About the exam:

You will be expected to discuss, when supplied with colour slides and case studies, preventive
medicine and State Regulatory veterinary medicine as it operates in Australia. The areas that
will be covered include the various disease control programmes currently in use in Australia
and those that would be implemented if an emergency disease were to be diagnosed in
Australia. This will be in the context of:

a) The necessary steps to be taken by a veterinarian on suspicion of an exotic disease

(including any zoonotic aspects) on a dairy cattle, sheep, horse, pig or poultry farm and the
control measures necessary if the disease was diagnosed as:
1. Foot and mouth disease
2. African horse sickness.
3. screw worm fly
4. classical swine fever
5. Newcastle disease.
6. avian influenza
7. Equine influenza
8. Rabies
9. African Swine Fever
10.Tuberculosis
11.Bluetongue
12.Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

b) The necessary steps to be taken on suspicion of the occurrence of an endemic disease like:
1. Anthrax
2. Johne’s disease
3. Sheep footrot
4. Strangles
5. Hendra virus
6. Leptospirosis

You will be expected to understand the principles of disease control within a population, and
apply the epidemiology of different diseases to control programs. They should understand
diagnostic test characteristics and be able to calculate and explain sensitivity and specificity
when given a simple two-by-two table. They will be expected to understand the principles of
Australia’s quarantine system and discuss reasons why Australia may choose to eradicate an
exotic disease, and the regulatory requirement to be undertaken for these diseases and the
treatment and preventative action that might be implemented.

You will be expected to be able to discuss the regulatory requirements for:

 Scheduling of veterinary drugs and agricultural chemicals and reporting adverse drug
experience to the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority.
 Withholding periods for veterinary drugs and agricultural and veterinary chemicals.
 Significance of residues of veterinary drugs and agricultural and veterinary chemicals in
food.
 Legal requirements for using animals for scientific purposes.
 Legal restraints of animal welfare legislation as applied to veterinarians. (Queensland
legislation to be used as a model)
 Legislation and codes of practice that apply to the veterinary profession in Australia.

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Short summary of most of the Australian regulatory bodies:
Meat and livestock Australia MLA:
- industry body

Meat standards Australia MSA:

- implemented by the MLA
- grading programs for meat quality

National livestock identification system NLIS:

- Implemented by the government in conjunction with the MLA.
- For the identification and tracing of livestock (at this stage mostly cows) from birth to
slaughter.
- In SA is managed by PIRSA.
- Animals get a white breeder’s tag in the ear before leaving the place of birth. This is applied
by the breeder and has the animal’s own ID number and a number identifying the breeding
farm.
- If this tag is lost, the animal gets an orange post breeder tag.
- When the animal is bought or sold, this must be reported to the NLIS database within 7
days.
- Became widely introduced due to the BSE problems whereby it became very important to
identify each cow at slaughter and in the case of a problem, be able to identify all siblings.

Veterinary practice Act:

- set by each state “to provide protection for animal health and the safety and welfare in the
public interest”
- Registers vets.
- Rules for veterinary practice.
- Defines the veterinary practice regulations.

Veterinary practice regulations

- Set by each state.
- Describes who can do what.
- Describes what “veterinarian only procedures” are.
- Describes what considered to be veterinary treatment is.

Prevention of cruelty to animals act and regulations SA:

- Administered by the RSPCA in SA (different to other states where it is administered by
government).
- Has slightly different names in each state, but is basically the same.
- E.g. QLD – Animal care and protection Act administered by the QLD government and the
department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DAFF).
- Provides standards for care and use of animals.
- Aims to achieve the balance between welfare and farmers likelihoods as well as protect the
animals against cruelty.

Australian code of practice for the care and use of Animals for scientific purposes:
- From the National Health and Medical research council NHMRC.
- Prescribes animal ethics committees for each institute. Each committee has a vet in the
board.
- People must be registered to use animals for science.
- Registration, once obtained, lasts 3 years.
- The register is open for the public to see.
- Animals are not to be used to research cosmetics, sunscreens etc.

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1. What does quarantine aim to do in the broad sense?
Quarantine aims to prevent or control introduction, establishment or spread of diseases
and pests which could have disastrous impacts to people, animals, plants and other
aspects of the environment of a particular geographical area or a country.

2. How does quarantine work in Australia?

 BA provides quarantine assessments and policy advice relating to pests and diseases. It
develops new quarantine policy throughout an import risk analysis process which is
undertaken by a team of scientists and technicians.
 Biosecurity Australia provides these science-based recommendations for animal and plant
quarantine policy to Australia’s Director of Animal and Plant Quarantine. The Director, or
delegate, is responsible for determining whether or not an importation can be permitted
under the Quarantine Act 1908, and if so, under what conditions. The Australian
Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) are responsible for implementing appropriate
risk management measures developed by BA. They work together to protract Australia’s
prime industries from any exotic plant or animal diseases.

3. Who is responsible for what aspects?

 Biosecurity Australia (BA) develops and reviews animal and plant quarantine policy in
Australia. BA assesses the risk associated with import proposals through a process called
Import Risk Analysis (IRA) and identifies scientific-based risk management measures.
 Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) is the ultimate responsible authority
for implementing quarantine activities. AQIS provides quarantine inspection for
international passengers, cargos, mails, animals, plants and animal or plant products
arriving in Australia. And also it provides inspection and certification for agricultural
products exporting from Australia via state/territory governments and AQIS accredited
veterinarians.

4. Describe Pre-Border, Border and Post-Border quarantine.

 Pre-border quarantine are quarantine measures undertaken outside the Australian borders
before arrival of goods or animal/plant carrying diseases and pests into Australia;
participation in international standard-setting bodies, undertake risk analyses, develops
offshore quarantine arrangements where appropriate, and engages with neighbour
countries to counter the spread of exotic pests and diseases. Pre-border quarantine is done
by Biosecurity Australia. AQIS off shore development program is responsible for the
developing and managing a number of pre-border schemes, one of them is the Australian
fumigation accreditation scheme (AFAS). Also, it includes rabies vaccination offshore with
certificates provided for importation of animals especially dogs, deworming, flea treatment,
and blood tests. This is achieved by implementing and assessing the import risk analysis.
 Border control is the control measures that are implemented at entry points to Australia
(International airports, Seaports, mail exchanges and container depots) using range of
techniques including risk assessment, surveillance, X-ray machines, and detector dogs.
Screening of vessels, people and goods entering the country to detect potential threats to
Australian human, animal and plant health. Border quarantine is carried out by AQIS
inspectors in all ports of entry and all mail handling offices.
 Post-border measures are undertaken at the immediate post-border level within Australia.
This includes national co-ordination of emergency responses to pest and disease
incursions. The movement of goods of quarantine concern within Australia’s border is the
responsibility of relevant state and territory authorities, which undertake inter-and intra-
state quarantine operations that reflect regional differences in pest and disease status, as a
part of their wider plant and animal health responsibilities (local authorities). An example
is those live cattle imported from USA with BSE, being checked every 3 months, i.e.
ongoing monitoring of animals. Another example, getting cattle into QLD undergoes strict
quarantine and monitoring because of Johne’s disease (QLD is reported free from Johne’s
disease). It is up to AQIS and state veterinary authorities to implement these measures.

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5. What is an import risk assessment?
Import risk analyses (IRA) are key steps that are conducted under regulation where there is
no quarantine policy or a significant change in existing quarantine policy considered. They
are conducted by Biosecurity Australia using technical and scientific experts in the
relevant fields and involving consultation with stakeholders. It assists the Australian
government in considering the level of quarantine risk (quantitative and qualitative) that
may be associated with the importation or proposed importation of animals, plants or other
goods into Australia. If the risks are found to exceed the level of quarantine risk that is
acceptable to Australia, risk management measures are proposed to reduce them to that
level. If the quarantine risks cannot be reduced to an acceptable level, trade will not be
allowed, i.e. they work through 4 basic steps which are hazard identification, risk
assessment, risk management, and communication and calculation of the likely
consequences. For example, IRA is conducted for:
 New commodities that have not previously been imported into Australia.
 Commodities that are already imported but from a different country/area with a
significantly different pest and disease status.

6. How is animal health regulated in Australia - what roles does the state and
federal government have, and who is responsible for what?

Australia’s governmental bodies:

 Federal government powers are set in the constitution
 The federal government is responsible for quarantine and international animal health
matters including disease reporting, export certification, and trade negotiation. It advises
and coordinates national policy and in some cases provides financial assistance for
national disease control programs.
 State and territory governments are responsible for disease control and eradication within
their own boundaries, the states and territories are divided into veterinary regions and

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 districts each has its own government veterinary officer who is responsible for disease
control within his region.

The Australian Chief Veterinary Officer (office is located in DAFF):

 Permanent representative to the OIE.
 Principal representative on animal health matters nationally and internationally.
 Reports to secretary of DAFF on: animal health and welfare, veterinary public health, food
safety, chemical residues and other trade policy issues.
 Member of wide range of departmental and government-industry committees.
 Liaises closely with AVA and CSIRO.
 Chair of CCEAD (Consultative Committee on Emergency Animal Diseases) – leadership role
in the event of EAD.

The overall policies for veterinary services in Australia are shaped by:

1. PIMC – Primary Industries Ministerial Council

 Responsibility: overall agricultural policy for Australia and NZ (incl. animal health).
 Members: Australian Government Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry;
State/Territory Agriculture Ministers and minister of NZ.

2. PISC – Primary Industries Standing Committee

 Responsibility: supporting PIMC and managing its work.
 Members: Head (Chief executive officer - CEO) of Australian Government Department of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF); Heads (CEO) of State/Territory
Departments of Agriculture; representatives from NZ Department of Agriculture, the
CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology.
 The PISC in turn is supported by the primary industries health committee (PIHC) which
manages the PISC’s agenda on health issues and provide direction to its supporting
committees.
 In the event of an incident involving an EAD, PISC is replaced by NMG – EAD National
Management Group. Members are Secretary of DAFF; Heads of State/Territory
Departments of Agriculture; the President of each of the industry organisations that are
involved in the national EAD Response Agreement and are relevant to the disease. The
Consultative Committee on Emergency Animal Disease (CCEAD) advises EAD NMG on
technical response to an EAD. Members are Commonwealth (chair), State/Territory
CVOs; CSIRO; AQIS; Industry organisations representative for particular disease;
industry organisations representative for all industry.

3. AHC – Animal Health Committee

 The government technical advisory committee to PISC (provides advice on animal health
matters particularly technical and regulatory advices).
 Also provides technical support to: AHA; PISC committees; industry organisations and
sections of departments that deal with chemical residues, animal identification, animal
welfare and other animal health related matters.
 Members: Commonwealth, State/Territory Chief Veterinary Officers (CVOs);
representatives from Biosecurity Australia, CSIRO, and the CVO of NZ.
 Observers: AQIS, AHA and industry organisations may attend meetings for particular
items relevant to them.
 The AHC may use specialist committees and working groups for advice on technical
issues and regulatory standards.

4. AHA – Animal Health Australia

 It is a unique not-for-profit organisation funded by its members through annual
subscriptions. It maintains a dynamic partnership between government and livestock
industries that strengthens animal health in Australia and reinforces confidence in the
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 safety and quality of Australia’s livestock products in domestic and overseas markets.
Its role is to:

o Identify national health system priorities.

o Engage animal health system stakeholders in pursuing agreed priorities (formally
involve industry in policy and planning and in the development and funding of
particular animal health programs).
o Integrate activities of animal health service participants.
o Facilitate and manage national health system outputs.
o Communicate national animal health performance.

 Members: Commonwealth and State/Territory Agricultural Ministers, the President of

the national livestock industry council, the Australian Veterinary Association (AVA) and
the CSIRO.
 core programs:
o Animal Disease Surveillance Program (ADSP) ►leads to further core function of AHA
= National Animal Health Information System (NAHIS).
o Emergency Animal Disease Preparedness (EADP) ► Priorities of the EADP:
Awareness of Disease, National Emergency Animal Disease Training Program,
AUSVETPLAN, EAD Response Agreement, Biosecurity Planning.
o Animal Health Services Program (AHSP) ► Prioritise AHSP: National Animal Health
Performance Standards, National Laboratory Network, Facilitation of Industry
Involvement, and Evaluation of required skills.
o Accreditation Program for Australian Vets.
 Non-core programs:
o National Arbovirus Monitoring program.
o Tuberculosis Freedom Assurance Program 2.
o National Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Surveillance Program.
o National Bovine Johne’s Disease Control Program.
o National Ovine Johne’s Disease Control and Evaluation Program.
o Newcastle Disease National Management Program.
o Small Hive Beetle National Management Program.
o Screw Worm Fly National Management Program.
 AHA does not undertake day-to-day management of programs; it rather funds member
organisations to deliver the components of the program and appoints program
coordinators.

5. DAFF - Australian government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry

The Australian government veterinary services are delivered through several divisions of
the Australian government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry (DAFF)
including:
 International division.
 Product integrity (animal and plant health division).
 CSIRO.
 AQIS.
 Biosecurity Australia (BA.)

a) International division: it has offices in Indonesia, Korea, Japan, India, Thailand, china,
Europe, USA, and the Middle East. The division provides policy and strategic support
for the department’s international activities. Its objective is to make Australia’s
agriculture, fisheries, and food and forestry industries more competitive by working to:
 Maintain and improve market opportunities.
 Reduce distortions to global trade.

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 Enhance trade cooperation.
 Reduce external risks to Australia’s favourable status relating to plant and animal
health.

b) Product integrity (animal and plant health division): mainly deals with residues and
food safety issues, the office of the chief veterinary officer (CVO) which is located within
the division provides the OIE with information about animal health in Australia.

c) CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) operates the

high-security Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL) at Geelong in Victoria, which
plays a vital role in maintaining Australia’s capability to quickly diagnose exotic and
emerging animal diseases through researches, developing and testing vaccines,
maintaining national animal serum bank and training personnel in disease recognition
and testing. It is the OIE reference laboratory for: Bluetongue, Avian influenza, Hendra
virus disease, Nipah virus disease, Newcastle, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS) and Epizootic hemopoietic necrosis of fish. Geelong labs are the place where you
can get a gold standard tests for exotic diseases. Reference labs around Australia aid in
the confirmation of endemic diseases and referring to Geelong in cases of exotic
diseases.

d) State and territory veterinary services consist of:

 Animal Health Administrative Unit: they are responsible for animal health services
within their respective borders which involves issuing relevant legislation governing
livestock identification, and movement, diseases surveillance, diagnosis, reporting and
control of notifiable diseases, chemical residues and other programs. It is headed by the
state or territory CVO. Specialist vets, field vets, technical staff, and support labs help
the CVO in maintaining these tasks.
 Regional veterinary officers supervise inspectors (CVO) and administer the relevant
state and territory acts and regulations. They also:

o Maintains records of specific disease status of farms ► records assist in certification

for export.
o Information on local livestock’s health status.
o Take part in prevention and control of livestock diseases and conditions affecting
productivity, markets or human health.
o Maintenance of livestock welfare.
o Provide epidemiological investigations and referral service for private vets.
o Provide advice and training to industry groups, producers etc.
o Participate in emergency diseases training activities.
 State/Territory Animal Health Labs: either national or OIE reference labs for disease
diagnosis and investigation.

e) AQIS – The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service

 Veterinary public health inspection of meat through National Inspection Service.

 Regulation of the import of animals, plants, their genetic material and products ►
Quarantine of live animals/animal products.
 Health certifications of exports of live animals/reproductive material of animals.
 Commonwealth = ultimate responsibility, but States/Territory may act as operational
field agents.
 AQIS Accredited Veterinarians.

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 f) Biosecurity Australia

 Primary purpose: protect Australia from unwanted pests and diseases in the least trade
restrictive manner.
 Assess quarantine risk associated with import proposals and identify appropriate
science-based risk management measures.
 Many quarantine requirements based on OIE recommendations but in certain
instances additional measures are taken to provide protection ► establishes import
conditions based on an import risk analysis (IRA).
 Biosecurity is achieved through: pre-border requirements, border controls, and post-
arrival measures.

7. What is AUSVETPLAN, when is it used and for what purpose?

Ausvetplan is the Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan; the national framework for the
management of animal disease emergencies in Australia. It is developed and maintained by
Animal Health Australia (AHA). It is a coordinated national response plan for the
management and wherever possible, eradication of exotic/emerging/ endemic diseases. It
comprises of a series of manuals covering elements of EAD preparedness and
management:
 Disease strategies for 35 EADs (FMD, Newcastle...)
 Response policy briefs for 27 EADs (Borna, Glanders...)
 Operational procedure manuals (Decontamination, disposal)
 Enterprise manuals (meat processing, feedlots...)
 Management manuals (control centres)
 Wild animal manual (response strategy)

Purpose:
The purpose is to ensure coherent operations and procedures among national, state and
territory animal health authorities, and emergency management organisations in order to
manage an EAD incident.
Each disease strategy document or response policy brief should provide sufficient info to
allow authorities to make informed decisions about the policies and procedures needed to
control an outbreak in Australia.
In most cases, where this is applicable and is considered to be cost-effective, the policy for
control and eradication of an EAD will be stamping out. This would also involve:
 Quarantine and/or movement controls.
 Destruction and disposal of infected and exposed animals.
 Decontamination of infected premises.
 Surveillance of susceptible animals.
 Restriction of the activities of certain enterprises.
These measures may be supplemented or replaced when stamping out is not appropriate
by:
 Vaccination.
 Vector or wild animal control.
 Animal treatment.
Infected and disease-free zones may be established to contain the disease agent and to
protect Australia’s export trade. Each state and territory therefore administers its own EAD
control legislation, which is supported by emergency service arrangements.
The Australian Government has powers under the Quarantine Act 1908 to support the
states and territories financially, where appropriate.
EAD responses are planned at three levels:
 National level where Animal Health Australia is responsible for developing and maintaining
the currency of AUSVETPLAN.
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 State/territory level which involves animal health authorities, emergency management
agencies and industry organisations. They are responsible for developing operational plans.
The chief veterinary officer (CVO) of the state or territory in which the outbreak occurs is
responsible for implementing disease control measures in accordance with relevant
legislation (such as quarantine, animal tracing, and movement controls), and for ensuring
that the Australian Animal Health Laboratory is urgently provided with samples for
diagnosis.
 The Consultative Committee on Emergency Animal Diseases CCEAD is the coordinating
body providing the technical link between the Australian Government, the states and
territory governments, and industry for decision making during animal health
emergencies. Its roles are to assess the situation, endorse or seek modifications to the
response plan drawn up by the CVO of the affected jurisdiction, and give technical and
veterinary advice. The CCEAD is chaired by the Australian Chief Veterinary Officer, and
consists of members from the CSIRO, AQIS, affected livestock industry and state CVOs.

N.B. In an animal health emergency, a National Coordination Centre (NCC) is established

in Canberra by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry (DAFF). The NCC implements the department’s veterinary emergency plan (the
DAFF Critical Incident Response Plan) and the Commonwealth Disaster Response Plan
(COMDISPLAN) to support CCEAD, to handle international communications and relations
and to liaise with other Australian Government departments. The NCC is responsible for
national coordination of eradication measures and trade negotiations.

8. What is an LDCC? Where can you find it?

 LDCC is a Local disease control centre, an emergency operations centre responsible for the
command and control of field operations in a defined area. It is divided into 3 sections:
planning, operations, logistics. It is established in the vicinity of an outbreak with the
purpose of controlling field activities.
 Functions: LDCC is responsible for operations (eradication and control) in a defined area.
The LDCC operates under policies and procedures determined by the state or territory
disease control headquarters (SDCHQ), consistent with the relevant AUSVETPLAN
manuals and the approved emergency animal disease response plan (EADRP). To carry out
field activities, the CVO will appoint an LDCC controller who will report to the SDCHQ
director.
 Details on structure, principle of the chain of responsibility, roles and responsibilities of
personnel are outlined in the AUSVETPLAN Control Centre Management Manual.

9. What is cost sharing?

They are arrangements agreed upon between governments (national and states/territories)
and major livestock industry organizations for sharing the costs of emergency animal
disease responses. The agreement was signed by all parties in 2002 and specifies 63
diseases, which are classified into four categories. The sharing of costs among governments
and industries depends on who benefits most from control, assessed by the likely impact of
the specific EAD on human health, socioeconomic concerns, the environment and livestock
production. Categorization can be reviewed and new diseases added as circumstances
change.
The emergency response is initially funded by the affected state or territory, with refunds
made by the Australian Government according to the formula for the particular disease
category set out in the EAD Response Agreement. The costs to each party are managed by
applying an ‘agreed limit’ that ensures intensive examination of costs and benefits before
further national resources are committed. Livestock industry contributions are obtained by
means appropriate to the particular industry, usually through an agreed zero-based levy.
Although the EAD Response Agreement is mainly about cost sharing, it has many other
important provisions for the conduct of an EAD response. In particular, it refers to the use
of existing plans, such as AUSVETPLAN, and sets standards for the training of personnel,
accounting and auditing. The agreement also refers to National Animal Health Performance
9
 Standards — benchmarks that are being developed across all sectors of the animal health
system.
Australian classification of emergency animal diseases (EAD) upon the cost sharing
agreement:

1. EADs that predominantly seriously affect human health and/or the environment (e.g.
depletion of native fauna) but may only have minimal direct consequences for the livestock
industries. (0% industry – 100% government) e.g. Australian lyssaviruses (including bat
lyssavirus), Nipah virus disease, Equine encephalomyelitis (western, eastern and
Venezuelan), Japanese encephalitis, and Rabies.
2. EADs that have the potential to cause major national socioeconomic consequences through
very serious international trade losses, national market disruptions and very severe
production losses in the livestock industries that are involved and may also have
significant public health and/or environmental consequences. (20% – 80%) e.g. avian
influenza (highly pathogenic; virus subtypes H5 and H7), BSE, Brucellosis abortus &
melitensis, FMD, Glanders, Rinderpest, Peste des petits ruminants, Screw worm fly, Sheep
pox, Vesicular stomatitis, Rift Valley fever and Hendra.
3. EADs that have the potential to cause significant (but generally moderate) national
socioeconomic consequences through international trade losses, market disruptions
involving two or more states and severe production losses to affected industries, but have
minimal or no effect on human health or the environment. (50% – 50%) e.g. African horse
sickness, African swine fever, Anthrax (major outbreaks), Bluetongue (disease in sheep)
Bovine tuberculosis, Lumpy skin disease, Newcastle disease, Avian influenza (highly
pathogenic; other than virus subtypes H5 and H7), Avian influenza (low pathogenic; virus
subtypes H5 and H7), Scrapie and Classical swine fever.
4. Diseases that are mainly production loss diseases. While there may be international trade
losses and local market disruptions, these would not be so great as to significantly affect
the national economy. The main beneficiaries of a successful emergency response to an
outbreak of such a disease would be the affected livestock industries. (80% - 20%) e.g.
Aujeszky’s disease, Borna disease, contagious equine metritis, Dourine, Equine influenza,
and Swine influenza and others…
 East coast fever
 Epizootic lymphangitis
 Equine babesiosis
 Equine encephalosis
 Haemorrhagic septicaemia
 Heartwater
 Infectious bursal disease (hypervirulent form)
 Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS)
 Potomac fever
 Pulmonary adenomatosis
 Transmissible gastroenteritis

10. List some exotic diseases to Australia.

Major exotic diseases for which AUSVETPLAN strategies have been developed:
 African horse sickness
 Equine influenza
 African swine fever
 Classical swine fever (hog cholera)
 Aujeszky's disease
 Avian influenza (fowl plague) – virulent type
 Newcastle disease
 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)

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 Foot-and-mouth disease
 Vesicular exanthema
 Vesicular stomatitis
 Swine vesicular disease
 Bluetongue
 Rinderpest
 Lumpy skin disease
 Peste des petits ruminants (PPR)
 Rabies
 Rift Valley fever
 Scrapie
 Screw-worm fly
 Sheep and goat pox
 Transmissible gastroenteritis

11. Why would Australia want to remain free of these diseases?

Australia wants to remain free from exotic diseases as outbreaks have social and economic
impacts. Losses include mortalities (can be very high), loss of income from reduction of
meat production and increased feed costs. An uncontrolled outbreak in Australia would
result in severe losses and unemployment at the farm, processor and retail levels. Prices of
alternative animal products might rise due to skills in demand. If eradication were
achieved there is unlikely to be continuing damage to the industry beyond the need to
recover its market share.

12. What is the OIE?

The Office International des Epizooties (OIE) is the World Organisation for Animal Health.

13. What role does OIE play in international trade?

 The OIE, established in order to promote world animal health, provides guidelines and
standards for health regulations in the international trade of animals and animal products.
Diseases that spread rapidly, have particularly serious rapid spread irrespective of national
borders, socioeconomic or public health consequences and are of major importance in
international trade have been designated by OIE as List A diseases. List B diseases are
similar to List A, but are considered less invasive across political borders. They are
‘significant’ diseases only for international trade considerations. Some of the exotic
diseases are covered by a cost-sharing agreement whereby the Commonwealth, States, and
Territories share the eradication and compensation costs.
 OIE List A: Foot and mouth disease, African swine fever, Classical swine fever, Bluetongue,
African horse sickness, Newcastle Disease, Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza, etc.
 OIE List B: Johne’s Diseases, Anthrax, Rabies, Screw Worm Fly, Bovine Tuberculosis, BSE,
Bovine Brucellosis, etc.
 They are all one list now called OIE list. Reporting these diseases is done to the CVO not
directly to the OIE which will be reported by CVO for the risk analysis.
 The mission of the OIE:
o Promote international understanding of the spread of animal diseases as a result of
international trade.
o Facilitate international trade.
o Protect animal health and public health.
 This is achieved by developing guidelines and standards for trade in animals and animal
products based mainly on:
o An animal health reporting system. The OIE requires the member countries to report
the occurrence of the diseases on List A and B, analyses global data and publishes the
information. In this way, the OIE assists member countries to develop trade protocols
as the basis of international trade.

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 o Developing the sanitary standards, guidelines and recommendations to protect human,
animal or plant life or health.
 Keys for disease eradication/control programs:
o Understanding the epidemiology of the disease (is it easy to break the transmission?
Are there any effects on public health?), methods available for the diagnosis, prevention
and treatment (funding, facilities, trained personnel).
o Support from the livestock producers and the government (the disease needs to have
sufficient benefits by being controlled).

14. List and discuss the various disease control programs that exist in
Australia.
 Stamping out policy
 Quarantine measures.
 Stock standstill.
 Movement controls.
 Trace back/forward of animals and potentially contaminated materials.
 Slaughter and disposal of infected and exposed animals.
 Decontamination of infected premises.
 Intense surveillance of susceptible animals.
 Restricting the activities of certain enterprises (abattoirs & fairy factories).
 Where necessary, supplemented/replaced by
o Vaccination.
o Insect control programs.
o Animal treatments.
o Programs to reduce populations of susceptible feral animals and vermin.
o Infected and disease free zones established to contain the disease agent and facilitate
trade.

15. What do we mean by a 2 by 2 table?

Disease Disease
present absent
*Gold standard (GS): it is a procedure that
Test TP FP Total can identify if a particular disease is/isn’t
positive (a) (b) positive present in population/individual animals. It
( a + b) can rely on various types of methods
Test FN TN Total (histology, pathology, virology…etc.) or
negative (c) (d) negative precise clinical signs…etc.
( c + d) In this presentation, the term “Diseased
Total Total Grand animals” will mean those that are assessed
with without total as being likely to have the diseases
disease disease (n) according to the gold standard (GS).
( a + c) ( b + d)
Two by two table:
The 2 by 2 table is a table consisting of two columns and two rows. Theses columns and rows
are the “Diseased and Non-diseased” on one side of the table and “Positive and Negative” on
the other. The values of these columns and rows intercross to produce the values that help in
assessing that particular test (i.e. sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive
values) i.e. it is used to calculate & interpret test sensitivity and specificity, test positive
predictive and negative predictive.

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Summary of calculations:

 Choose a large number of patients and write it in the Grand Total cell.
 Multiply the Grand Total by the prevalence (pre-test probability) to get the Total with
Disease. Compute the Total without Disease by subtraction.
 Multiply the Total with Disease by the sensitivity to get the True Positives.
 Subtract the Total with Disease from the Grand Total to get the Total without disease.
 Multiply the Total without Disease by the specificity to get the True Negative. Compute the
number of False Positive and False Negative by subtraction.
 Compute the Total Positive and Total Negative by addition across the rows.
 Add the True Positives with the False Positive to get the Total Positive.
 Add the True Negative with the False Negative to get the Total Negative.
 Predictive value of a positive test is True positives divided by Total positive tests.
 Predictive value of a negative test is True negatives divided by Total negative tests.

16. What is test accuracy?

 It is the ability of a test to give actual true values of a substance being measured.
 It is one of the characteristics that can be used to describe the quality and usefulness of a
certain diagnostic test. Accuracy can be expressed through other test characteristics like
sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative predictive values of that particular test.
 To be accurate, a single test need not always to be close to the true value, unless repeated
tests are run and the average of the results are taken.
 An accurate test will not over or under estimate the true value.
 Results of the test can be corrected if the degree of inaccuracy can be measured, and the
test results adjusted accordingly.
 An accurate test has low level of systemic error.

17. What is test precision?

 It is the ability of a test to give consistent results in repeated test (repeatability) i.e. how
consistent the results of test are, i.e. it is the ability of future run of that test on the same
sample and getting the same results.
 Precision is the opposite of variability.
 A precise test has low level of random error.
 On conclusion, if a test always gives the same value for a sample regardless of weather or
not it is the correct value, it is said to be precise test.
 Assessment of precision:
o Assess repeatability: repeat test under same conditions by same laboratory and same
technician.
o Assess reproducibility: repeat test under varying condition in different laboratories and by
different technicians.

N.B. AN ACCURATE TEST IS NOT NECESSERILY TO BE PRECISE

ALSO, A PRECISE TEST IS NOT NECESSARILY TO BE ACCURATE

18. What is test sensitivity? How is it calculated? Give some examples.

 Test sensitivity is the proportion of “diseased” animals that test positive.
 Sensitivity to a test is calculated simply by dividing the number of diseased animals that
test positive on the total number of “diseased” animals (TP +FN) i.e. sensitivity = a/(a+c).
 Example: In a population of animals of (e.g. 10,000), if the prevalence of a particular
disease (i.e. the number of diseased animals) was 1% (i.e. 100 animals) and the number of

13
 these animals tested positive to a particular test is 95, then the test sensitivity is
95/100=95%
 Example: sensitivity of bovine john’s disease > 50%

19. What is test specificity? How is it calculated? Give some examples.

 Test specificity is the population of animals that test negative to a particular diagnostic test
and actually don’t have the disease. In other words, it is the population of “not diseased”
animals that test negative.
 It can be calculated by dividing the number of animals that have tested negative and don’t
have the disease on the total number of “non-diseased” animals (TN + FP) i.e. specificity =
d / (b + d)
 Example: In the example above, the number “non-diseased” animals is 9,900. If say 9,603
animals tested negative to a particular test. The test Specificity then is 9,603/9,900=97%
is the test specificity.
 Example: specificity of bovine john’s disease is 97%

20. What effect does disease prevalence have on how you interpret the result
of a test?
 Disease prevalence is the total number of cases that have the disease in a given population
at a given time. It can more accurately be called “Pre-test probability”
 The Interpretation of a certain test is intimately correlated to disease prevalence in the
sense that every result or test characteristic is compared to the prevalence of that
particular disease in that particular population of animals.
 Sensitivity and specificity are not affected by the prevalence.
 Positive and negative predictive value both vary with the prevalence.

21. What is positive predictive value? How is it calculated? Give some

examples.
 Positive predictive value is the probability of animals that have tested positive to really
have the disease. In other words, it refers to the proportion of test positive animals that
really have the disease.
 Positive Predictive value (NPV) is the true positive divided by the total positives, i.e. +ve
predictive value = a / (a + b)
 Example: If the total number of animals that have the disease according to the GS and
have tested positive to a particular test was 5300 animals. And the total number of
animals that have tested positive to that test (diseased and non diseased according to the
GS) was 5750 animals, then the positive predictive value will be: 5300/5750=92% +ve
predictive value

22. What is negative predictive value? How is it calculated? Give some

examples.
 Negative predictive value is the probability of animals that have tested negative (to a
particular test) to really be free from the disease. In other words, negative predictive value
is the proportion of test negative animals that do not truly have the disease.
 Negative Predictive value (NPV) is the true negative divided by the total negatives, i.e. –ve
predictive value = d/(c + d).
 Example: If the total number of animals that don’t have the disease according to the GS
and have tested negative to a particular test was 5300 animals. And the total number of
animals that have tested negative to that test (diseased and non diseased) 5750 animals,
then the positive predictive value will be: 5300/5750=92% -ve predictive value.

23. How do you find out which diseases are notifiable?

Each state and territory has a list of 'notifiable' animal diseases. These lists contain animal
diseases that are of national concern (based on the OIE). These diseases are notifiable,
14
meaning there is a legal requirement for anyone who suspects or diagnoses a disease on the
list, to immediately notify their relevant state or territory animal health authority. A list of
notifiable diseases for every state can be found on the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forestry website www.daff.gov.au.

Most notifiable animal diseases are diseases that are exotic to Australia, e.g. foot and mouth,
rabies, mad cow disease. If established here, such diseases could impact severely on trade,
human health, livestock production or the environment. Many of these diseases are subject to
an international obligation to notify if any cases occur. Others are notifiable because of an
agreement between jurisdictions in Australia. A few diseases are notifiable in a state even
though they already exist (are endemic) in other parts of Australia. This is usually because the
state wants to prevent these diseases from becoming established within the state. Some other
diseases that already exist in the state are notifiable because there is a disease control
Program in place or because livestock or their products have to be certified in terms of disease
status (for surveillance purposes).
If a person knows or has reason to suspect that a disease is present in livestock, livestock
products or hives, the person must notify a Rural Lands Protection Board (RLPB) District
veterinarian, a Department of Primary Industries (DPI) veterinarian or a private vet.
Private veterinary practitioners should always have in mind the possibility of an Emergency
Animal Disease (EAD) being present whenever he examines an animal. Routine
decontamination should be carried out after all property visits and whenever animals are
handled in the clinic. They may receive a report that animals on a property are suffering from
symptoms that suggest the possibility of an emergency animal disease or examine susceptible
stock on a property and have reason to suspect an exotic animal disease.

24. What details do you have to notify and when?

NSW provides a notifiable disease form on the DAFF webpage, which outlines the details that
have to be notified:
 Disease suspected
 Name and contact details of the owner/or farm manager
 Full address and telephone number of the property
 Number and types of stock on the property (include feral animals)
 The species of animal/s affected
 Description of affected animals (breed, age, type, sex).
 Identification of affected animals (PIC, tattoo, earmark, beekeeper reg. no.)
 Time and date when signs were first noticed.
 Description of the clinical signs and gross lesions
 Approximate number of sick and / or dead stock.
 Laboratory tests, which specimens were submitted to laboratory
 laboratory details (name, address, phone)
 Any recent animal or product movements that may be relevant.
 Person making notification (name, address, phone, mobile)
The suspected disease must be immediately reported for further investigation by officers
familiar with the suspected disease.
The DAFF webpage provides a link to the notifiable disease list for each state, including their
specific notification form and contact details.

25. How do you notify them?

Contact from the property the departmental veterinary officer or inspector at the Department
of primary industries and agriculture in your state. If this is not possible, call the Emergency
Disease Watch hotline – 1800 675 888 - which is monitored 24 hours a day. Veterinarians
must notify an inspector by the quickest practicable means or within a specified period
(immediately in case of an exotic disease and from 12 hours to 7 days in case of an endemic
disease). Also needs to furnish the inspector with further information as required Based on the
Livestock Disease Control Act (1994).

15
In NSW, Notifications can be made by phoning a Livestock Health and Pest Authority office or
a NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) veterinarian or regulatory officer.
Alternatively, a NSW notifiable animal disease form can be filled out and faxed to (02) 6361
9976, or email it to: biosecurity@dpi.nsw.gov.au

26. What do you do if you suspect an exotic disease?

Actions to be taken if an exotic disease is suspected on a property or within the vet practice:
 Remain in the property.
 Restrict movement of animals, product, fomites and, if necessary, humans.
 Do not collect specimens; a trained team will do this.
 Observe restrictions on visits and handling.
 Follow decontamination instructions.
 Decontaminate yourself, including body, clothing, equipment, vehicles.
 Check your practice records to determine whether other suspicious cases have been seen
in the past 21 days.

Action if an endemic disease is suspected:

 Consult the owner and advise of treatment or decontamination and zoonotic risk.
 Restrict movement.
 Collect specimens (send to the state referral lab) and full history of case.
 Decontaminate clothing and footwear.

27. Provide a list of notifiable diseases in your jurisdiction.

In Victoria the listed diseases are broken up into three groups:
 Exotic diseases of mammals, birds, fish and bees: These are diseases that do not normally
occur in Australia. If any of these diseases is suspected, a person must notify an Inspector
of Livestock without delay and by the quickest means possible.
 Diseases of mammals, birds and bees that must be reported within 12 hours: These are
serious but not exotic diseases. If any of these diseases is suspected a person must notify
the Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in his state.
 Diseases of mammals, birds, bees and fish that must be reported within 7 days: These are
important but less serious diseases. If any of these diseases is suspected a person must
notify the Manager of Animal Standards.
 DISEASES OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS - (Notify within 12 hours or 7 days)
o Anaplasmosis
o Anthrax
o Babesiosis
o Bovine genital Camplyobacteriosis
o Bovine malignant catarrh
o Bovine malignant tumour of the eye larger than 2cm
o Caprine arthritis encephalitis
o Cattle tick
o Cysticercosis (C. bovis)
o Enzootic bovine leucosis
o Equine herpes-virus 1 (abortigenic and neurological strains)
o Equine infectious anaemia
o Equine piroplasmosis (Babesia caballi and Babesia equi)
o Equine viral arteritis
o Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
o Infectious laryngotracheitis
o Johne's disease
o Leptospirosis
o Listeriosis
o Mucosal disease

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 o Ovine brucellosis
o Ovine footrot
o Ovine ked
o Ovine lice
o Psittacosis
o Pullorum disease (Salmonella pullorum)
o Salmonellosis
o Strangles
o Swine brucellosis (B. suis)
o Trichomoniasis
o Tuberculosis (bovine)
o Tuberculosis (non-bovine)
o Verocytotoxigenic E. coli

 EXOTIC DISEASES OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS - (Notify immediately)

o African horse sickness
o African swine fever
o Aujeszky's disease
o Australian lyssaviruses including bat lyssavirus
o Avian influenza (highly pathogenic)
o Avian influenza (low pathogenic virus subtypes)
o Avian mycoplasmosis (M. synoviae)
o Bluetongue
o Borna disease
o Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
o Brucella canis
o Brucellosis – bovine (B. abortus)
o Brucellosis – Caprine and ovine (B. melitensis)
o Chagas disease (T. cruzi)
o Classical swine fever
o Contagious equine metritis
o Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
o Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia
o Cysticercosis (C. cellulosae)
o Dourine
o Duck virus enteritis (duck plague)
o Duck virus hepatitis
o Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
o Epizootic lymphangitis
o Equine influenza
o Fasicola gigantica
o Foot and mouth disease
o Fowl typhoid (S. gallinarum)
o Goat pox
o Glanders
o Haemorrhagic septicaemia
o Hendra virus
o Infectious bursal disease (hypervirulent and exotic antigenic variant forms)
o Japanese encephalitis
o Leishmaniosis
o Louping ill
o Lumpy skin disease
o Menangle virus (porcine paramyxovirus)

17
 o Nairobi sheep disease
o Newcastle disease
o Nipah virus
o Peste des petits ruminants
o Porcine myocarditis
o Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
o Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome
o Potomac fever
o Rabies
o Rift Valley fever
o Rinderpest
o Salmonella enteritidis infection in poultry
o Salmonellosis (S. abortus-equi)
o Salmonellosis (S. abortus-ovis)
o Scrapie
o Screw worm fly
o Sheep pox and goat pox
o Sheep scab
o Spongiform encephalopathies
o Surra (Trypanosoma evansi)
o Swine influenza
o Swine vesicular disease
o Teschen disease
o Transmissible gastroenteritis
o Trichinellosis
o Trypanosomiasis
o Tularaemia
o Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
o Vesicular exanthema
o Vesicular stomatitis
o Warble fly myiasis
o Western equine encephalomyelitis

28. What to look for, in animals suspected of an emergency disease?

Unusual symptoms that can include:
 Livestock
o Unexplained deaths.
o Sores or ulcers on the feet or in the mouth (reluctance to eat or move).
o Excessive salivation (drooling should always be treated suspiciously).
o Reduction in the yield of milk from cows and eggs from chickens.
o Any kind of discharge – diarrhoea – especially if it has blood in it. Excessive nasal
discharge is also something you should report unless you know what has caused it.
o Staggering or head drooping or severe lameness, mainly if more than one animal.
o Less dramatic signs: not eating properly, depression.
 Poultry & other birds
o Swollen heads.
o Dullness.
o Drop in egg production, increase in percentage of thin-shelled eggs.
o Respiratory distress.
o Diarrhoea.
o Loss of appetite (reduced feed consumption).
o Sudden death or increase in mortality rate.

29. Outline the regulation of veterinary drugs in Australia.

18
In Australia all veterinary chemical products which are used in the prevention and treatment
of animal diseases must be registered by the APVMA. This registration process ensures that
products in the market:
 Are of a high quality.
 Do not pose a threat to people, domestic or native animals, crops, plants, or the
environment.
 Will not pose any unacceptable risk to trade with other nations.
 Continue to work effectively.

30. Who is responsible for registering drugs?

 The Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) is responsible for
registering drugs.
o It is a Federal authority that sets the MRLs and ESIs.
o It registers agricultural and veterinary chemical products and gives a trial permit for
new products.
o ‘Pesticides’ include agricultural and household products such as insecticides,
herbicides and fungicides. It DOES NOT include fertilizers. ‘Veterinary medicines’ are
any substances administered/applied to an animal to prevent, diagnose or cure a
disease, pest infestation or injury. They include drugs as well as vitamins, minerals and
lick stones, vaccines, antibiotics, worming treatments, and flea and tick washes.
o The APVMA is reported about an adverse reaction of products that were used according
to the label instructions or damage to humans, animals, the environment or a lack of
efficacy.

31. What is drug scheduling? Name the relevant legislation and legal
instruments regarding scheduling and drug use by practitioners (in your
jurisdiction).
Each State and Territory has its own laws that determine where consumers can buy a
particular drug or poison, and how it is to be packaged and labelled. However, State and
Territory Governments classify the vast majority of drugs and poisons in accordance with the
Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons (SUSDP) to achieve a uniform
national approach to the scheduling of substances and uniform labelling and packaging
requirements.
The Standard for the uniform scheduling of drugs and poisons (SUSDP) is produced by the
National Drugs and Poisons Scheduling Committee (lies within the Department of Ageing and
Health) and aims to standardise the scheduling/ packaging/ labelling of substances in
Australia.

The Drugs and Poisons Regulations Group (DPRG) prepared a summary of scheduled drugs to
assist veterinary practitioners in understanding their obligation under the drug poisons and
controlled substance Act 1981 and regulations 2006.

When considering applications for scheduling of poisons in Australia only, all relevant
information as established under Section [X] of the Australian only regulations is considered,
with emphasis given to public health matters. These considerations include:
 The toxicity and safety of the substance.
 The risks and benefits associated with the use of the substance.
 The potential hazards associated with the use of the substance.
 The extent and patterns of use of the substance.
 The dosage and formulation of a substance.
 The need for access to a substance taking into account its toxicity and intended use
compared with other substances available for a similar purpose.
 The potential for abuse of a substance.
 The purpose for which a substance is to be used.

19
 Any other matters that are considered necessary to protect public health, including the
risks (whether imminent or long term) of death, illness, or injury resulting from its use;
and may take into account the labelling, packaging and presentation of the substance.

The Poisons Scheduling Committee is a statutory committee established under the Australian
Therapeutic Products Act and advices the AVPMA on new agricultural and veterinary
chemicals and products as a component of the registration process. The Committee consists of
between 10 to 16 members with expertise in one of more of the following areas:
 The regulation of State/Territory scheduling of poisons for public health purposes.
 Veterinary medicine or veterinary pathology.
 Toxicology.
 The regulation of industrial and domestic chemicals.
 The regulation of agricultural and veterinary chemicals.
 Clinical aspects of human poisoning.
 Consumer issues.
 Agricultural, veterinary and domestic chemical industry issues.
 Occupational health, with expertise preferably also as a medical practitioner.

Controlled substances act defines the scheduling of drugs as abbreviated below:

Schedule 2: Pharmacy medicines for humans, available over the counter in pharmacies and
supermarkets e.g. aspirin.
Schedule 3: Medicines available only in pharmacies e.g. Ventolin (available over the
counter but ONLY in a pharmacy).
Schedule 4:
 Restricted substances e.g. antibiotics, sulphonamides, corticosteroids, NSAIDs,
prostaglandins, anesthetic (local).
 Prescription animal substances or prescription only for humans.
 Prescribed only by a vet.
 Stored in a cupboard away from the public.
 Must keep records of purchase.
Schedule 5: Labelled “Caution”, can be stored at the counter but out of reach of children, e.g.
Heartworm preparations, worm tablets etc.
Schedule 6: labelled “poison”, can be stored same as schedule 5, e.g. malaseb shampoo etc.
Schedule 7: Dangerous poisons – are seldom in a vet clinic.
Schedule 8:
 Controlled drugs!!!!!! Most important for vets.
 It is illegal to possess these without authority.
 Records must be kept of their purchase and each administration in a book with signature
of prescribing vet.
 Must be kept in a locked and secured safe where only vets have the code.
 Drugs of addiction e.g. cannabis, heroin, methadone, morphine, pethidine, Ketamine,
buprenorphine, butorphanol.
Schedule 9: Prohibited substances e.g. illicit drugs. It contains substances that should be
available only for medical or scientific research including clinical trials conducted with the
approval of Commonwealth and/or State/Territory health Authorities

32. What is the difference between Sch. 4 and 8 drugs?

 Schedule 4 and 8 contain veterinary chemicals which should be available only on
prescription from a veterinarian. The term “drugs of dependence” is used to describe all S8
and S4 poisons subject to misuse, e.g. benzodiazepines, dextropropoxyphene, anabolic
steroids. Both are regulated by the Poisons Act 1964 and the Poisons Regulations 1965
(State legislation).
 The objectives underlying this restriction are to ensure that:
o The condition from which the animal is suffering is diagnosed correctly.

20
 o The most appropriate treatment is prescribed.
o The consumer has sufficient information and understanding necessary to enable him or
her to use the medicine safely and effectively.
 Schedule 4 (Prescription Only Medicine or Prescription Animal Remedy) includes drugs for
which prescriptions are required as the conditions being treated with the members of this
schedule are generally serious and require a diagnosis by a qualified veterinarian, e.g.
cardiovascular drugs, antibiotics & others. Also, the substances in this schedule are likely
to be toxic if used incorrectly and, in some cases, may cause dependence or be abused.
 Schedule 8 (drugs of addiction or labelled Controlled Drugs) are drugs with stricter
legislative controls because the risks of dependence and abuse are very high and the
conditions being treated with them are serious, and often life threatening, e.g. morphine
and pethidine. There are benefits to the community as a whole in maintaining S8 and its
associated controls, with in addition, those provided by S4.

33. Give a couple of examples of each.

 Schedule 4: antibiotics, cardiovascular drugs, anaesthetics (local), and some "drugs of
dependence" like benzodiazepines and anabolic steroids.
 Schedule 8: methadone, morphine, pethidine, oxycodone, and fentanyl.

34. What are your responsibilities when it comes to handling, storing,

recording and dispensing these drugs?

 Recording:
o Licensed wholesalers or pharmacists must only supply drugs to an authorised person.
Their records must therefore identify the authorised person (e.g. veterinary practitioner)
by name regardless of to whom an invoice for payment may be directed (e.g. veterinary
clinic, service company).
o Records for Schedule 4 must show an animal treatment record (computerised or
manual) showing client's name and address, date of supply, identity of the
veterinarian , details of the drug administered or supplied and basis for dispensing the
drug. Records must be retained for 3 years.
o Schedule 8 has the same recordings as S4 but an additional record (almost certainly
manually created) is also required; records for scheduled 8 poisons must be in a form
that shows the true balance remaining after each transaction and that cannot be
altered without detection.
o Veterinary surgeons, who obtain, possess, administer, dispense, prescribe or sell
controlled drugs, must keep a record book. The book must be kept in the following
manner:
a. A separate book or a separate part of the record book must be used for each class of
controlled drug.
b. Full details of each transaction involving a controlled drug obtained, administered,
dispensed or sold by the veterinary surgeon must be recorded.
c. Entries must be made as soon as practicable, but no later than the day after a
controlled drug is obtained, administered, dispensed or sold.
o The veterinary surgeon must record the following information for each transaction:
a. The date of the transaction.
b. The name and address of the person from whom the controlled drug is obtained; or
for whose animal the controlled drug is administered, dispensed or sold.
c. The quantity (or volume) of the controlled drug obtained, administered, dispensed or
sold in the transaction;
d. The balance of the controlled drug in the veterinary surgeon's possession after the
transaction.
e. The veterinary surgeon's initials.
 Storage and access:
21
 o Schedule 8 poisons must be stored in a locked facility, fixed to the floor or wall, and
providing security not less than a (10 mm thick) mild steel drug cabinet and must not
be stored with any other items (e.g. money) other than other S4 drugs of dependence.
When transported for use in another location, S8 poisons must be stored in a locked
receptacle in the veterinary practitioner’s possession. If the receptacle is necessarily out
of the veterinary practitioner’s possession (for a brief period of time) it should be
secured, out of sight, in a lockable facility (e.g. lockable vehicle or cupboard) to prevent
unauthorised access.
o Schedule 4 poisons (including professional samples) must be stored in a lockable
storage facility (e.g. cupboard, drawer, fridge, filing cabinet). Schedule 4 drugs of
dependence may be stored in the same manner as other Schedule 4 poisons or in the
drug cabinet with Schedule 8 poisons.
o Storage facilities for Schedule 4 and Schedule 8 poisons must be secured to prevent
access by all persons not authorised under the legislation (e.g. staff other than a
veterinary practitioner) unless the veterinary practitioner is present. Accordingly, keys
should not be accessible to unauthorised staff members.
 Handling:
Staff members may be left in possession of S4 and S8 poisons in the following
circumstances:
o Drugs may be left with a veterinary nurse (in order to administer the drugs to a specific
animal at the surgery) in accordance with instructions for administration to the specific
animal. The veterinary nurse is not authorised to supply such drugs to the owner of the
animal or the owner’s agent – provided that the drugs are in a sealed package which
clearly identifies the animal for which they were dispensed or the animal’s custodian.
o An employee of the practice may be in possession of drugs that have been lawfully
dispensed and labelled (see below) by the veterinary practitioner for delivery to, or
collection by a person - provided that the drugs are in a sealed package as stated above.

N.B. lawful practice: Veterinary practitioners are authorised to obtain, possess, use or
supply most drugs and poisons for the lawful practice of their profession, i.e. only for
the veterinary treatment of animals under their care (section 13 of the Act, regulation
13). A veterinary practitioner is not authorised to obtain drugs for personal use or for
use by any other person (e.g. spouse or employees) or to sell or supply drugs or poisons
by wholesale – an activity for which a Drugs & Poisons licence is required (section 23 of
the Act). Self-administration of Schedule 4 and Schedule 8 poisons is prohibited unless
the drugs have been lawfully prescribed and supplied by a medical practitioner (or
dentist) or supplied by a pharmacist upon presentation of a prescription from a medical
practitioner (Regulation 48). This does NOT mean that, once prescribed by a medical
practitioner, a veterinary practitioner may continue the treatment with drugs that were
obtained from a wholesale supplier.
 Dispensing:
o Veterinary practitioners may dispense and supply Schedule 4 and Schedule 8 poisons
for the veterinary treatment of animals under their care. The care of the animal or herd
by the veterinarian should be real and not nominal (He has taken all reasonable steps
to ensure that a therapeutic need exists for that drug or poison). This responsibility
must not be delegated to another person (e.g. nurse, receptionist).
o When supplied, Schedule 4 and Schedule 8 poisons must be labelled in accordance
with the provisions of regulation 29, including - the name of the owner or person having
custody of the animal; the name or species of the animal; the date of dispensing; the
name, address and telephone number of the veterinary clinic; the name, strength and
form (e.g. tablets, capsules) of the medication; precise directions for use.
o There is an exemption for bulk supplies for the treatment of flocks or herds of animals
according to regulation 29 (7) that has been added for practical reasons when
veterinarians supply large numbers of containers. As long as each S4 container has the
manufacturer’s label and the vet provides written instructions, each S4 container does

22
 not need a separate label with the prescribed information. This is designed to assist in
compliance and be practical for use.
o Containers used to dispense scheduled poisons must be impervious to the contents,
sufficiently sturdy to prevent leakage and capable of being securely re-closed.

Responsibilities of a veterinarian in dispensing restricted substances also include:

 The veterinary practioners should have been given responsibility for the heath of the
animal or herd by the owner or his agent.
 The care of the animal by the veterinary practioners should be real and not merely
nominal.
 The veterinary practioners must at least either have seen the animal for the purpose of
diagnosis and prescription or have visited the premises in which the animal is kept
sufficiently often and recently enough to have acquired from personal knowledge and
inspection an accurate picture of the current health state sufficient to enable him to make
a diagnosis or prescribe for the animal and to have confidence that the owner or his agent
has sufficient knowledge and competence and access to adequate facilities to be able to
administer the restricted substance effectively and safely.
 The veterinary practioners must ensure that the owner has appropriate skill, equipment
and facilities necessary to determine the live weight of the animal to be treated and to
safely restrain the animal while the treatment is administered.
 They have discussed with the owner or his agent and examined when visiting the premises
arrangements for the correct storage of the restricted substance, and for the safe disposal
of empty containers, sharps, etc.
 Also, they have discussed with the owner the dose rate of the restricted substance or
specified the actual amount to be administered and contraindications for use of the
restricted substance, and special precautions to be taken in using restricted substances,
potential adverse effects which might be expected and withholding periods for both milk
and meat.
 Keeping clear, concise, clinical records are an essential component of your defence if you
are required to justify your actions to a formal inquiry of the Veterinary Practioners
Registration Board.
 Records are to be kept for at least 3 years for the purpose of retaining and retrieving.

35. What are adverse reactions and who (and how) do you report them to?
 Adverse reaction is an unintended or unexpected effect on animals, human beings or the
environment, including injury, sensitivity reactions or lack of efficacy associated with the
clinical use of a veterinary medicine.
 If the person treating the animal with a veterinary medicine has been adversely affected
then medical advice should be sought.
 If the animal has been adversely affected after the use of a veterinary medicine the animal’s
owner should seek veterinary advice from his veterinarian. The veterinarian can assess the
situation and determine the appropriate treatment.
 If the adverse reaction is considered to have been associated with the use of a veterinary
medicine, then the veterinarians and the general public (including animal owners, farmers
and other chemical users) should report the matter to the registrant of the product (refer to
the contact details on the product label). When doing so, inform them that you wish to
report an adverse experience with one of their products and ask to speak to a technical
services veterinarian (if available).
 Under the Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Codes, the registrant has an obligation to
report the matter to the APVMA (The Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines
Authority) and provide full details of the incident.
 You may also provide a report directly to the APVMA using the Adverse Experience
Reporting Form for Veterinary Medicines.
 In the event of an adverse reaction occurring due to the use of a veterinary drug, the
APVMA seek to identify and act promptly on such adverse experience through the Adverse

23
 Experience Reporting Program (AERP). This is a quality assurance program established by
the APVMA to facilitate responsible management of veterinary medicines throughout their
life cycle.

36. Why do we have the AERP vet?

 Prior to registering veterinary drugs, they are subjected to a rigorous assessment of their
safety, quality and efficacy. However this assessment is by no mean complete because of
the relatively small number of animals used to test the drug compared to the wider
population of animals using the drug. also the wide range of environmental conditions
encountered under practical farming conditions and the fact that it is impossible to
include all breeds of animals, age groups and all types of pests and diseases that may be
exposed to during the clinical trials.
 Therefore a product with a potentially wide range of uses may not be tested on all groups of
animals or under the conditions that fully reflect ultimate markets. Considering that
unforseen problems may arise from the use of veterinary drugs that may affect people,
animals, and the environment and trade as well.
 The APVMA seeks to identify and act promptly on such adverse experience through the
AERP vet. It is therefore important that adverse experiences are brought to the attention of
the person responsible for the product (registrant) and the APVMA so that unusual and
adverse rare conditions that weren’t evident in the clinical trials conducted before
registration are detected and necessary action can be taken.

37. What are residues?

Residues are traces of veterinary drugs/chemicals that were used for the treatment of animals
before their slaughter.

38. Why are they of concern?

These residues can be a potential health problem for people consuming the product (animal
meat/plant) with the potential of causing adverse reactions due to the residue itself (allergic
reaction or toxic effect) or due to the effect of the residue on the intestinal flora and fauna.
Also antibiotic residues may give rise to new strains of AB resistant bacteria. Some of these
chemical residues might have a carcinogenic effect.

39. What are withholding periods?

 WHP is the minimum period which must elapse between last administration and
application of a veterinary chemical product (including treated feed) and the slaughter,
collection, harvesting or use of the animal commodity for human consumption. Or, it is the
time needed for the veterinary drug/chemical to clear from the animal’s tissues through
secretions and excretions before it can be fit for human consumption, e.g. Ivermectin pour-
on for cattle has a WHP and ESI of 42 days.
 During evaluation of chemical products prior to registration by the APVMA, evaluators
consider detailed submissions on the use of the agricultural or veterinary chemical and
other information including recommendations made by other governments and
internationally-recognized organizations.
 The Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) set maximum
residue limits (MRL) for agricultural and veterinary chemicals in agricultural products,
particularly products entering the food chain. In animals for example feeding of grain or
forage that has been treated with pesticides or has grown in pesticide treated soil may
result in residues in animal tissues and milk.
 MRL is the maximum concentration of a residue resulting from the use of an agricultural
or veterinary chemical that is recommended to be legally permitted or recognized as
acceptable in or on a food, agricultural commodity, or animal feed. It is expressed in
milligrams per Kg of the commodity (or milligrams per litre in case of liquid commodities).
 These MRL are set at levels which are not likely to be exceeded if the agricultural or
veterinary chemicals are used in accordance with approved label instructions, i.e. the MRL
for each chemical is higher than what should be reached if the chemicals were used
24
 correctly. At the time that the MRL are set, the APVMA undertakes a dietary exposure
evaluation to ensure that the levels do not pose an undue hazard to human health. Hazard
identification involves assessing whether the agent (chemical or microbial) produces
adverse effects in biological systems.
 "Hazardous chemicals" is a general term including artificially manufactured substances or
naturally occurring substances which cause or have potential to cause injury or damage to
organisms or materials or the degradation of the ecosystems. The substances may have
properties which are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, corrosive, reactive
flammable, explosive, bioaccumulative or otherwise directly or indirectly harmful.

40. What is their aim?

The aim of enforcing WHP is to make sure that animal products for human consumption are
free from any chemical residues and their potential adverse reaction.
41. How do you find out a withholding period?
WHP are mandatory for domestic slaughter and export (ESI) and must be written on the label
of every registered product/ drug in Australia. It is a requirement of the APVMA. The aim of
enforcing WHP is to make sure that animal products for human consumption are free from
any chemical residues and their potential adverse reaction.

42. What if you can't find a withholding period?

You might not find a withholding period of a drug if the label is damaged and in that case you
should contact the APVMA website for a PDF file with a list of ESI and WHP of drugs used for
cattle and sheep.

43. What is an Export Slaughter Interval (ESI)?

An export slaughter interval is the time that should elapse between administration of a
veterinary drug in animals and their slaughter for export. ESI might be different from WHP of
the same drug if used in Australia due to the different requirements of importing countries in
regards to the MRL. ESI have been agreed to by the sheep meat industry and the registrant of
the veterinary chemical. ESI advice is particularly important for quality assurance schemes,
and especially for producers filling out the National Vendor Declaration (NVD) forms as part of
the whole-of-chain management of exported product. On export abattoirs AQIS inspectors
collect random samples for residue testing to verify that the meat exported to a specific
country complies with those countries MRL.

44. What is the NVD/Waybill?

The NVD is a travel document can be legally used for declaring stock movements in those
states that require travel documents (Waybill or Travelling Stock Statement) to accompany
livestock movements. Producers use the NVD/Waybill to declare valuable information about
the food safety status of the livestock being sold. Buyers rely on the NVD/Waybill for accurate
information on the livestock purchased and processors rely on the information to ensure only
the safest food enters our food chain.

45. What is the name of the Queensland animal welfare legislation?

Animal Care and Protection Act 2001 (ACPA) is administered by Queensland primary
industries and fisheries (QPIF). The animal welfare unit is located in QPIF and operates the
animal welfare program.

46. List the procedures in the Act that may only be performed by
veterinarians.
 Cropping a dog’s ear.
 De-clawing a cat.
 Docking the tail of cattle or a horse,
 Docking a tail of a dog (done only if the veterinary surgeon registered in QL and the vet
reasonably considers the docking is in the interest of the dog’s welfare).

25
 Debarking of a dog (appropriate notice is required; signed by the owners of the dog asking
the Vet to perform the operation and stating that the dog's barking is a nuisance and that
all other attempts and their nature have been tried and have been unsuccessful).
 Issuing of animal welfare direction or seizure of an animal by inspector for the purposes of
seeking veterinary attention.
 Administration of harmful substances to animal (e.g. lethabarb).

These procedures must be done only if it is in the interest of the animal's welfare. The interest
of the animal's welfare is considered to be about the prevention of pain and suffering e.g. if the
animal has been involved in an accident.
It must be noted that in Queensland it is illegal to dock the tail of a dog unless it is in the
interest of the dog’s welfare. This legislation (effective from October 2003) is intended to ban
tail docking which was done for “cosmetic” or “prophylactic” reasons.
47. What is the duty of care of a veterinarian?
The vet doesn't have sole duty of care rather it is a duty of care shared with the owner i.e. the
owner has a duty of care even when the animal is in the care of a vet.
The owner is responsible for deciding what treatment the vet is offering to be given to the
animal, the vet must provide the owner with the animal welfare consequences of such
decision, and if the animal suffers from that decision then the owner is the responsible person
(a lack of ability to pay doesn't pass that responsibility to the vet).
A veterinarian when examining and treating an animal has temporary custody of the animal
and so has a duty of care which could include:
 Animals being examined or treated.
 Appropriate handling of the animal with minimal stress.
 Providing appropriate conditions.
 Treating a disease or injury of an animal.
 Relieving the pain of the animal (analgesics) and any manipulation undertaken without
analgesia to aid in diagnosis must be kept to a minimum.
 Avoid unnecessary surgical procedures.
 Providing appropriate accommodation or living condition for animals (hospitalized or
boarded).
 Allowing the animal to display normal patterns of behaviour.
 Recommending appropriate prevention, management and treatment for disease conditions.

N.B.
 The veterinarian duty of care to the animal extends to staff members associated with the
practice.
 Under the act vets, police and inspectors have the power to destroy an animal if they
believe it is cruel to keep it alive.

48. Name the government agency responsible for the legislation

Animal Care and Protection Act 2001 (ACPA) is administered by Queensland primary
industries and fisheries (QPIF). The animal welfare unit is located in QPIF and operates the
animal welfare program.

49. What or who is "an Inspector"?

Biosecurity inspector in Queensland is Dale Reynolds.
RSPCA Inspectors, Chief veterinary officers and delegates and the animal health officers and
in some states the public service officers (or employees) can all be inspectors.

50. Can you provide information, including documents to an Inspector without

fear of breaching privacy laws?
Yes. An Inspector can require information (including documents) from a veterinarian on the
veterinary treatment of an animal if the inspector reasonably suspects that the Act has been

26
contravened or if an animal welfare direction has been given about that animal. Giving this
information to an inspector does not breach privacy legislation.
Information you provide to the department on this form is made available to the public in the
register of authorities under Section 73 of fisheries Act 1994, and section 210 0f fisheries
Regulation 2008. You must therefore provide a postal address in the knowledge that it may be
released under a search. You must also provide for individual, a residential address, or for a
corporation, a registered office address for the purpose of giving notices under fisheries
legislation. The residential/ registered office address will not be made available under a search
of register unless it is also a postal address. It is mandatory to provide an address in both
sections.

51. You are approached by a drug company to run a clinical trial for a new
unregistered mastitis treatment in dairy cows. What are you required to do in
order to run the trial, from a legal and animal welfare point of view?

Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes:

It emphasizes the responsibilities of all those involved in the care and use of animals. This
embraces a duty of care that demands a genuine commitment to the welfare of the animals, a
respect for the contribution the animals make to research and teaching and a desire to
promote the animals’ wellbeing. Encapsulated in the Code is the need in scientific and
teaching activities to consider (3R):
 The Replacement of animals with other methods; (tissue culture, perfused organs, tissue
slices, cellular and subcellular fractions).
 The Reduction in the number of animals used; (studies are designed to be scientifically and
statistically valid, only the minimum numbers of animals are used, studies should not be
repeated unnecessarily as a direct effect of number reduction), e.g. Use of abattoir organs
for training of AI program.
 The Refinement of techniques used to reduce the adverse impact on animals: (to assess the
impact of any procedure or condition on the well-being of the animal and strategies and
eliminate or minimise that impact), e.g. use of analgesics or anaesthesia for painful
procedures that must be used on animals.

In order to run a clinical trial on animals, there are few important steps that need to be
covered:
1. The pharmaceutical company must have a permit for research purposes from APVMA
(Australian pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority) and I would also get a permit
for myself to be able to handle and use this new drug in the clinical trial if I am not
included in the pharmaceutical company's permit of course under subsection 110.1 of the
Agriculture and Veterinary Chemical Act. As a professional veterinarian I should
communicate effectively with the APVMA and understand the limitations of the permit as I
can only do those things that are permitted by the permit (section 116).
2. Also, under the Agriculture and Veterinary Chemical Act, I would not be permitted to
supply the unregistered veterinary product to veterinarians other than colleagues
employed by the same practice.
3. The pharmaceutical company must have a permit from the DPI&F (Department of Primary
Industries and Fisheries) and nominate the Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) that will
assess animal use (Individuals are usually covered if the institution or company for which
they work is registered). This AEC need not to be nominated in Queensland, instead the
pharmaceutical company must provide an annual report on animal use statistics to
Queensland DPI&F. (the QDPI&F can be contacted on 13 25 23 to obtain information on
AEC approved by the DPI&F)
4. I also need to apply for a permit from the Animal Ethics Committee (AEC). The AEC
assesses the proposals to use animals for scientific purposes and teaching to weigh the
scientific or educational value of the use against the potential effect on the welfare of the

27
 animal. The AEC must be convinced that the use is justified and that the benefits outweigh
the potential cost of the animal.
5. The pharmaceutical company must comply with the Australian Code of Practice for the
Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes.
6. Important aspects that one should make sure to follow are:
 Following the directions on the label of the drug.
 Have an identification system in place to accurately carry out the study.
 Recording the efficacy of the drug at the dosage and directions written on the label.
 Recording any adverse effects. The holder of the APVMA permit is under obligation in
section 161 of the Agriculture and Veterinary Chemical Act to report any adverse effects in
relation to human consumption, harm to animals, damage to plants, property or the
environment; and lack of efficacy when the products are used according to the label.
 The milk produced by the animals undergoing a field trial of an antibiotic should not be
used for human consumption or fed to baby calves or supplied for processing if the milk or
meat products do not meet current maximum residue levels as listed in the food standards
code.
 All the animals used will need to be fully identified and records need to be kept for at least
two years. Appropriate methods of identification should be used such as ear tagging, ear
marking, ear notching, tattooing, freeze branding, photography and/or microchipping.
Corrosive chemicals should never be used for identification marking.
 The basic welfare needs of animals should be met, that is water, air and food. The
requirements of food and water depend on individual metabolic needs of each animal and
this should be addressed.
 Social contact with other cattle is important for the cattle to exhibit normal behaviour and
to minimize stress during the course of the trial. Where possible a cow should be grouped
with familiar cattle and overcrowding should be avoided as this minimizes stress.
 Sufficient space to stand, lie down, turn around, stretch, groom and perform normal
behaviour patterns should be provided.
 The cattle should be protected from predators and extremes of climate and sudden
changes in weather where possible.
 The animals should be protected from unnecessary or unreasonable pain, suffering or
injury.
 Animals should be protected also from diseases and should be treated appropriately where
the disease occurs.
 In the event that the drug on trial is not efficacious (after a reasonable period of time) or
has adverse effects on the animal, the drug should be withdrawn and appropriate
treatment instituted immediately so as to not cause any further suffering in the animals.
 Where prognosis is poor immediate salvage should be undertaken. Where this is not
possible, humane destruction must be effected immediately.

52. List the legislation that impacts on veterinary practitioners (this will be
different according to state, so please reference which state you are referring
to).
According to the NSW legislations:
 Veterinary practice Act 2003
 Poisons and therapeutic goods Act
 Stock medicine Act
 Stock disease act
 Campaign animal act 1998
 Prevention of cruelty to animals act 1979
 Radiation control act 1990
 Drug misuse and trafficking act 1986
 Animal research act 1985

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Exotic diseases:
What would you do in case of suspected exotic disease?
 Notification of the local departmental veterinary office or inspector or, if this is not possible
call the emergency disease watch hotline: 1800 675 888.
 Remain on the property until instructed by a department veterinarian of any specific
procedures to be followed and that it is safe to leave.
 Restrict movement:
o If advised by a departmental veterinarian, not to move the following (animal, fomites or
if necessary humans) from the property until a department officer arrives.
o Suspected case should be hospitalised away from other animal.
o Containers, cages or pens should be very strongly constructed and well secured.
o If animal can not be safely captured or confined, and there constitutes a risk to people
or other animals, it should be destroyed immediately in such a way that the brain is not
damaged (in case of rabies).
 Do not collect specimens. You will be responsible for collecting specimens for laboratory
diagnosis if instructed to do so. A trained and equipped diagnostic team will do this task.
 Observe restriction on visits and handling.
 Follow and observe the decontamination instructions advised by the departmental
veterinarian. Apply them, as instructed, to yourself and other veterinarian in your practice.
 Decontaminate yourself:
o Decontamination may be required before you can leave the property (your body, your
clothing, your equipment)
o In case of rabies: If a person is bitten by suspected rabid animal, or if a fresh wound or
skin abrasion is contaminated with saliva or tissue fluid, the wound should be washed
immediately and flushed with soap and water, detergent, or water alone. A disinfectant
should then be applied.
 Check your practice records to determine whether other suspicious cases have been seen
in the past 21 days.

State the various strategies (response plan) to control and eradicate

suspected exotic and endemic diseases.
Response plans all have more or less the same procedures which include:

 Stamping out by destruction of all infected and exposed animals, and sanitary disposal of
destroyed animals and contaminated animal products to remove the source of infection.

29
 Quarantine and movement control on animals and animal products in declared areas to
contain infection (Infected premises (IP) and dangerous contact premises (DCP) will be
identified and a restricted area (RA) will be drawn around all IP and DCP. A control area
(CA) will be imposed around the RA. In settled areas, adjacent premises are likely to be
part of the RA).
 Increased border security, all passengers’ luggages being checked from high risk countries.
 Decontamination of facilities, products and associated items to eliminate the virus on IP
and to prevent spread of infection in declared areas.
 Tracing and surveillance will need to be undertaken quickly to determine the source of the
infection, to identify the risk premises and to define as closely as possible the extent of the
infection and to establish proof of freedom from the disease.
 Zoning/compartmentalisation to define infected and disease-free areas.
 A public awareness campaign to facilitate cooperation from industry and the community.
 Protection of the public health by requiring that personnel engaged in eradication activities
to be vaccinated or treated with antiviral and wear protective clothes.

African horse sickness

 Characteristics: Highly fatal, acute and subacute insect-borne infectious disease with
respiratory and circulatory signs.
 Aetiology: Arbovirus of Reoviridae, Very stable outside the host.
 Morbidity and mortality: depends on the number of the insect vector (Culicoides midges).
Mortality rate is as high as 95% in horses. Dogs are susceptible and show severe clinical
signs with a mortality rate up to 30%.
 Seasonality: Late summer (rainy season).
 Mode of transmission: Horses  Culicoides (mechanical). Dogs  eating virus-
contaminated horse meat.
 Source of infection: Clinically affected equidae, recovered horses are carriers for 90 days.
Dogs may act as silent hosts.
 Immunity: Recovered or vaccinated horses have a durable immunity to the serotype that
infected them, but remain susceptible to other serotypes. Immunity is developed over 3
weeks. Foals from immune dams have passive immunity from the colostrum until 5-6
months of age.
 Clinical findings: The incubation period (viremia) is usually 4-9 days in horses.
Intermittent fever of 40-41 is characteristic in addition to a pulmonary (peracute) form in
horses and dogs (dyspnea, paroxysmal cough, frothy nasal discharges, recumbency, and
death within few hours) and cardiac (acute) form (Oedema in the supraorbital fossae and
around the head, thorax and abdomen. recovery or a pulmonary form develops and death
is evidenced after colic, sweating and recumbency).
 Necropsy: Hydrothorax, pulmonary edema, hydropericardium, endocardial haemorrhage,
myocardial degeneration, generalized oedema especially head.
 Diagnosis: Sampling: whole blood (EDTA) from 5 febrile horses, or spleen and lung from
dead animal (in glycerol buffer).
 Differential diagnosis:
 Pulmonary horse sickness: Equine morbillivirus pneumonia (Hendra)
 Cardiac horse sickness: Equine infectious anemia, equine viral arteritis, Babesia, and
purpure hemorrhagica.
 Others: Anthrax, surra, plant and chemical poisoning, snake bites, endotoxemia,
adverse drug reaction and heat stress.
 Control: AHS is an OIE list A disease that has the potential for serious and rapid spread
and is important in the international trade of horses. Control of AHS relies on 4 basic
principles:
 Preventing contact between susceptible animals and AHS virus
 Stoping the production of virus by infected animals
 Stoping the transmission of virus by insect vector
30
  Increasing the resistance of susceptible animals
 Strategies include:
 Restricting the importation of horses from countries known to have the disease.
 Judicious slaughter of clinically affected animals (stamping out if a small number of
animals were affected and if you believe that by doing this you can control the
outbreak and also when a virulent strain is strongly suspected).
 Treatment and husbandry procedures to control vector attack on susceptible animals in
declared areas (treatment is generally in-effective but may be tried when stamping out
is not practical and there is little risk of virus spreading from viremic animals).
 Vector control over an area may be considered (The housing of animals in insect-proof
stables and not permitting horses outside except in broad daylight, use of Ivermectin,
external application of insecticide and treatment of vector breeding areas by ground
and aerial spraying are all effective measures in limiting the spread of the virus).
 Vaccination which will be the main disease control strategy if infection establishes in
insect vector (ALL VACCINATED ANIAMLS MUST BE PERMENANTLY IDENTIFIED). An
inactivated vaccine will be the vaccine of choice and will be used in the RA and possibly
the CA.
 Zoning to define infected and disease free areas (The infected zone should have a radius
of at least 100 km in which vaccination may occur. This zone will be surrounded by a
surveillance zone of at least 50 km in which no vaccination may be carried out).
 Decontamination ensures sanitary conditions are maintained in the environment and
fresh blood removed. Veterinary equipment must be cleaned and sterilised after use on
infected animals. Fomites do not play a role in the transmission of AHS but vehicles
should be treated for vectors if leaving the RA.
 Wild animals control (play a role in spread of virus specially if the vector is available. if
necessary intensive control programs to destroy wild populations of susceptible animals
if they are shown to be infected.

African swine fever (Warthog disease)

 Characteristics: Peracute, highly fatal, highly contagious, endotheliotropic, generalized.
 Aetiology: ASF virus; highly resistant to heat, dryness but sensitive to lipid disinfectants.
 Morbidity and mortality: Morbidity and Mortalities approach 100%
 Mode of transmission:
 Sylvatic cycle (warthogs and bushpigs infect domestic pigs via the soft argasid ticks)
then the disease spreads by direct contact among domestic pigs.
 Movement of infected pigs.
 Ingestion of pig meat or products infected with the virus (Swill-feeding).
 Airborne spread occurs only over very short distances.
 Indirect contact with the pig pens and fomites.
 Mechanically by insect vectors.
 Source of infection: Wild pigs and pigs during and after an acute illness or pigs infected by
mild strains and garbage from international airports or seaports.
 Immunity: Pigs that survive virulent infection are usually resistant to subsequent
challenge exposure with the homologous strain.
 Clinical findings:
 The virus getting entered to the tonsils, respiratory tract and GIT then replicates in the
draining lymph nodes prior to the occurrence of generalized viremia. Lymphopenia is
characteristic due to massive destruction of lymphocytes. IP is 5 - 15 days.
 Peracute (Pigs are found dead), Acute (High fever, off-food, huddling, depression,
incoordination, unable to move, cyanotic skin blotching on extremities, snout, ears and
abdomen, nasal and ocular discharges, vomiting and diarrhea then death within a
week), Subacute (fever for up to 20 days and abortion in pregnant sows), Chronic
(Recurring fever for several months, stunting and emaciation).
 Necropsy:

31
  Ecchymotic and paint brush haemorrhages on the gastric and intestinal serosal.
 Hemorrhagic gastrohepatic lymph nodes.
 The spleen is 2 to 3 times its normal size.
 A ‘turkey-egg’ -like kidneys (petechial haemorrhage in the renal cortex).
 Differential diagnosis: Classical swine fever, acute salmonellosis (diarrhea), Pasteurellosis
(pneumonia with occasional high mortality), Aujeszky’s disease (respiratory signs),
Thrombocytopenic purpura (haemorrhages, especially in pigs 2-3 weeks old), Warfarin
poisoning (sporadic), heavy metal poisoning, any cause of chronic ill thrift in pigs,
Erysipelas, mulberry heart disease and viral encephalitis.
 Prevention: Prohibition of importation of live pigs or pig products from countries where ASF
occurs and minimising contact between feral pigs and domestic pigs.

 Control: African swine fever (ASF) is an OIE List A disease that has the potential for rapid
spread and which is important to the trade in pigs and pig products. An uncontrolled
outbreak of ASF would cause severe production losses with consequent dislocation and
financial losses in the pig industry and associated service and sales industries. It will
therefore be necessary to act immediately and effectively to control and then eradicate the
disease. The policy is to eradicate ASF in the shortest possible period, while limiting
economic impact. No vaccine is available. ASF is a Category 3 in cost-sharing agreement.
No vaccine is available.

Avian influenza
 Characteristics: Highly fatal, highly contagious, generalized
 Aetiology: Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HAPI) type A and Low Pathogenic AI (LPAI),
Orthomyxoviridae, the classical fowl plague virus is H7N7. Easily destroyed by temperature
and lipid disinfectants.
 Occurrence in Australia: 5 outbreaks so far - 3 in Victoria (76 – H7N7, 85 – H7N7and 92 –
H7N3), 1 in Queensland (94 – H7N3), and 1 in NSW (97-H7N4).
 Morbidity and mortality: Mortalities vary from 50% to 100%.
 Mode of transmission:
 Direct or indirect contact of domestic poultry with faeces, ocular and nasal discharge of
waterbirds. Virus spreads more easily in the winter.
 Mechanical spread by personnel.
 Movement of infected birds through auction sales and market places.
 Source of infection: contaminated drinking water with the droppings of wild waterbirds.
 Clinical findings:
 IP is 2-3 days. Birds found dead after minimal signs of depression, inappetance, ruffled
feathers and fever; hens lay soft-shelled eggs then stop laying, resp. signs, neurological
signs (paresis, paralysis, head tilt, tremors). Birds stand in a semi-comatose state with
their heads touching the ground. Combs and wattles are cyanotic. Watery green
diarrhea with excessively thirsty birds. 50- 100 % mortality 24-48 h after symptoms.
 Respiratory signs (coughing, sneezing, and lacrimation), decreased food consumption
and egg production, and nervous signs with edema of the head and neck are common
in less virulent form.
 Necropsy: Petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhage and edema especially in the respiratory
system.
 Diagnosis: HPAI should be suspected whenever sudden bird deaths occur with severe
depression, loss of appetite, nervous signs, watery diarrhoea, severe respiratory signs
and/or a drastic drop in egg production, with production of abnormal eggs. The likelihood
of AI is increased by the presence of facial subcutaneous oedema, swollen and cyanotic
combs and wattles, and petechial haemorrhages on the internal membrane surfaces. It
also should be suspected in any disease outbreak in poultry that persists despite the
application of preventive and therapeutic measures for other diseases. Samples should be
taken from both live, clinically affected birds and from recently dead birds  Cloacal and

32
 tracheal swabs, alimentary tissue samples. Send to the state diagnostic lab, samples will
be forwarded to CSIRO-AAHL in Geelong, Victoria.
 Differential diagnosis:
 Diseases causing sudden death: Newcastle disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, IBD,
duck plague, and acute poisoning.
 Diseases causing swelling of the combs and wattles: Acute fowl cholera and other
septicaemic diseases, bacterial cellulitis of the comb and wattles.
 Control: Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is an OIE notifiable disease (HPNAI) that
is highly lethal to poultry and has the potential to infect humans. An uncontrolled
outbreak would cause severe production losses with consequent dislocation and financial
losses in the poultry and associated service and sales industries. It may also lead to
morbidity and mortality in large numbers of cage and zoo birds. When the Consultative
Committee on Emergency Animal Diseases (CCEAD) determines an infection in poultry,
cage or zoo birds caused by a virus that meets the definition of HPAI, the policy is to
eradicate the disease in the shortest possible period, while limiting the risk of human
infection and minimising economic impact, by implementing the general strategies for
exotic animal and bird diseases, in addition to the following:
 Eradication should be confirmed by serological surveys.
 Possible pre-emptive slaughter on birds on other premises, depending on information
derived from tracing, surveillance, and study of the behaviour of the disease.
 Quarantine may include a national standstill.
 Enhanced Biosecurity at poultry establishment and premises holding caged or zoo birds
(because of the chance of human infection).
 The threat can be minimized by farmers taking steps to prevent access of wild birds to
poultry flocks and to prevent fecal contamination by wild birds of poultry feed and
water supplies.
 Vaccination may be considered if an outbreak of HPAI is likely to spread or has spread
out of control.
 Social and economic effects:
 According to The Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics, the gross
value of Aussie egg production in 2005-06 to $ 340 million, the value of chicken meat
industry the same year was $ 1416 million. An outbreak will affect this through
mortality, stamping out and lessened consumption, etc.
 Cost sharing of an outbreak of HPAI depends on the strain of the virus isolated but the
least of the government contribution is 50%. HPNAI is category 2 under EAD response
agreement which means the government pays 80% and the relevant industries 20% of
costs.
 When HPAI is confirmed on or threatens to spread to premises on which rare poultry,
cage or zoo birds are present; the prime objective is eradication of the virus. A modified
approach, including consideration of vaccination, may be appropriate, however, taking
into account factors such as biosecurity, movement controls, ongoing tracing and
surveillance, and timeliness in achieving disease eradication.

Bluetongue
 Characteristics: Infectious, non-contagious, and insect-borne, characterised by
inflammation of mucous membranes, widespread haemorrhages and oedema.
 Aetiology: Orbivirus of Reoviridae unstable outside the host; 24 serotypes.
 Natural hosts: All ruminant especially Sheep “Merinos”.
 Occurrence in Australia: subclinical in cattle.
 Morbidity and mortality: In the first exposure, the mortality rate may reach 50-75%.
However the indirect losses (fleece and abortions) are of greater importance.
 Mode of transmission: Culicoides midges (sandflies) and movement of the infected animals
mainly cattle.

33
 Source of infection: Cattle are the main amplifying hosts (maintenance hosts) with the
increased insect burden during late spring and early summer, the disease breaks out in
late summer and early autumn.
 Immunity:
 Suckling lambs from resistant dams attaining solid passive immunity for 2 months via
colostrum.
 Solid immunity after a clinical attack to the particular strain with no cross-immunity to
other strains.
 Clinical findings:
 Sheep:
 The incubation period is less than a week, then fever that lasts for a week followed by
salivation, lacrimation and nasal discharges that become mucopurulent or blood
stained and forming crusts around the nostrils.
 Edema all over the face especially in the lips and tongue. Petechial haemorrhage on the
oral, nasal and conjunctival mucosae.
 Necrotic ulcers develop on the tongue, gums and cheeks that heal under a diphtheritic
membrane.
 Foot lesions appear at the end of the fever with acute reddening and petechial
haemorrhage on the coronary band. Affected sheep stand with arched backs and are
reluctant to move.
 Diarrhoea and vomiting may occur and aspiration pneumonia may sequel.
 Muscle weakness and stiffness due to the direct action of the virus on the muscles.
 A break occurs in the staple of the fleece.
 Death occurs 6 days after the appearance of the signs in the most severe cases.
 Cattle: Mostly subclinical with catarrhal inflammation and mucosal erosions in the oral
and nasal cavities. Lameness may occur as a result of the lesions on the coronary bands.
Infection of early pregnant animals may lead to early embryonic death and resorption or
hydranencephaly.
 Differential diagnosis:
 Foot and mouth lesions: FMD, Pest de petits ruminants, contagious pustular
dermatitis, footrot.
 Head lesions: Oestrus ovis infestation, Pneumonia, acute hemonchosis (with depression
and submandibular edema).
 Skin lesions: Sheep pox, photosensitisation.
 Treatment: Local irrigation by mild disinfectant. Affected sheep should be protected from
hot sun.
 Prevention:
 Preventing the importation of ruminants from infected areas and the application of
quarantine measures.
 Adequate treatment of aircrafts to prevent the accidental introduction of infective
insects.
 Spraying with repellents, housing at night.
 Postpone lambing until major danger from the disease is passed in enzootic areas.
 Control: Bluetongue is an OIE-listed disease that has the potential for rapid spread with
significant production losses and is of major importance to the international trade in
ruminant livestock (including sheep, goats, cattle and deer). The policy with regard to an
outbreak of bluetongue is to minimise the economic impact and to eliminate clinical
disease if circumstances permit. This may be feasible if:
 The disease is detected early in isolated animals and infected vectors are absent.
 The disease occurs in a vector-free area.
 Frosts are imminent in vector areas.
 If the disease occurs in areas with competent vectors early in the vector season, control
will be difficult.
General strategies will be used in limiting or controlling the disease, in addition to:

34
  Treatment and husbandry procedures to control vector attack on ruminants minimise
health and production effects and provide animal welfare relief in declared areas.
 Vaccination to protect non-infected susceptible animals, especially if bluetongue
becomes established in a recognised sheep district; a long-term industry control
program may be adopted. Vaccination with attenuated live vaccine will keep the losses
to a very low level provided that immunity to all local strains of the virus is attained.
Ewes should not be vaccinated within 3 weeks of mating as anoestrus often results.
Pregnant ewes are not recommended for vaccination as deformities (dummy syndrome),
and still birth occur. Lambs should not be vaccinated until 2 weeks after weaning
(maternal immunity). N.B. as a general rule, it is not recommended to use live vaccine
to control insect-borne diseases as vaccination failure occurs (an attenuated virus
becomes more virulent by several passages via the insect vectors).
 Possible measures to reduce vector attacks on animals.
 There is no justification for a stamping-out policy, but some animals may need to be
destroyed for welfare reasons.

Bluetongue disease in sheep is an Animal Health Australia Category 3 disease

under the government–industry emergency animal disease (EAD) Response
Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 3 diseases are those for which
costs will be shared 50% by the government and 50% by the industry.

BSE
 Aetiology: A protease-resistant isoform (PrPSc) of a normal cellular prion protein. The BSE
agent survives for long periods in carcases and withstands many of the procedures
currently involved in the processing of feed products. Prions may persist on veterinary
instruments that have been steam sterilised at 121°C or decontaminated by most
commonly applied chemical procedures.
 Susceptibility: Domestic and wild bovines and cats. The disease agent has a tissue
distribution in the infected animals similar to Scrapie (the sheep TSE).
 Mode of transmission: Feeding of ruminant-derived tissues of previously infected cattle to
ruminants.
 Clinical findings: The average incubation period is five years (Most cattle became infected
in the first six months of life).
 Necropsy: No gross lesions
 Differential diagnosis: Metabolic diseases: hypomagnesaemia/hypocalcaemia, heat stress,
polioencephalomalacia, hepatic and renal encephalopathy, nervous acteonemia, BEF, lead
toxicity, botulism, plant toxicoses, urea toxicoses, listeriosis, bovine Herpesvirus
encephalitis, MCF, vitamin E/selenium deficiency, also from rabies which is exotic to
Australia.
 Treatment: No treatment, no vaccination.
 Control: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is an OIE listed disease that is
significant in the international trade in cattle and cattle products. BSE is also a zoonosis
and a safety hazard in human food. The disease response policy is to find all cases, to
determine the extent and origin of the disease in the Australian cattle herd and its mode of
spread, and then to eradicate the disease as quickly as possible. General strategies are
implemented to achieve and then verify eradication in addition to:
 No stamping out.
 Epidemiological investigations to identify the source of infection and then identify cattle
and other at-risk animals that might have acquired infection because of a similar
exposure.
 surveillance and monitoring by means of post-mortem tests on brain and spinal cord
material to the extent defined by veterinary investigations in order to determine the

35
 limits of the outbreak and provide evidence of eradication and ongoing freedom from
disease following the response.
 After eradication, permanent quarantine of at-risk animals with clinical examination
every three months for life.

BSE is an Animal Health Australia Category 2 disease under the government–industry EAD
Response Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 2 diseases are those for which
costs will be shared 80% by government and 20% by industry.

Classical swine fever (Hog Cholera)

 Characteristics: Highly infectious, contagious disease causing generalized septicaemia.
 Aetiology: Pestivirus of Flaviviridae with antigenic relationship with BVD (mucosal disease)
in cattle and border disease in sheep.
 Occurrence in Australia: 4 outbreaks due to imported pig meat or swill-feeding.
 Morbidity and mortality: Morbidity 100% and mortalities of 90% in acute outbreaks.
 Mode of transmission: Direct or indirect contact with the secretion and excretions of
infected pigs, swill-feeding and intrauterine (virus can cross the placenta).
 Source of infection: Carriers due to inadequate vaccination or vaccination breakdown and
secretions and excretions of infected pigs.
 Clinical findings: The incubation period is 2-6 days. 3 forms of the disease:
 Acute form: (5-21 days) death after sudden onset of fever, severe depression, anorexia,
huddling together (piling one on top of the others), staggering when forced to move then
even convulsions and trembling. Red or purple skin blotching on the ears, snout, limbs
and abdomen. Constipation then diarrhea and vomiting.
 Chronic form: (30 days or more) death with secondary bacterial infection usually S.
choleraesuis. Pustulated or encrusted skin lesions, fever, ill-thrift, pneumonia, loss of
appetite, and diarrhea.
 Mild form: reproductive failure (abortion and stillbirth) or congenital deformities in
piglets and tremors (titanic then clonic) due to cerebellar hypoplasia.
 Necropsy: All necropsy findings will not be diagnostic unless accompanied by the clinical
and epizootological evidence of the disease. They can occur in other diseases, particularly
salmonellosis and ASF.
 Diagnosis: A highly infectious fatal disease with a course of 5 – 7 days with Leucopenia
(severe), necropsy findings. Fluorescent antibody techniques, ELISA are the most reliable
diagnostic procedures.
 Differential diagnosis: same as ASF.
 Treatment: Only hyper immune serum in the very early stages of the illness.
 Control: Classical swine fever (CSF) is an OIE-listed disease that has the potential for rapid
spread with significant production losses. It is of major importance in international trade of
pigs and pig products. The response policy with regard to an outbreak of CSF will be
determined by how early the outbreak is detected, the extent of the outbreak, and the
location of affected premises, virus virulence factors, and whether feral pigs are involved.
The default policy is to control and eradicate the disease in the shortest possible time
using stamping out, supported by a combination of general strategies, in addition to:
 Early recognition and laboratory confirmation of cases.
 Treatment or destruction and disposal of pig products likely to be contaminated, to
reduce the source of infection.
 Recall of suspect pig products.

The default policy will apply if the disease is not known to be widespread, the infected/suspect
population is discrete and able to be controlled and the destruction and disposal of infected
herds are manageable. Vaccination may be used in certain circumstances, especially if
stamping out is failing to control the spread of infection (Beware that the method of
vaccination is incriminated in producing “carriers”).

36
CSF is an Animal Health Australia Category 3 disease under the government–industry
Emergency Animal Disease Response Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 3
diseases are those for which costs will be shared 50% by government and 50% by industry.

Equine influenza
 Characteristics: acute highly contagious viral disease which can cause rapidly spreading
outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses and other equine spp.
 Aetiology: EI type A of the family Orthomyxoviridae. The virus has a lipid envelope and
doesn't survive long outside the host.
 Occurrence: Endemic in Europe (except Ireland), north and South America.
 Occurrence in Australia: Australia and NZ are the only countries free of infection.
 Susceptibility: All species of the family equidae (horse, mules, donkeys, zebra).
 Mode of transmission:
 Aerosol from virus laden cough (coughing horse can spread EI virus 35 metres).
Windborne spread from premises over distances up to 8 kilometres was reported.
 Contaminated horse transport vehicles, equipment, grooms, veterinary surgeons,
trainers and other people in close contact with horses. No vector transmission.
 Clinical findings:
 Incubation period is 2-3 days in susceptible populations (up to 7-10 days).
 Fever, dry hacking cough, watery nasal discharges which may later become
mucopurulent, depression, loss of appetite, laboured breathing, muscle pain, muscle
stiffness. Previously healthy adult horses usually recover from uncomplicated EI within
10 days, although coughing may persist for longer. Relatively high case mortality rates
have been recorded in young foals, donkeys and older horses debilitated by intercurrent
disease or malnutrition.
 Diagnosis: Confirmation of diagnosis may be made by virus isolation; by detection of viral
antigen from nasopharyngeal swabs, nasal swabs or nasal or tracheal washings; or by
serology. Virus titres are highest during the initial 24–48 hours of fever, usually the second
or third day after infection. This is the best time to sample for detection of virus.
 Differential diagnosis: Bacterial bronchopneumonia/pleuropneumonia, EHV-1 & 4, EVA,
EIA, strangles, Hendra, the pulmonary from of AHS, inflammatory airway disease due to
exposure to environmental irritants, parasitic infections including Ascaris and lung worm.
 Treatment: Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment registered for use in EI.
Although expensive, antiviral drugs developed for human use could conceivably be used in
the future for the prevention of disease or the treatment of particularly valuable horses in
the face of an influenza outbreak. Recommendations for treatment of EI involve isolation,
resting of affected horses in a dust-free, well-ventilated environment, and supportive
therapy. At least 30 days complete rest is recommended after infection, with a longer
period being required if the fever extends for more than 4 days. After 30 days rest, only
light exercise is recommended for a further 4 weeks. Rest reduces the opportunity for
secondary infection, hastens complete recovery and thereby decreases the output of
infective virus.
 Control: Equine influenza (EI) is an OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health, formerly
Office International des Epizooties)-listed disease that has the potential for very rapid
spread, and the potential to cause illness, deaths in young foals and debilitated or old
horses, and loss of performance. It is important in the international movement of horses.
The default policy to control EI is to follow the general strategy with no stamping out and
in addition to the following:
 Quarantine and movement control of equine, their products and other potentially
contaminated items to prevent spread of infection (national movement standstill-
prohibiting all new horse movements into, out of or within a declared area unless a
permit has been issued. Continued movement of low-risk horses, in transit at the time
the standstill is declared, will be permitted for a specified period. The standstill will be
triggered by the NMG acting on the advice of the CCEAD, as soon as laboratory
diagnosis is confirmed or, based on strong suspicion, where circumstances warrant.
37
  Decontamination of facilities, equipment and other items to eliminate the spread of
infection from isolated animals and premises should take place. All horse handlers,
including veterinarians, trainers, jockeys, equine dental technicians, farmers, branders
and chiropractors, need to implement a policy of rigorous personal disinfection and
hygiene when moving between properties, whether in the RA, the CA or a wider area.
 Tracing and surveillance to determine the source and extent of infection and (Horses
on DCP will be kept under quarantine and surveillance for at least 10 days after the
last contact with IP, other horses, transport vehicles, etc).
 There are no criteria for zoning for EI in the OIE territorial code.
 Disposal by burial or burning of dead horses will be impractical in many situations,
given the close proximity of dense human populations. It will therefore be essential to
maintain knackery services for IP and within the RA and CA.
 Wild animal control in areas where feral horses are in close proximity to domestic
horses, the latter should be confined at least 50 metres away from feral horses (double
fencing).
 Vaccination of horses reduces the incidence and the severity of clinical signs. It may be
approved if:
o The disease is widespread when detected.
o Significant numbers of horses are at immediate risk; or
o Initial control methods have failed, and the disease has spread beyond the original
restricted area (RA) and is likely to become endemic in the general equine
population.

The disease would result in serious economic loss within the equine industry due to the
morbidity and mortality expected in a naive population, the constraints placed on the
movements of animals for an unknown period, and the ongoing costs of any vaccination
program. Equine influenza is an Animal Health Australia Category 4 disease under the
government–industry Emergency Animal Disease Response Agreement for cost-sharing
arrangements. Category 4 diseases are those for which costs will be shared 20% by
government and 80% by industry.

FMD
 Aetiology: aphthovirus of Picornaviridae, 7 immunologically distinct serotypes. The virus
remains infective in the environment for several weeks and possible longer in organic
material. It is inactivated by post mortem acidification and from milk by pasteurization. It
is killed in hide after 20 hours in saturated brine. It also can be killed by sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and citric or acetic acid.
 Occurrence: Europe and south-east Asia are the areas of highest threat to Australia.
 Occurrence in Australia: The most significant risk of entry of FMD is through illegal entry
of inadequately treated meat and dairy products. These could be brought in by passengers
on aircraft or ships, or could be sent through the post and garbage discarded by fishing
vessels or yachts. In Australia, there were minor outbreaks of possible FMD. The last
incident occurred in Victoria as a result of the import of a bull from England. Two farms
were involved before the disease was eradicated.
 Morbidity and mortality: Morbidity approaches 100%. May cause sudden death in calves of
up to 20%.
 Susceptibility: Cattle, sheep, goat, pig, occasionally human but clinically mild.
 Mode of transmission:
 Animals in close proximity (highly contagious).
 The virus is easily spread by equipment and personnel.
 Wind-borne transmission can occur for many kilometres.
 A typical scenario for the introduction of FMD into a previously clear area is for pigs to
be fed imported food derived from an infected animal (as meat, offal, or milk); virus then
spreads by aerosol from the infected pigs to cattle.

38
 Source of infection: Pigs act as amplifying hosts, infected sheep and goat are silent hosts
and some recovered cattle remain long term carriers (carrying virus in the pharynx for up
to 3.5 years).
 Clinical findings: The incubation period is 2-14 days. Fever, anorexia, depression, drop in
milk production, stomatitis, ropey salivation, vesicles full of clear straw coloured fluid,
rapidly enlarge and rupture within 24 hours (heal within 7 days). Concurrent development
of vesicles on coronary band, rupture causing lameness (Cattle salivate and stamp their
feet). Vesicles may also appear on the teats and udder, particularly of lactating cows and
sows predisposing to mastitis, and on areas of skin subject to pressure and trauma, such
as the legs of pigs (the complete horn of the toe may be lost). In sheep and goat: lesions are
uncommon in mouth; tend to occur in the gums and dental pads, sloughing of epithelium
without vesicle formation. Young calves, lambs, kids, and piglets may die before showing
any vesicles because of virus-induced damage to the developing cells of the myocardium.
 Diagnosis: culturing a sample of pharyngeal mucus and superficial cells on primary bovine
thyroid cells. ELISA detects virus antigens in vesicular fluid (results within 3–4 hours). A
negative result to these tests does not confirm the absence of FMD, and definitive diagnosis
then depends on virus isolation in tissue culture (24–48 hours or longer if passaging is
required). AAHL can now also offer Taqman® PCR (polymerase chain reaction) as an extra
rapid and reliable diagnostic test. Specimens should initially be sent to the state or
territory diagnostic laboratory, from where they will be forwarded to the CSIRO Australian
Animal Health Laboratory (CSIRO-AAHL), Geelong for emergency disease testing, after
obtaining the necessary clearance from the chief veterinary officer (CVO) of the state or
territory of the disease outbreak and after informing the CVO of Victoria about the
transport of the specimens to Geelong. Unpreserved tissue and blood specimens should be
forwarded with water ice or frozen gel packs (dry ice if a delay of more than 48 hours is
expected) in an AAHL-approved specimen transport container. Unless oesophageal–
pharyngeal fluid samples will be received at the laboratory the same day, they should be
frozen and packed with dry ice.
 Differential diagnosis:
 Exotic viral disease: swine vesicular disease, vesicular stomatitis, vesicular exanthema,
rinderpest, blue tongue, Peste de petits ruminants.
 Endemic infectious diseases: mucosal disease, bovine papular stomatitis, bovine
ulcerative mammalitis, pseudocowpox, bovine malignant catarrh, IBR/Infectious
Pustular Vulvovaginitis, dermatophilus infection, contagious ecthyma (scabby mouth).
 Dermatitis: scalding, wetting, contact dermatitis, photosensitization.
 Phytophotodermatitis.
 Lameness: laminitis, hoof abscess, bad floors, new concrete, mud.
 Control: FMD is an OIE-listed disease and represents the greatest threat to Australia’s
livestock industries and export markets. It has the potential for rapid and extensive
spread, and an outbreak would jeopardise the export of all cloven-hoofed animals and their
products, at least in the short term. Control of FMD relies on 3 basic topics:
 Preventing contact between susceptible animals and FMD virus  quarantine.
 Stopping the production of virus by infected animals  decontamination.
 Increasing the resistance of susceptible animals  vaccination.
 The policy is to eradicate FMD in the shortest possible time, while limiting economic
impact, using the general strategies besides:
 Possible pre-emptive depopulation of susceptible animals to minimize spread of
infection.
 A risk-based national stock standstill (airborne disease) to be implemented on the
diagnosis of FMD or possibly on strong suspicion of FMD.
 Vaccination may be approved in certain circumstances:
o If the disease spreads beyond control.
o To protect large animal concentrations.
o To limit infection and minimise virus production.

39
FMD is an Animal Health Australia Category 2 disease under the government–industry EAD
Response Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 2 diseases are those for which
costs will be shared 80% by government and 20% by industry.

New Castle Disease

 Aetiology: Avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1); Velogenic (highly virulent), Mesogenic
(moderate pathogenicity) and Lentogenic (low pathogenicity). The virus is heat stable but it
is susceptible to alkali and acids, and highly susceptible to disinfectants. Direct sunlight
inactivates the virus in 30 minutes.
 Occurrence: Outbreak in NSW in 1998. Avirulent strains are endemic in Australia.
 Occurrence in Australia: Entry to Australia by smuggling of birds, particularly pigeons and
parrots (which have the potential to be nonclinical carriers).
 Susceptibility: Infective for almost all avian species; both domestic and wild.
 Mode of transmission: Spread by wind, fomites (most important method of transmission).
 Clinical findings: IP is usually 2-6 days (up to 15 days)
 Velogenic Viscerotropic: high mortality, haemorrhagic enteritis.
 Velogenic neurotropic: high mortality, respiratory and nervous signs.
 Mesogenic: low mortality, respiratory signs usually predominate.
 Lentogenic: mild respiratory disease or subclinical infection.
 Avirulent: no noticeable clinical signs of infection.
 In adult layers a marked drop in egg production may be the first sign followed in 1-2
days by mortality which may reach 100%.
 Clinical signs noted may be: sudden drop in egg production, abnormal shaped eggs or
soft shells with loss of normal pigment, loss of appetite, fever, weakness, swelling and
cyanosis of the comb and wattle, bright green or bloody diarrhoea, respiratory signs
(coughing, increase respiratory rate, respiratory distress), nervous signs ( loss of
balance, circling, stiff neck, wing and leg paralysis).
 Diagnosis: ND or AI should be suspected in birds whenever sudden deaths follow severe
depression, loss of appetite, nervous signs and a drastic drop in egg production with
production of abnormal eggs. Samples must be taken from live, clinically affected birds and
dead birds  serum, cloacal and tracheal swabs in phosphate buffered glycerol or fresh
faeces from live birds and alimentary tract, respiratory tissue, brain, heart and kidneys
from dead birds).
 Differential diagnosis:
 NDV and AI of chicken and turkeys are usually indistinguishable on clinical
examination and post mortem.
 ILT, IB, botulism, Marek’s disease, egg drop syndrome, acute Pasteurellosis, acute
salmonellosis.
 Control: Newcastle disease (ND) is an OIE-listed disease that has the potential for rapid
spread and is important in the export, import and domestic trade in poultry, other birds
and their products. The policy is to eradicate ND in the shortest possible time, using the
most appropriate strategy and taking into account whether the ND virus is of Australian or
exotic origin, while limiting economic impact on the industry. This will be achieved using
the general strategies in addition to the following:
 A restricted area RA (1-5 km radius), a control area CA (2-10 km radius) are defined
airborne spread.
 Vaccination that is nationally coordinated with stamping out and is under the strict
control of the CVO.
 An uncontrolled outbreak of exotic ND would cause severe production losses with
consequent dislocation and financial losses in the poultry and related industries. It will
therefore be necessary to act immediately and effectively to control and then eradicate
the disease.
 There are already low-virulence strains of ND that cause no economic loss in Australian
poultry flocks. ND virus isolates need to be pathotyped to define their virulence.

40
 Australian-origin ND can only be eradicated if the precursor Lentogenic viruses are also
eradicated and this is likely only if a long-term vaccination strategy is in place.
 ND has no public health implications for people not occupationally exposed.
 Vaccine-induced immunity only lasts for 10–12 weeks. To maintain adequate
protection, repeated vaccinations are needed.
 Parental immunity also interferes with vaccine effectiveness. Vaccination programs are
therefore often delayed until chicks are 1–2 weeks old. Lentogenic virus vaccines (live
attenuated) are generally administered by eye drop, in drinking water, by aerosol or
intranasally. The advantages of vaccination with live vaccines arise from their relative
inexpensiveness, stimulation of local immunity and ease of application through mass
medication, as well as from their ability to protect soon after vaccination. The
disadvantage of Lentogenic virus vaccines is their capacity to produce disease in
association with complicating infections such as infectious bronchitis and other
respiratory infections; for this reason, very low pathogenic viruses are used for initial
vaccination and this, in turn, requires multiple vaccinations. Oil-based, inactivated
vaccines are widely used and are usually injected intramuscularly. Killed vaccines are
used mainly to vaccinate layers and breeders previously vaccinated with Lentogenic
vaccine.

Criteria for proof of freedom:

The OIE Terrestrial Code for ND states that a country may be considered free from ND when
the disease has not been present for at least three years. If the disease appears in a free
country where a stamping-out eradication policy is practised, with or without vaccination
against ND, a period of at least six months must elapse after the occurrence of the last case
before the country can be declared free again; if stamping out is not carried out with or
without vaccination, ND freedom status can be attained three years after the last case.

ND is an Animal Health Australia Category 3 disease under the government– industry EAD
Response Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 3 diseases are those for which
costs will be shared 50% by government and 50% by industry.

 Strategy for an established disease:

 Continue stamping out;
 Continue stamping out with compulsory vaccination;
 Compulsory vaccination without stamping out; or
 Relaxation of all controls and allow voluntary vaccination.

Rabies
 Characteristics: Invariably fatal viral encephalitis affecting all worm blooded animals;
characterized by a unique mode of transmission (usually the bite of a rabied animal) and a
long and variable incubation period ranges from 4 days to several years depending on the
strain and the amount of virus injected and the degree of sensor innervation of the bite
site. Humans can be exposed to the disease via a range of hosts.
 Aetiology: Lyssavirus (Rhabdoviridae) is comparatively fragile and does not survive for long
periods outside the host.
 Epidemiology:
 Urban cycle: Occur as a result of unvaccinated strays dog develop furious rabies can
spread the disease to new areas.
 Sylvatic (wildlife) cycle  Europe by red fox (spread if >1fox/ 5km2), Africa by jackal,
USA by Skunks, foxes, racoons, insectivorous bats, South America by vampire bats.
 Occurrence: World wide except for Australia, New Zealand, Japan.
 Morbidity and mortality: Death in all animals may occur between 7-10 days after the onset
of clinical signs.
 Susceptibility:
 Very highly susceptible (foxes, coyotes, jackals, wolves, kangaroo rats)
41
  Highly susceptible (hamsters, raccoons, domestic cats, bats, bob cats, rodents, cattle)
 Moderately susceptible (dogs, sheep, horses, non human primates)
 Mode of transmission: Transmission generally by contamination of fresh wound (usually
bite) with infected saliva (not every case of exposure leads to disease in human - minor
wounds 0.1%, severe wounds 60%). The virus remains at inoculation site for significant
part of the incubation period. Virus excretion in saliva may occur just before the onset of
clinical signs.
 Source of infection: In Australia the main carriers would include dogs and foxes.
 Clinical findings: Incubation period is generally 4-8 weeks.
 Dogs: prodromal phase (lasts 2-3 days, fever, anorexia, malaise, infection site may be
pruritic. Sudden change in temperament  dog that was normally friendly toward
people suddenly becomes snappy, uncertain and shy); Acute neurological phase (lasts
3-7 days with reversal of demeanour  2 syndromes, Furious aimless running and
attacking inanimate objects and progressing ataxia, convulsion and ascending
paralysis. some dogs may alternate between the two); Dumb rabies (75% of cases,
rarely bites, lethargic, muscle tremors, paralytic phase develop  starts from the hind
legs to the jaw before death from paralysis of respiratory muscle).
 Cats: Clinical signs are generally similar to those of dog, but the furious form occurs in
about 75% of cases.
 Horses: Excitation/aggression interspersed with quietness, excess salivation, and self
mutilation, mortality 100%.
 Cattle: Initial depression and cessation of milk production, grinding teeth and excess
salivation (chocking), head butt or attack object or other animal, may bellow in low
pitched voice, increased sexual activity, paralysis develops; the animal loses balance,
become comatose and dies.
 Sheep: Multiple cases existing at the same time in a flock. Excitements, Sexual
excitement in rams, aggressiveness (butting), walking restless, salivation, grind teeth
followed by paralysis and recumbency, fleece pulling. Sheep generally die within 72
hours of the onset of clinical signs.
 Pigs: stand in darkness, bite if provoked, killing of piglets and increasing dullness and
paralysis.
 Foxes: Both dumb and furious forms occur. Normal fear of people and other animal is
lost.
 Necropsy: Just histopathology: presence of negri bodies in neurons.
 Differential diagnosis:
 Dogs: Canine distemper, infectious canine hepatitis, pseudorabies (Aujeszky’s), trauma
or foreign body in the pharynx, poisons (lead), and acute psychosis in dog and cat.
 Horses: Equine viral encephalomyelitis, Equine encephalosis and equine
encephalomalacia.
 Control: Rabies is an OIE List B disease that is of socioeconomic and major public health
importance. The policy is to eradicate rabies quickly for public health reasons and to
prevent spread to both domestic and wild animals. This will be achieved through the
general strategies besides:
 No stamping out.
 Vaccination of all domesticated carnivores in declared areas to protect animals against
infection and reduce exposure to humans.
 Vaccination and/or destruction of wild carnivores if disease establishes in these
populations.
 Reason for control: It is the public health significance of rabies that makes it an important
exotic animal disease. Its prevention, control and eradication are primarily driven by the
necessity to prevent spread to people.
 Safety precautions:
 Potentially rabid animals should be approached with extreme caution. Every effort
should be made to capture and safely confine them. Nets or dog catching poles with
stout rope or wire loops may be used for small animals and ropes or other restraint for
large animals.
42
  Modern rabies vaccines that afford a high level of immunity are available for dogs, cats
and domestic livestock species. These are broadly classified into three types:
o Attenuated (live) virus vaccines, e.g. ERA.
o Inactivated nervous tissue vaccines, e.g. suckling mouse brain origin (SMBO).
o Inactivated tissue culture vaccines.
 Safety problems have been experienced with some attenuated virus vaccines, with
occasional field reports of vaccine-induced rabies in dogs and cats. For this reason, it is
recommended that only inactivated tissue culture vaccines be used for parenteral
vaccination of domestic animals in Australia.
 Immunisation of humans would be under the control of medical authorities. The
introduction of rabies would have significant public health implications and social effects,
particularly if the disease became widespread or established in stray or wild animal
populations. There would also be environmental and conservation concerns. The
movement of pet animals in the international arena would be subject to greater restrictions
but the effect on trade would be minimal.

Screw worm
 Aetiology: New world screw worm fly and old world screw worm fly (Obligatory parasite).
 Epidemiology: Eggs laid in fresh wounds only  eggs hatch in 12 hours  larvae in wound
up to 7 days  pupate in ground  female and male flies mate only once (basis of
eradication plan is to release of Cobalt irradiated sterile males).
 Seasonality: Hot, humid weather is essential for fly development (found in tropical areas –
Africa, Asia, Americas).
 Susceptibility: All worm blooded animals (Cattle and sheep are the preferred hosts).
 Mode of transmission: The navel region of the newborn and the vulval or perineal region of
the dam after parturition. Dehorning, tail docking, castration, ear tagging and mulesing of
sheep in Australia would be ideal for SWF.
 Clinical findings: Larvae vigorously and deeply invade tissue (often only posterior spirals of
the worm visible in wound) causing extensive tissue damage, foul smelling exudates which
attract further flies. Affected animals wander restlessly. If untreated death of animal is
likely. Wounds heal rapidly following treatment.
 Differential diagnosis: SWF should be included in a differential diagnosis whenever fly
strike occurs in cattle e.g. Warble fly infestation.
 Control: Both New World and Old World SWF are listed OIE diseases. The policy to
eradicate SWF as soon as possible to minimise its economic and ecological impacts,
initially using the general strategies, plus:
 Declared areas will consist of restricted areas (RAs), with suggested radii of 150 km
from known infested premises (IPs), and control areas (CAs) surrounding each RA. The
dimensions of CAs will depend on local circumstances but could extend up to 150 km
from the RA.
 Monitoring of abattoirs saleyards, livestock export facilities, ports and trapping of adult
SWF.
 Population suppression by a large scale prophylaxis in declared areas where
appropriate.
 Treatment of individual animals and groups to prevent or cure infestation especially
before movement.
 Decontamination and disinsection of larval-contaminated areas, equipment and other
material held could act as a medium for pupation (Manure or soil in vehicles or
contained areas).
 In addition, once suitable facilities are established sterile insect technique (SIT) to
control and eradicate the fly may be implemented. Successful eradication could take
several years to achieve. Old World or New World SWF could cause major disruption to
many animal industries if either became established. The trade in the export of live
animals may be marginally affected.

43
  Stamping out is not needed for the control of SWF. Some individual animals may be
destroyed on animal welfare grounds.

SWF is a Category 2 disease under the government–industry Emergency Animal Disease (EAD)
Response Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 2 diseases are those for which
operational costs will be shared 80% by government and 20% by industry.

Tuberculosis
 Characteristics: infectious, chronic respiratory disease characterised by the formation of
nodular granulomas or tubercles within the respiratory system, and possibly in other parts
of the body.
 Aetiology: Mycobacterium bovis is an obligate intracellular organism; susceptible to drying
and ultraviolet light, but is relatively resistant to detergents and moderate changes in pH.
 Occurrence in Australia: Australia was declared a ‘Free Area in respect to Bovine
Tuberculosis’ on 31 December 1997.
 Susceptibility: cattle, water buffalo, deer, goats and a wide range of other animal species.
 Mode of transmission: inhalation of infectious aerosols (most common - lesions are found
in either the lymph nodes of the head or in the thoracic cavity), and ingestion of infectious
material from drinking infected milk or ingesting contaminated pasture or feed.
 Immunity: Bovine TB can progress within weeks or years, depending on the immunity of
the host, the size and frequency of the infectious dose and host genetics. In many cases,
infection will be localised and cleared by the immune system, such that disease never
develops.
 Clinical findings: pyrexia, anorexia, emaciation, dyspnoea, enlargement of LNs, and
coughing particularly with advanced TB. Although normally a chronic debilitating disease,
bovine TB can assume a more acute, rapidly progressive course.
 Necropsy: abscess-like lesions commonly referred to as granulomas or tubercles. The area
of the body affected is usually related to the route of entry. Because of the frequency of
respiratory transfer, lesions are often seen in the lungs and associated lymph nodes.
 Diagnosis: Specimens must be collected using strict aseptic technique that avoids slicing
at the time of collection. If lesions are found, at least three are collected for culture.
 Differential diagnosis: Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, non pathogenic Mycobacterial
granulomas, Rhodococcus equi, Nocardia, neoplasm, foreign body abscesses, hydatid cyst.
 Zoonosis: Humans can also become infected through inhalation of infectious aerosols and
through direct exposure of cuts and abrasions (known as ‘butcher’s wart’).
 Control: Bovine TB is an OIE-listed disease that is significant in the international trade of
livestock and livestock products. TB is also a zoonosis and a safety hazard in human food.
The disease response policy is to find all cases, to determine the extent and origin of the
disease in the livestock population, and then to eradicate the disease using a ‘whole herd
depopulation’ approach. A number of strategies to achieve and then verify eradication will
be used, including the following:
 Initial quarantine will occur for all cattle and any other at-risk susceptible livestock on
affected and suspect premises. Since TB is spread through close contact, only in
exceptional circumstances would it be necessary to establish a restricted or control
area.
 Epidemiological investigations will be undertaken to identify the source of infection.
Cattle and other at-risk livestock that might have been infected by exposure will be
permanently identified. Full laboratory characterisation of any isolate is recommended
for comparison with the TB reference collection. Traceback may need to consider all
movements of animals over the preceding 10–15 years.
 The confirmed case or cases, and part or all of their herds, will be destroyed and
disposed of, depending on the findings of veterinary investigations. The preferred
approach is removal of all at-risk populations with possible exposure. Destruction and
disposal plans will be documented in an Approved Property Program.

44
  Surveillance and monitoring will be undertaken using the tuberculin test and carcase
inspection in the field and checks at abattoirs, in order to determine the limits of the
outbreak and provide evidence of eradication and ongoing freedom from disease
following the response. The extent of surveillance and monitoring will be determined by
veterinary investigations.
 Any remaining at-risk animals will be permanently identified and subjected to a
program of early slaughter.
 TB vaccines have never been used in cattle in Australia, although BCG has been used
to control human TB.

Detection of granulomas at meat inspection is the usual way in which tuberculosis (TB) is
found. The National Granuloma Submission Program (NGSP) and a later, more risk-based
version of this program (NGSP2) used during the second phase of the Tuberculosis Freedom
Assurance Program (TFAP2), aimed to maximise the number of granulomas from cattle
detected at post mortem inspection and submitted for laboratory examination.

Bovine TB is a category 3 in the cost sharing agreement.

Endemic diseases:
Anthrax
 Characteristics: Anthrax is an acute infectious bacterial disease affects humans and a wide
range of domestic and wild animals.
 Aetiology: Bacillus anthracis, a large gram +ve rod, destroyed by the putrefactive process of
post-mortem change.
 Occurrence in Australia: sporadic cases occur in Central NSW and northern and north-
eastern Victoria.
 Mode of transmission: ingestion of spore that germinate in tissues or through the skin to
cause cutaneous infection.
 Clinical findings: peracute (sudden death within few hours), acute (death occur in 24
hours), subacute (lasts for several days and may end with recovery).
 Necropsy: Blood stained discharges from external orifices with a failure of blood to clot. If
the carcase is opened there will be dark, unclotted blood and enlarged haemorrhagic
spleen (cattle > sheep, pig and horse). Petechial haemorrhage may be seen in other internal
organs. Rigor mortis doesn't occur.
 Diagnosis: air dried smear of blood collected from peripheral vessel of the ear or leg (you
may cut off the ear and put it in a doubled plastic bag and send to the lab). B anthracis
can grow on blood agar plates. Special diagnostic tests such as ELISA have been developed
to detect AB against anthrax.
 Differential diagnosis: black leg (clostridium chauvoei), black disease (clostridium novyi),
malignant edema (clostridium septicum), enterotoxaemia (clostridium perfringens type D).
 Zoonosis: classically causes three types of infection in human  affecting the lung
(pulmonary from), the digestive system (intestinal form) or the skin (cutaneous form).
 Control: Anthrax is an OIE-listed animal disease that has the potential to affect many
animals within a herd. It is important in the trade of livestock and is a significant public
health issue. Anthrax is a notifiable disease in all states/territories of Australia. The policy
is to control anthrax in Australia using the general strategies in addition to:
 Epidemiological investigation to promptly identify the source of infection and record where
anthrax has occurred in livestock.

45
 Regular vaccination of susceptible livestock located on sites with a known history of
anthrax to prevent cases occurring.
 Prompt vaccination and/or treatment of exposed livestock.
 In unusual outbreaks, establishment of a vaccination zone around IPs.
 Vaccination: a single vaccination is usually effective for 6-12 months using live virus
vaccine of the naturally avirulent strain (WHP is 42 days to clear off meat for human
consumption).
 Ensuring the safety of livestock products by preventing potentially infected livestock and
livestock products from being processed for human or animal consumption or industrial
use.

OIE member countries should notify OIE within 24 hours of confirmed presence of anthrax.

An uncontrolled outbreak of anthrax would cause severe production losses to the affected
producers with potential dislocation and financial losses to the livestock industries from
effects on exports. There is serious potential for fatal human disease.

A major outbreak of anthrax is an Animal Health Australia Category 3 disease under the
government– industry EAD Response Agreement for cost-sharing arrangements. Category 3
diseases are those for which costs will be shared 50% by government and 50% by industry.

Footrot

 Characteristics: infectious and contagious bacterial disease of sheep and goats and
occasionally cattle that causes serious economic loss due to lameness and disruption of
normal farm operation.
 Aetiology: Dichelobacter nodosus; its virulence depends on its ability to underrun the horn
of the foot. It can survive off sheep for no longer than 7 days; however, can remain alive in
sheep feet indefinitely. It could be killed by dry heat, sunlight, cold, dry environment and a
number of different chemicals. Formalin and Zinc Sulphate (radicate) are the registered
chemicals.
 Seasonality: spring.
 Susceptibility: Merinos are the most susceptible even to the benign strains.
 Mode of transmission: Foot to foot spread via pasture or mud.
 Immunity: Previously exposed sheep do not develop significant natural immunity or
resistance.
 Clinical findings: Mild reddening of the interdigital skin, grey pasty scum between digits
with characteristic foul smell, progressive lameness, underrunning of the horn around the
heel, toe, sole and finally to the outside hoof wall, and complete separation of the horn of
the hoof.
 Diagnosis: Physical examinations of as many animals as possible then follow up over a
couple of weeks. Lab confirmation, scoring, environment examination.
 Treatment and control:
 Foot-bathing: walk through or stand in Zinc sulphate 10% or Formalin 5% (5-10 min).
 Antibiotics injection.
 Vaccination – minimum 2 doses - 6 weeks apart and a booster every 10 weeks during
spread conditions.
 Eradicate in summer by culling of infected mobs.

Hendra
 Characteristics: acute onset, fever and rapid progression to death associated with either
respiratory or neurological signs, usually fatal (>70%).

46
 Aetiology: Henipavirus of Paramyxoviridae.
 Occurrence in Australia: firstly at Hendra, Brisbane; then several cases from Cairns to
northern New South Wales
 Seasonality:
 Susceptibility:
 Mode of transmission: ingestion of contaminated horse feed or water.
 Source of infection: fruit-eating bats (flying foxes) bodily fluids, including saliva, urine and
birthing fluids.
 Immunity:
 Clinical findings: IP is 5-16 days and fatality, 2 days post first signs started
 Necropsy:
 Diagnosis:
 Differential diagnosis:
 Zoonosis: serious due to exposure during post-mortem of infected animals or while caring
for clinically sick horses. There is no evidence of human-to-human spread or human-to-
horse spread of Hendra virus.
 Control: Hendra virus is not an OIE listed disease. The policy of National disease response
strategy is to eradicate Hendra virus infection through:
 All suspected cases in horses must be reported to Biosecurity Queensland - part of the
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F) or Emergency disease watch
hotline.
 Destruction and sanitary disposal of all infected horses or other terrestrial animals
upon demonstration of antibodies.
 Disinfection of the immediate contaminated environment.
 Quarantine of all in-contact animals until repeated tests have indicated the absence of
the disease.
 Tracing and limited surveillance to determine the source and extent of infection and to
provide proof of freedom from the disease.
 A public awareness campaign to encourage cooperation from industry and the public.
 Key biosecurity risk points is achieved by:
o Ensure all staff understands and follow measures for the prevention, identification
and control of all infectious disease of horses, including Hendra virus infection.
General Biosecurity measures to help prevent disease should be a part of your
regular routine.
o Thoroughly check horses before they enter your property.
o Feed animals away from areas that may be frequented by pest or wild animals,
including flying foxes.
o Secure water sources to ensure they are not contaminated by faeces, particularly
flying fox faeces.
o Always use separate protective clothing and footwear (impervious overalls, boots,
gloves, respiratory mask and face shield) when handling any sick horses.
o Great care should be taken in regard to personal protective measures. In particular,
contact with blood and other body fluids (especially respiratory and nasal
secretions, saliva, and urine).
o Contamination should be avoided but if it occurs, the contaminated skin should be
washed thoroughly with soap and water, ideally by taking a shower. Any cuts or
abrasions that become exposed or contaminated should be cleansed thoroughly with
soap and water. If available, an antiseptic with anti-virus action such as povidone-
iodine, iodine tincture, aqueous iodine solution or alcohol (ethanol) should be
applied after washing.
o When Hendra virus is suspected and potential human exposure occurs, medical
advice should be sought and a Queensland Health Population - Health Unit should
be contacted.
o For the owners: Hendra virus guidelines for horse owners are currently under final
review with input from the horse industry.

47
 Hendra virus is currently included as a Category 2 disease in the EAD Response
Agreement. The costs of disease control would be shared 80% by governments and 20% by
the relevant industries.

Johne’s disease
 Characteristics: chronic, debilitating, contagious granulomatous enteritis.
 Aetiology: Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis. It is quite resistant to environmental
conditions and can survive in feces and soil or pasture for more than a year, however is
relatively susceptible to the sunlight and dryness.
 Occurrence in Australia: 70 years ago. It is now prevalence in the states of Victoria, New
South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia. Western Australia was declared BJD free
zone in August 1999. Queensland and northern territory have traditionally been free from
the disease. 1150 cattle herds approximately in South- east Australia are officially
classified as infected. Zoning is implemented which involves placing different regions of the
country into a certain zone according to the region’s level of disease risk and control.
Restrictions are then placed on the movement of animals between zones and animals have
to meet certain standards for movement.
 Susceptibility: Cattle, sheep, goat, llamas, alpacas and deer. Adult cattle are less likely
becomes infected because resistant increased with age.
 Mode of transmission: Ingestion of contaminated feed or water by feces of infected animals.
Intrauterine infection is common. Calves become infected usually after birth, either
through consumption of colostrums or milk and/or oral fecal route from contaminated
udder soon after birth.
 Source of infection: Feces of infected animal infecting feed and water, carriers, colostrums
and milk of infected cows.
 Clinical findings: Long incubation period, infected animal commonly excrete bacteria in
their feces for 15-18 months before appearance of clinical signs. Cattle  No clinical signs
of disease appear before 2 years of age; persistent diarrhea (thin pea soup), weight loss,
debilitation and death. Sheep  chronic wasting disease with fleece shedding in adult
sheep and emaciation in ewe.
 Necropsy: Intestinal wall thickened with enlarged and oedematous lymph nodes
(Mesenteric, Ileocecal)
 Diagnosis: There are two types of screening test available to test for BJD and OJD in living
animals: Antibody blood tests and fecal culture. ELIZA is the main antibody test. It offers
the highest sensitivity and specificity and is used to determine the infection in herds. In
the Market Assurance Program (MAP), the number of animals sampled is determined by
the size of the herd, the blood test detects antibodies to Johne’s disease bacteria and
results are reported relatively quickly (one or two weeks). Microscopic examination of fecal
smear stained with Ziehl-Neelsen; rectal pinch biopsy. For all species biopsy of terminal
ileum or ileocecal lymph nodes is a definitive diagnosis. It is the most reliable test to detect
the infected animals up to two years before clinical symptoms become apparent, and is
used to confirm positive serological tests but it is more expensive and slower than
serological tests.
 Differential diagnosis:
 Cattle: Salmonellosis, coccidiosis, Helminthiasis, secondary copper deficiency.
 Sheep and Goat: Helminthiasis, Caseous lymphadenitis, Ovine Progressive Pneumonia,
Caprine arthritis/ encephalitis, nutritional deficiency of cobalt and copper.
 Control:
 Reason for control: Johne’s disease in Australia causes some productivity losses in infected
herds and flocks but more importantly, results in restricted access to the market for living
animals because there is strong prejudice in the market against animals from herds and
flocks known to be infected with Johne’s disease. Therefore, a major thrust of national
program to control Johne’s disease is to encourage and provide mechanism for livestock
producers to protect their herds and flocks from infection.

48
 Weaknesses: Eradication is impossible without total depopulation because of the long
incubation period and absence of accurate test to identify clinically normal carrier.
 Herd eradication:
o Test and slaughter positive/reactive:
o Re-test the residual animal at 6-months intervals till 2 consecutive negative herd tests.
o Quarantine.
o Feces of all cows cultured every 6 months.
o Cows with positive cultures and their offspring culled.
o Reduces pasture contamination.
o Total depopulation of all cattle, sheep and goats sold off, and the farm left unstocked
for 3 years.
 Hygiene:
o Control requires good sanitation and management practices aimed at limiting the
exposure of young animals to the organism.
o Calves, kids, or lambs should be birthed in areas free of manure. Removed from the
dam immediately after birth in the case of dairy cattle.
o Bottle-fed colostrums that has been pasteurized or obtained from dams that test
negative.
o Reared segregated young animals from adults.
o Herd replacements should be obtained from herds believed to be free from the disease.
o Avoid fecal contamination of water and feed troughs
o Keep late pregnant cows separate from milking herds
o Calves from clinical cases not reared as herd-replacement.
Leptospirosis
 Characteristics: Contagious disease.
 Aetiology: L hardjo bovis and L Pomona can live for a long time on surface of fresh water,
damp soil, vegetation and mud but are very quickly killed by sunlight.
 Seasonality: hot humid weather.
 Mode of transmission: flooding after heavy rainfall can spread the bacteria to previously
uninfected farms.
 Source of infection: contaminated water, food, pastures and soil with urine and birth or
abortion fluids and carriers as pigs (the main source of infection).
 Clinical findings: Adult cattle (a storm of abortion at 5 months pregnancy, drop in milk
production and/or changes in the milk and udder of a diseased animal) and calves
(jaundice, reddish brown discoloration of the urine).
 Zoonosis: yes.
 Control: considered a herd problem rather than an individual problem. Cattle herds are
protected against leptospirosis by a combination of an effective vaccination program and
proper management.

Strangles
 Characteristics: highly infectious and contagious disease that affects the URT and LNs of
the head of horses of all ages.
 Aetiology: Streptococcus equi subsp. equi
 Occurrence in Australia: NSW, VIC and SA.
 Susceptibility: usually occur in young horses but can infect adults
 Morbidity and mortality: morbidity 100 %, but mortality 1 % if the animals are treated.
 Mode of transmission: coughing or eating.
 Source of infection: contaminated feed or drinking water, utensils and human and carriers.
 Clinical findings: fever, throat area is extremely inflamed, swollen LNs of the head (may
burst and discharge creamy yellow pus) and very painful swallowing.
 Diagnosis: Nasopharyngeal and abscess discharge swab samples should be collected and
sent to the microbiology laboratory in appropriate transport media.
49
 Control: its importance derives from the fact that many countries that trade with Australia
do not have the disease and require Australian horse industry to control the disease. It is
also an important disease because of the disruptions it causes in the management of
commercial horse establishments (economic losses), the time necessary to treat affected
horses and the aesthetic unpleasantness of the draining abscesses and running noses.
Clinically recovered horses can remain carriers for variable periods; however spontaneous
recovery is also possible with the disease. Control can be achieved by:
 Vaccination: in previously vaccinated mares a booster 2-6 weeks before foaling will
provide protection for foals via the colostrum. Foals are vaccinated at 12 weeks of age –
after maternal immunity wears off and are given 3 doses at 2 weeks intervals. Annual
vaccine is recommended (bacterin, live vaccine or M protein) to prevent the disease.
However the vaccine does not give the horses a total protection against strangles.
Horses may need to be vaccinated every six months in high risk situations. The vaccine
reduces the morbidity rate and hence vaccination can be done in the face of an
outbreak (except the live intranasal vaccine which should be given in healthy animals
only). The vaccine is administered by an IM injection and occasionally this causes a
swelling at the site of the injection.
 Prevention of spread of S. equi by stopping movement of horses on and off affected
premises immediately and until the outbreak has been controlled.
 Horses with strangles should be quarantined 6-8 weeks in “contaminated areas” away
from those that are not infected (clean areas) until the affected horses recover (NB
carriers - nasopharyngeal swabs weekly for at least 3 weeks and test them for the
bacterium using culture and PCR. Horses that are consistently negative are returned to
the clean area). Infected horses should be treated with penicillin to reduce the
convalescent period and also to minimize contamination of the environment.
 Personnel working in either the clean area or contaminated area should stick to that
area and not interchange between the two areas. However this is not possible in some
farms because of limited personnel. In such a case uninfected horses are attended to
first, and then infected horses. Strict hygiene should be practiced and disinfectant
facilities should be supplied and used by personnel.
 Equipment should be destroyed after use on affected horses and disposable over-
clothing should be worn, however this is not always possible. Organic material and
faeces should be removed from stables and then appropriate phenolic disinfectants or
steam should be applied. This should be repeated and hence it is labour intensive. The
organic material and faeces should be composted in an isolated location. Water troughs
should be disinfected daily and horse vans should be thoroughly cleaned after each
use.

Endemic Disease Control Programs in Australia

Ovine Johne’s Disease (OJD)
Assurance Based Credit Scheme (ABC) is funded by the industry. It’s a national scheme to
reduce the transmission of OJD through risk assessment of sheep presented for sale, this is
risk based trading. All vendors need to provide an Animal Health Statement (AHS) form with
ABC points. The higher the score is, the higher the assurance of low risk status sheep. Points
are rewarded for area of origin with negative test results and vaccination. There is concern
that spread will still occur in low prevalence areas because of reduced reliance on objective
testing of flocks and the use of vaccine which does not completely prevent shedding of the
organism.
With the ABC scheme properties are not put under quarantine or destocked and can still keep
trading. It’s economically more feasible than the old Sheep MAP.

Bovine Johne’s Disease (BJD)

 National BJD financial and Non-financial assistance package is a new scheme developed
by AHA for the cattle industry and is reviewed annually. The goals of this plan are to:
 Provide assistance to affected producers.

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 Reduce BJD prevalence.
 Remove the stigma associated with BJD infection and reduce emotional stress.

 Beef only - a new assurance category for BJD:

Herds that qualify as beef only can trade into protected zones of NSW, QLD and SA without
herds having to be tested. Audits of written declarations at saleyards have found high level of
compliance with this program.
 National dairy assurance score:
The higher the score is, the lower the risk depending on the location. It is mandatory in NSW
and SA to declare the dairy score of all dairy cattle offered for sale. In all other states it is
voluntary, and can be entered in section 9 in the NVD (a score from 0-10).
 Australian Johne’s disease MAP for cattle (voluntary program).
 Johne’s disease calf assurance program (JDCAP) in Victoria.

The program is managed by Animal Health Australia. This is achieved by a voluntary market
assurance program (MAP) and by the National Guidelines & Standard Definitions and Rules
(SDRs) for zoning in different states of the country and movement controls from one zone to
another.
Victoria has the highest prevalence of BJD, QLD and WA both are free, NSW has some
infected areas.
Victoria has a program called test and control program for infected herds which is funded by
the industry and Victorian government. It offers the producers a way of reducing the level of
infection on their property to be able to trade more freely and get rid of clinical cases on the
farm. It involves frequent testing of animals 4 years and older and any reactor is slaughtered
and compensation is paid.

MAP: a percentage of adult animals in a herd are tested with an ELISA blood test. Enough
animals are tested to provide a 95% confidence interval that less than 2% of the herd is
infected (if any at all). If negative, the herd becomes MN1 (monitored negative1). Repeated
testing at 2 years intervals are conducted, after three rounds the herd can become MN3.
Weakness:
 The MAP is voluntary. Producers may rather remain non-assessed than find out their herd
is positive.
 The ELISA test has a low sensitivity, especially for subclinical infection. So if a herd is MN1
it can still become positive in a later test. About 75% of infected animals are infected
subclinically!
 Producers list Johne’s disease very low on their list of priorities.
 The veterinarian’ must enter into a written agreement with the owner to conduct the
Market Assurance Program (MAP) for Johne’s disease.
Strengths of the program:
 Producers can buy stock from a tested herd (preferably a MN3).
 A test and cull program would not be economically feasible for BJD.
 Industry funded – industry ownership.

Under the scheme veterinarian required to:

 Evaluate the farm and its management.
 Develop a property management program with each producer.
 Carry out specimen collection and follow up reactors.
 Issue official status certificate.
 Notify state authorities.

Sheep Footrot
Footrot is a notifiable disease in most states. WA has a formal eradication program; NSW, SA
and VIC have control programs. In QLD and NT footrot is not a problem.
NSW has a Footrot Strategic Plan in place since 1988 and is now essentially footrot free.
The LHPA (Livestock Health and Pest Authorities) control the program.
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Ovine Brucellosis (OB)
In NSW there is an Ovine Brucellosis Accreditation Scheme for studs. This is also a voluntary
scheme. The rams are palpated for lesions and a blood test is preformed (Complement Fixation
test). The stud owner pays all the costs.

Cattle ticks and Tick Fever

The ticks and the disease are both notifiable when they occur outside the QLD cattle tick
infected zone. Cattle must be treated and inspected for ticks when they enter a free or control
zone from an infected one. Tick fever vaccines are also available.

Arbovirus
National Arbovirus Monitoring Program (NAMP): monitors the distribution of important
arbovirusses namely bluetongue, Akabane and bovine ephemeral fever. It’s funded by the
state and the industries. Data are gathered by serologically testing sentinel herds. Maps are
then made of free and infected areas.

National Hive Sentinel Program

AHA runs the program. Sentinel bee hives and insect traps are placed strategically along the
borders to monitor for exotic bees or exotic bee mites.

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