. The wife, however, cannot get a
passport without presentation of the marriage contract and the consent
of the husband,
7. Child Pornography and Prostitution —Through the proliferation of
Cybersex outlets, the country may become one of the largest sources of
child pornography in the world. In her column in the Philippine Daily
Inquire (Nov 12, 2004) Rina David wrote about a raid conducted on a
facility offering cybersex with children in Angeles Pampanga, where
the raiding team with Senator Jamby Madrigal found boys and girls, in
"various stages of dress and undress" .in cubicles with computers
and video camera. Sex toys,

including dildos, which the children were being asked to use by their
customers were also confiscated
According to David "young women, sometimes accompanied by their
parents, regularly dropped by Internet cafés and spend hours engaging in
Cybersex with customers for a fee." "Sometimes, the mothers are even
the ones encouraging their daughters to show more flesh" a local leader in
Cebu told David. "The more daring one is, apparently, the higher the
payment. And the mothers tell David "they see no harm in it since their
daughters are not touched anyway."

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 The End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and trafficking of
Children for Sexual Purposes (ECPAT) reported that: "family and close
friends sometimes help to recruit children for prostitution," According to
the same news report, "most recruiters initially told the children they
would be getting jobs as domestic helpers, factory workers or entertainers.
But they later pressured the children into prostitution, sometimes forcing
them to take drugs and often denying them adequate food, sleep and
leisure time." Many of the children entered prostitution willingly
because of the "perceived obligation to support the family." The
children, majority of them female were also found to come from
"dysfunctional, poverty stricken, rural families" with some of them
"having been abused by parents or siblings in the past.
LESBIANISM OR FEMALE HOMOSEXUALITY
Female homosexual is used to refer to a woman who is attracted,
emotionally and physically to members of her own sex. Women homosexuals
or Lesbians, a name derived from the Greek island of Lesbos, which, more
than 2,000 years ago, was the home of the poetess Sappho whose beautiful
poems were addressed to women. The term "Sapphic love" is now used to
describe love between women. In the Philippines, especially coming from
conservative Catholics and other fundamentalist religious groups, the
conventional interpretation of lesbianism has been one of deviation and
sexual perversion.
At the advent of the new millennium, Gay movements (Male and
Female homosexuals are still waging two battles: a) for recognition of their
basic rights, and, b) for acceptance in a male-oriented society.
Society's lack of understanding about lesbians and discrimination
against them will bring negative psychological and social implications- a
woman who feels attracted to other women may fear the opinion of others,
both within her family and society and may even have difficulty in admitting
her sexual preference to herself, which is disastrous to her well being.
POLICIES AND ENACTMENTS ON WOMEN'S RIGHTS
The 1987 Constitution asserts, "The state recognizes the role of women
in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental! equality before the law
of women and men (Article Il, Section 14). Furthermore, "the State shall
protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions
taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and
opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable

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them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation."
Congress, in keeping with the principles set forth by the Constitution
enacted laws that respond to the protection and advancement of the
welfare of women. These laws are as follows:
Women in Nation-Building Law mandates the allocation for women
from development funds frdm foreign governments and multilateral
institutions;
Gender and Development Law - mandates the allotment of 5% of
government agencies' budget for gender programs and concerns; Party-
List Law - allows all marginalized sectors including women as a
particular sector for representation in the legislature through

party-list system of election;

Non-Discrimination Law in Labor Code - guarantee the protection of
women in hiring and corresponding salaries and wages;
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law - provides equal rights for women
to be recipients of land;
Barangay Day Care Center Law - mandates the creation of a day care
center for every barangay jn the whole country;
Anti-Sexual Harassment Law effectively define sexual harassment as
a crime;
Anti-Rape Law - elevation of rape as crime against person from a crime
against chastity;
Anti Mail-Order-Bride Law - making the practice unlawful and
providing the mechanism for the protection of Filipinas;
Repatriation Law - repatriation of Filipinas who lost citizenship by
marriage in case of need
Military Training equality - paved the way for women to enter the
military and police schools, which was then solely for men. (Monares 2004)
SEXUAL RIGHTS
An individual does not only enjoy social, political, economic, and
cultural rights, but as part of his natural rights, he or she has sexual rights.

Sexual rights are also universal human rights based on the inherent freedom,
dignity, and equality of all human beings. In August 26, 1999, the World
Association of Sexology adapted the Declaration of Sexual Rights, of which
provisions are enumerated as follows:

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1. The right to sexual freedom-this connotes the expression of one's full sexual
potentials, but excludes all forms of sexual coercion, exploitation, an abuse at
anytime and situations in life
2. The right to sexual autonomy, sexual integrity, and safety of the sexual
body-This is the ability to make independent decisions about one's
sexual life within the context of one's own personal and social ethics.
It also includes control and enjoyment of one's body free from torture,
mutilation and violence of any sort.
3. The right to sexual privacy-This involves the right for individual
decisions and behaviors about intimacy as long as it does not intrude
on the sexual rights of others
4, The right to sexual equity- This is the freedom from all forms of
discrimination regardless of sex, gender, sexual orientation, age, race,
social class, religion, or physical and emotional disability.
5. The right to sexual pleasure- This recognizes sexual pleasure is a source of
physical, psychological, intellectual and spiritual well-being
6. The right to emotional sexual expression-Sexual expression is more than
erotic pleasure or sexual acts. Individuals have the right to express their
sexuality through communication, touch, emotional expression and love.
7. The right to sexually associate freely. This means the possibility to marry or
not, to divorce, and to establish other types of responsible sexual
relationships
8. The right to make free and responsible reproductive choices. This involves
the right to decide whether or not to have children, the number and spacing
of children, and the right to full access to the means of fertility regulation
9. The right to sexual information based upon scientific inquiry. This implies
that sexual information should be generated through the process of
scientifically ethical inquiry and disseminated in appropriate ways at all
societal levels.
10. The right to comprehensive sexuality education. This is a lifelong
process from birth throughout the lifespan and should involve all social
institutions
11. The right to sexual health care. Sexual health care should be available
for prevention and treatment of all sexual concerns, problems and disorders.
(Antai-Otong, Psychiatric Nursing, 2003)

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 GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish gender from sex
2. What is human sexuality? What is sexual behavior?
3. Enumerate the factors that influence gender
4. Enumerate and explain the social influences on gender
5. Who were the early proponents of women's rights?
6. Who were the early opponents of feminism?
7, What is gender equality? How can it be achieved?
8. What is gender mainstreaming? How can it be achieved?
9. What are the government policies and laws on the promotion and
protection of women's rights?
10.As an individual, give at least two practical examples on how you
show gender sensitivity.
CIIAIYI'ER 12-GENDER STUDIES

NAME
MATCHING TYPE

Gender A. " Sexual Politics"

2. Sexuality B. "Penis envy"

3. Erik Eriksson C. The female is a kind of mutilated male"

4. Plato D. Author of "Republic"

5. John Stuart Mill E. "The subjection of women"

6. Patriarchic system F. State of being either masculine or feminine

7. Aristotle G. Personal traits, social roles of the male and females 8. Sigmund
Freud H. Inability to understand his or her gender status

9. Kate Millet I. "Anatomy is destiny"

10. "identity crisis" J. Male dominance in family and society

11. Gender stereotypes K. "Home is the sphere of influence of women"
12. Sexism L Female homosexuality
13. Lesbianism M. Biased endorsement of traditional gender roles

14. Male chauvinism N. Perceptions, beliefs on masculinity and

femininity
15. Rousseau O. male insensitivity

ESSAY:
WHAT IS GENDER EQUALITY? HOW CAN IT BE ACHIEVED

CHAPTER 13
MARRIAGE AND FAMILY

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LOVE AND SEX

Can there be sex without love? Can there be love without sex?
More often the concepts or arguments about love, its nature, and role in
human life connect to or are discussed and examined in the context of sex
and gender. The word 'love' is derived from Germanic forms of the
Sanskrit lubh (desire). Eros (Greek erasthai) is used to refer to that part of
love constituting a passionate, intense desire for something: specifically,
sexual desire. Thus, the modern word erotic' (Greek erptikos) denotes
sexual desire and pleasure. In Plato's views, however, eros was perceived
as a common desire that seeks transcendental beauty-the particular
beauty of a person reminds us of true beauty that exists in the world of
forms or Ideas (Phaedrus : "he who loves the beautiful is called a lover
because he partakes of it." (Trans. Jowett). The Platonic-Socratic
philosophy maintains that the love individuals generate for beauty on this
earth can never be truly satisfied until they die.
The Nature of Love
If love has a nature, it should be, to some extent, describable within
the concepts of language. Love may be "knowable" and "comprehensible"
to others, as understood in the phrases, "I am in love", "I love you", "we
are in love" but what 'love' means in these sentences may vary in its
description to others, because the epistemology of love inquires how we
may know love, how we may understand it, or whether it is proper or
sincerely plausible to make statements. The epistemology of love is also
closely connected to the theories of language and concepts *the emotions.
Eroticists hold that the statement such as "I am in love" is irreducible to
other statements because it is a non-propositional utterance hence its
veracity is beyond examination. Phenomenologists claim that love is a
form of non-cognitive phenomenon. Scheler, for example, toys with
Plato(s Ideal love, which is cognitive, claiming: "love itself is bringing
about the continuous emergence of ever-higher value in the object--just as
if it were streaming out from the object of its own accord, without any
exertion .(even of wishing) on the part of the lover (The Nature of
Sympathy, trans. Heath). The lover is passive before the beloved
The Nature of Love: Romantic Love
To many, romantic love is deemed to have a higher metaphysical
and ethical status than sexual or physical love; the bond is more
profound between the lovers in romantic love than that of physical iove.
The concept of romantic 'love initially stemmed from the Platonic belief
that love is a desire for beauty-a value that transcends the particularities of
the physical body. For Plato, the love of beauty culminates in the love of
philosophy, the discipline that pursues the highest capacity of man's
thinking. The romantic love of knights and damsels in distress emerged in
the early medieval period, where Chivalry was the norm. Modern
romantic love was inspired by Aristotle's idea of the special love
two people find in each other's virtues-one soul and two bodies,
or what people now term as "soul mates. "
The Nature of Love: Physical, emotional, spiritual
Some may argue that love is physical, i.e., that it is nothing but a
physical response to another whom the person feels physically attracted to.
According to the behaviorist, the act of loving entails a broad range of
behavior (caring, over-protectiveness, listening, pampering, etc.)
Physicalists and Geneticists reduce all examinations of love to the
physical, biological or libidinal motivation of the sexual impulse-the
simple sexual instinct that is shared with all living entities, and from
which man is directed consciously, sub-consciously or pre-rationally
toward a potential mate or object of sexual gratification.
Geneticists posit the theory that the genes (and individual's DNA)
form the determining criteria in any sexual choice, especially in choosing
a mate, However, the problem for those who claim that love is reducible
to the physical attractiveness of a potential mate is the disregard of the
affections between those who cannot or wish not to reproduce.
Physicalism or determinism, therefore, ignores the possibility of romantic
love.
Behaviorists regard love as a series of actions and preferences,

which is thereby observable to one-self and others. The problem with the
behaviorist viewpoint is that it is susceptible to the observation that an
individual's actions need not express his inner state or emotions- he may
be good only in acting out or relegating to himself his true emotions. this
would be impossible for someone to know if that individual is really 'in
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 love. Radical behaviorists, such as B F Skinner, however, insist that
observable and unobservable behavior can be examined from the
behaviorist framework, in terms of the laws of conditioning.
The Expressionists view of love is that it is an expression of a state
of affairs towards a beloved, which may be communicated through
language (words, poetry, music) or modes of behavior (bringing flowers
and chocolates, giving up a kidney, saving the beloved from a burning
building). The expressionists, however, regard love as the reflection of an
internal, emotional state, rather than an exhibition of physical responses to
stimuli. The Spiritualist notion of love incorporates mystical as well as
traditional romantic ideas of love, but rejects the behaviorist or physicalist
concepts of love.
Love: Ethics and Politics
What is the ethical basis of loving an object, a person, or oneself?
Does loving oneself or another a duty? Is an individual bound by the
Christian doctrine "to love one another"? Or loving even your enemies?
Should all individuals aim to love ali people and races equally? Is mutual
love mandatory for both husband and wife? Are the Muslims morally
correct if they love another one? Should love only involve •those with
whom the individual can have a meaningful and lasting relationship? Can
romantic or sexual love apply to individuals of the same sex? The answers
to these questions depend on cultural variables. Each culture varies in
their customs and religious beliefs, norms, and laws.
In politics, love can be seen as a manifestation of social dominance

by one group (males) over another (females), in which the politically

constructed •language and etiquette of love is designed to empower men
and disenfranchise women. On this concept, love is a product of the
patriarchal system, and of acts similar to Marx's standpoint about religion
(the opiate of the people and sigh of the oppressed) that love can be the
opiate of women.

Love and Courtship

There are three basic elements of love; passion, intimacy, and
commitment. According to Stenberg there are several kinds of love;

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1. None love- Absence of alt the three basic components of love

2. Liking- is intimacy without passion or commitment

3. Infatuation — is passion without intimacy or commitment
4. Romantic love- is intimacy and passion without commitment

5. Compassionate love - is commitment without intimacy.

Why do people fall in love?

The biological impulse of humans to procreate and choose the mates of

their choice is the physical origin of why people fall in love, An
individual's feelings about mutual companionship, sense of caring and

sharing, and even psychological and sexual compatibility can contribute

to the development of love. Changes in the family structure caused by
broken homes may even produce a large section of individuals deeply
longing for love.
Sociologists and anthropologists are concerned not only on the
phenomena of love but also on how personal relationships based on love
are affected by social processes.

Courtship and Dating

Like any other Western society, Filipinos believed that love in
marriage is as important as the institution of family. Romantic love was
first recognized in the 12th and 13th centuries. Despite this, many recognize
that love can only be fulfilling and can flourish between mates and lovers
through self-respect and mutual respect, which would eventually lead to an
engagement or even the arrangement of marriage. Today, individuals have
more freedom in choosing their lifetime partners than a couple of
generations ago when marriage was dictated on children by parents.
Dating — Generally, all adult individuals and the adolescents are
expected to date. It is a natural form of social behavior. However, dating
is also governed by some social guidelines or norms. Today's moral
standards and accepted social behavior, therefore, must be adhered or
accepted by the dating individuals.

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 The selection of a marriage partner
1, Attraction to a prospective mate is strongly influenced by the
several spatial nearness of potential partners (propinquity); social
similarity (homogamy), and physical attraction.
2. Dating may lead to a serious consideration of marriage as the
partners may overcome a series of obstacles or filters, However,
dating doesn't always lead to romantic love. Friends also go on
dating for the purposes of fun; some do dating for consensual or re-
creational sex; and others for personal or professional growth
NATURE AND SCOPE OF MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY
Marriage is a sacred sacrament and a legal union of male and female
to establish family life. The Family Code of the Philippines states
that: "Marriage is a special contract of permanent union between a man
and a woman entered into in accordance with law for the establishment of
conjugal and family life." (Article I, Marriage, August 3, 1988)
MARRIAGE PATTERNS
Marriage patterns are seen and felt when prestige and property are
involved with the parents playing a major role in selecting mates.

Although individuals have greater roles and freedom today in selecting

their spouses, parents, however, still exert strong indirect efforts to
influence the choice of their children mates through their choices of the
neighborhood and the schools for their children.
Monogamy (one union marriage) and polygamy (multi-union
marriage, in Muslim areas) are the common marriage patterns among
Filipino families. The two forms of polygamy are polygyny (a man having
many wives) and polyandry in which a woman is united with many men.
Whereas authority patterns in western communities are egalitarian where
couples share decision- making, control of family resources and
childrearing, in many Asian societies, the male controls the authority
within the family. In the Philippines, this arrangement varies from one
family to another. Patriarchal and Matriarchal patterns are some of the
arrangement of Filipinos within their family.

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MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND KINSHIP: Basic Institutions of
Society What is a Family?
According to religious groups, Family is a group of persons
(female and male) bonded by love, united under the sacrament of
marriage, and protected by the law, consisting of parents and their
children. However for Jocano and Mender the Filipino Family is ideally
composed of the father, the mother and their unmarried child or children
who are either biological offspring or adopted ones, and who are either
living with them or not. In its basic form, the Filipino family excludes all
persons outside the conjugal, parental and filial relationships but its
extended form encompasses avoided range of bilateral relatives who may
either live with the family of occupy the next apartment in a family
compound or in a separate abode in the neighborhood.
Family in the Philippine Constitutional Framework
The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines (Article Il, Sec *12)
recognizes the family as a social institution and the sanctity of family life
and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social
institution. "The state equally protects the life of the mothers and the life
of the unborn from conception. The natural and primary right and duty of
parents in the rearing of youth for civil efficiency and the development of
moral character shall receive the support of the government "
FAMILY ORGANIZATION
Families universally regulate sexual behavior provide care for
dependents and offer emotional financial or material security. Some
sociologists call this arrangement as part of family organization.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FAMILIES
1. Families based on internal organizations are: Conjugal
Family consists of only the husband and the wife, as in a
newly married couple. Nuclear Family is a family pattern
where married couples establish an independent household.
Extended Family is a family pattern where two or more
nuclear families or several generations of families live
together in one abode.

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 2. Families based on descent are: the Patrilineal Family
wherein family members trace their relationships and
affiliations with relatives on the father side; the Matrilineal
family wherein the members of the family trace their
relationships and affiliations with relatives on the mother
side, and the Bilateral family wherein members of the family
trace their relationships and affiliations with relatives on
both parents.
3. Families based on who wields power and authority in the
family are: Patriarchal family where the authority is vested
in the oldest male member of the family, often the patriarch
or in his absence, the father. Sons, particularly the oldest
enjoy special privileges; the Matriarchal family wherein the
mother has the authority and dominates the household (in
Ancient Greek mythology, the Amazons were raised by a
matriarchal system; they hunted and waged war white the
mates stayed at home doing domestic chores), and the
Egalitarian family wherein both husband and wife exercise
equal amount of authority and enjoy the same rights and
privileges.

RESIDENCE PATTERNS OF FAMILIES

Residence Patterns vary from one family to another and are based on the
choices of both or either partners, they are:
1. Neolocal residence- where in the couple resides independently from
either groom or bride's parent.
2. Matrilocal residence-Wherein the newly married couple resides with
or near the home of the bride's parents.
3. Patrilocal residence-wherein the newly married couple lives with or
near the residence of the parents of the husband,
4. Bilocal residence-where the newly-weds choose to stay with
either the grooms parents or the bride's parents, depending on factors
like the wishes of the parents, personal preference of either husband
or wife, or for their convenience (proximity to their work places or
for economic reasons like relative wealth and status of the parents).
5. Avunculocal residence where the couple is prescribed to reside
with or near the domicile of the maternal uncle of the groom.
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Characteristics of the Filipino Family
According to Belen Medina, families have unique and important
characteristics that are found on cross-cultural study and researches across
all societies, The unique characteristics are:
1. The family is the first social group to which the individual is exposed
2. The family is a link between individual and larger society
3. It is a major agent in transmission, not only in biological traits, but also
of socio-cultural heritage from generation after generation.

Framework and Approaches to Family Studies

The approaches used by sociologists and anthropologists in analyzing the
type of family structure, behavior and interests are as follows:
1. Situational Approach which analyzes the actual behavior in the
family.
2. Institutional Approach is more descriptive approach as it focuses on
the family as an institution.
3, Interactional Approach which treats the family as an internal group
or association instead as an institution. This approach is developed
after some inadequacies were observed in institutional approach.
4. Structure-Functional Approach is a dominant approach for
emphasizing the integration of parts within a whole (the social
system) to which the parts belong. This was patterned from the
ideas of Talcott Parson's Structural Functionalism where family
considered as an organizational structure connected from the other
subsystems of society such as politics, economics, and religion.
5. Development Approach joins together various theoretical
frameworks such as structure functionalism, interactional approach,
etc.

Conflict Theory on Family

According to Engel's and Marx in their book Origin of the Family
and Private Property, the family was created out of necessity to protect
the private property of the family and, therefore, it is built based on class
status, economic needs and selfish ends; as such it creates anarchy in the
family. These reasons mean that the family is not natural and therefore
will break up as expected
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 Rapid Urbanization - Pro-Family Development?
The prospects of higher paying jobs in cities as well as in overseas
employment make for a better and comfortable life for the jobseeker. It
also facilitates social mobility and the eventual migration of family
members, which at the same process complicate their lives, The 70's, 80's
and the 90's have seen the exodus of skilled, semi- skilled and even
unskilled workers for overseas employment. Filipinos had been migrating
out of the country, leaving behind home, family, and community in search
of better work (Go. 1993).

Causes of Broken Homes and Separation in Families

According to Kintanar (1991) many problems of break ups today
have economic roots. Sevilla (1982) asserted in a survey that the causes
of many marital quarrels that lead to family break-ups are often due to
incompatibility, infidelity, adultery, jealousy, financial disagreement and
conflict with in- laws. According to this survey, failures in marriage are
due to the following:
1. Break- ups occur among couples who marry before the age of 20 than
the among those who marry older;
2. When women are pregnant at the time of their marriages, they and their
husbands have a hard time staying together.
3, Marriages that do not have open lines of communication between the
spouses and do not have true exchange of sentiments inevitability
breakup.

Death in the Family

Senden (1968) pointed out that if a break in the family finally
comes, the result is catastrophic on the psychology of the children. It is a
loss that is hard to measure. Usually, it is the sense of security and family
harmony that is highly prized by both children and adolescents.
When the family is broken either by death, separation or other loss,
the lifestyle and normal process of the family is radically affected. The
children and other family members must adjust to the new situation

brought about by the loss of one parent, members or both.

Hetheringcon (1972) reports that girls who were deprived of a father
due to either death or divorce experienced more tension and anxiety when
they were with males. The missed opportunity to interact with a warm,
supportive and appreciative father appeared to have deprived them of
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acquiring necessary interpersonal skills and competence needed for
establishing relationship with males,

Child Abuse
Reports of child abuse are alarmingly on the riser This probably
reflects the changing values in the society brought about by several
factors such as pernicious media influence, cultural stereotyping, poverty,
drug and substance abuse and from the effects of what is now termed as
"loose" family ties. The correlates of abuse show that child abusers are
most likely to come from poorly integrated, isolated, multiple- problem
and dysfunctional families regardless of social status.

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