 Selection of Bridge Site:

 Requirements of an Ideal Bridge:

 Components Parts Of A Bridge:
 Definitions[Ma1]
 Classification of Bridges
 Types of Bridges
 Selection of Bridge Type
 Bridge Loadings
 Loads and Load Combinations
 SUBSTRUCTURE
Introduction : A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way beneath.
 The required passage may be for a road, a railway, pedestrians, a canal or a pipeline.
 The obstacle to be crossed may be a river, a road, railway or valley.

 Selection of Bridge Site:

An ideal site for a bridge across a river should have following characteristics:

 At bridge site the reach of the stream should be
straight.
 The site should be geologically sound i.e. it
should be away from fault zone and should
have unyielding, non-erodible foundation for
abutments and piers.
 At the site, the stream should be narrow with
well-defined and firm banks.
 At site the river flow should be without whirls
and cross currents.
 At the site there should be suitable high banks
above high flood level on each side.
 The approaches should be economical.
 They should not be very high or long or liable
to flank attacks of the river during floods.
 They should be free from obstacle such as hills,
frequent drainage crossings, build up areas,
sacred areas as grave yards, or trouble some
land acquisition etc.
 The site should be at reasonable proximity to a
direct alignment of the road to be connected.
 There should be no sharp curves in the
approaches.
 Absence of costly river training works; where
they are unavoidable they should be executed
in dry as far as possible.
 Avoidance of excessive under water
construction work.
 If it is unavoidable, necessity for the
approaches of the bridge to cross the spill zone
of a river, they should (while processing
through the spill zone towards the river), face
down stream and not up stream.
 Facing up stream will cause heading up, pocket
formation and danger to the approaches.

 Requirements of an Ideal Bridge:

An ideal bridge must meet the following requirements:

 It should be economical.
 It should serve the intended function with safety and convenience.
 It should give aesthetic elegant look.

 Components Parts Of A Bridge:

The bridge structure can be divided into two parts as follows:

A. Superstructure B. Substructure

A. Superstructure: o It is that part of the bridge over which the traffic moves safely.

 It consists of parapet, roadway, girders, arches or trusses over which the road is supported.

B. Substructure: o The function of substructure is similar to that of foundations, columns and walls etc. of a
building.

 Thus the substructure supports the superstructure and distributes the loads to the soil below through
foundation.
 The substructure consists of foundation, piers, abutments, wing walls and approaches.

o Adjoining structure : components like approaches , guard stone, bearing, river training work, apron.
  Selection of Bridge Type
In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range there is more than one
bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the following factors should be considered.

1 · Geometric Condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend on the horizontal and vertical
alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and below the road way. E.g. If the alignment is on a
curve, box and slab type bridges are best options.

2 · Subsurface Conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine whether abutments and piers
can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and etc. The potential for seismic activity at a site should be a part
of the subsurface investigation because this will change details of the substructure. E.g. an inclined leg rigid frame
bridge requires strong foundation

3 · Functional Requirements: Bridge should serve the present and future traffic. E.g. If future widening or
replacement of bridge decks is a concern girder type bridge is best option.

4 · Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge tend to make that aesthetics
statement a good one. This understanding requires training and time.
- When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing appearance occurs when there are an odd
number of spans with span lengths that decrease going up the side of the valley.

- Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be addressed.

- Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as hearing the same music with a heavy beat
that is repeated over and over again can be uncomfortable. Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are
additional aesthetic parameter in bridge design.

5 · Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different bridge types, the
construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken together. A general rule is that the bridge with minimum
number of spans, fewest deck joints and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. By reducing the
number of spans, the construction cost of one pier is eliminated. Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so
minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge, Generally, concrete structures require less
maintenance than steel structures.

6 · Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to be built is often governed by
construction and erection considerations. In general, the larger the prefabricated or precast member, the shorter
the construction time. However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are to transport and lift into
place. Fundamental of Bridge Design 10 The availability of skilled labor and specified materials will also influence
the choice of a particular bridge type.

7 · Legal Considerations: Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the type of bridge.
Definitions
 Valley : A depression in between two banks or
sides with water is known as a valley.
 Viaduct : A deep valley without perennial water is
known as a viaduct.
 Span : The centre to centre distance between two
piers or supports is known as span.
 The clear distance between the two supports is
known as clear span.
 Abutments : The end supports of the super-
structure of a bridge are called abutments.
 They may be either arched shaped or flat.
 Piers : The intermediate supports of the super-
structure are called piers.
 They transfer the load from the super-structure
to the sub-soil through the foundation.
 They are spaced as per design.
 They obstruct the flow of water on the
upstream.
 Abutment Piers : In arch bridges, sometimes,
some of the intermediate supports or piers are
made of a stronger section than others.
 They are designed to function as a abutment,
except retaining and protecting the earth fill.
 Wing Walls : The walls constructed on both sides
of the abutments are called wing walls.
 They support the soil behind them or
embankments of approach roads and also
protect the embankments etc., from the wave
action of the running water
. 
 Approaches: The structures that carry the road or
railway track up to the bridge are known as
approaches. o Generally they are embankments
 Foundations: The structures used for transferring
and distributing the dead load of super-structures,
piers and abutments etc. along with live loads likely
to come on the bridge to soil underneath are known
as foundations
 Scour: The vertical cutting of river bed is called
scour.
 High Flood Level: The highest water level ever
recorded during a flood in a river or stream is
known as high flood level.
 Free Board: The difference between the high flood
level and the level of the crown of the road at its
lowest point is called free board.
 Low Water Level: The lowest or minimum water
level in the stream or river during dry weather is
known as low water level.
 Afflux: The rise in water level of the river near
bridge due to the obstruction created by the
construction of piers is called afflux.
 Water Way: The area of opening sufficient to pass
the maximum flood discharge expected in the river
without increasing velocity of flow beyond safe
limits is called the water way.
 Generally the safe limit of velocity under
bridges is taken as 3.0 m per second.
 Actually for big bridges the water way is
calculated from the formula A=Q/V
 Economic Span: o The length of the span for
which the cost of construction of the bridge will be
least is known as economic span.
 Head Room: o The distance between the highest
point of the vehicle and road using that bridge is
called head room.
It is a very important factor to be
considered in through bridges
 Clearance: The least or minimum distance
between the specified positions of a bridge is called
clearance.
 It may be horizontal as well as vertical.
 The vertical clearance is the clear height from
the HFL to the lowest point of the bridge
structure.
  Classification of Bridges

Bridges may be classified in many ways, as below:

1) According to the flexibility of superstructure as fixed span bridges or movable bridges

a. Fixed span superstructure [Ma2]: In case of fixed span superstructure, the superstructure remains in a fixed
position and most of these bridges are of this category.

b. Movable span bridges: In case of movable span superstructure, the superstructure is lifted or moved with the
help of some suitable arrangement.

2) According to the position of bridge floor relative to the formation level and the highest floor discharge as
deck bridges, through bridges or semi-through bridges

a. Deck bridges: x Deck-type bridges refer to those in which the road deck is carried on the top flange or on the
top of the supporting girders. x The deck slab or sleeper may cantilever out to some extent beyond the extreme
longitudinal girder

b. Through bridges: x In the through type bridges, the decking is supported by the bottom flange of the main
supporting girders provided on either side. c. Semi-through bridges: x The semi-through bridge has its deck midway
and the deck load is transmitted to the girder through the web of the girder. x In this also, the main girders are on
either side of deck.

3) According to the inter-span relations as simple, continuous or cantilever bridges

a. Simply supported: x Generally width of bridge is divided into number of individual spans. x For each span, the
load carrying member is simply supported at both ends. x The plate girder and truss girders are used as this type
of bridges. x They are suitable at places where uneven settlements of foundations are likely to take place.

b. Continuous: x In continuous bridges spans are continuous over two or more supports. x They are statically
indeterminate structures. x They are useful when uneven settlement of supports does not take place. x In
continuous bridges the bending moment anywhere in the span is considerably less than that in case of simply
supported span. x Such reduction of bending moment ultimately results in the economic section for the bridge. x
In continuous bridges the stresses are reduced due to negative moments developed at pier or supports. x Thus
continuous span bridges have considerable saving compared to simply supported bridge construction. o Following
are the advantages of RCC continuous girder bridges over simply supported girder bridges: ƒ As the bearings are
placed on the centre line of piers, the reactions at piers are transmitted centrally. ƒ It is found that the continuous
girder bridge suffers less vibration and deflection. ƒ The continuous girder bridge requires only one bearing at
each pier as against two bearing for simply supported girder bridge. ƒ The depth of decking at mid span is reduced
and it may prove to be useful for over bridges where headroom is of prime consideration. ƒ The expansion joints
required will be less. ƒ There is reduction in cost as less quantity of concrete and steel are required. o Following
are the disadvantages of RCC continuous girder bridges over simply supported girder bridges: ƒ The design is more
complicated as it is a statically indeterminate structure. ƒ The detailing and placing of reinforcements are to be
carried out with extreme care. ƒ The placing of concrete and removal of form work are to be executed carefully in
proper sequence.

c. Cantilever: x A cantilever bridge is formed of cantilevers projecting from supporting piers. x The ends of a
cantilever bridge are treated as fixed. x A cantilever bridge combines the advantages of a simply supported span
and a continuous span. x For long spans and deep valleys and at places where it will not be practicable to use
centering, cantilever bridges are more suitable. x They are suitable in case of uneven settlement of foundation. x
The construction of a cantilever bridge may either be of simple type or of balanced type. x In case of cantilever
bridge with balanced type of construction, hinges are provided at the points of contra flexure of a continuous span
and an intermediate simply supported span is suspended between two hinges.
4) According to the form or type of superstructure as arch, beam, truss, slab, rigid frame or suspension bridges
a. Slab b. Beam c. Girder NOTE: The girder/beam as well as truss can be made up of timber, steel or concrete, or
can be made up of combination of steel and concrete. d. Truss e. Arch f. Suspension NOTE: Suspension bridges are
made up of high tensile steel cables strung in form of catenaries to which the deck is attached by steel suspenders,
which are mainly made up of steel rods/members/cables. The decking can be of timber, concrete or steel spanning
across the stiffening girders transmitting load to the suspenders.

g. Cable Stayed: x Cable-stayed bridges are similar to the suspension bridges excepting that there will be no
suspenders in the cable stayed bridges and a number of these can be of masonry, concrete or steel.

Arch: ƒ For small spans of 3 to 15 m in masonry, steel arch up to 519 m and concrete arches up to 305 m spans.

5) According to the method of clearance for navigation as bascule, lift, swing or transporter bridges

a. Movable-bascule bridges: x In bascule bridges, the main girders are lifted together with deck about the hinge
provided on one end of the span. x Depending upon the width of channel, the bascule bridge may either be single
or double.

c. Movable-lift bridges: x In this case, gantries are provided at the piers at either end of the span and the entire
girder and the floor system is lifted up by a hydraulic arrangement to the extent required for free passage of the
ship.

d. Transporter x In case of transporter bridges, a moving cage is suspended from an overhead truss with the help
of cable or wire ropes. x The overhead truss rests on two towers and it contains rails for cage to roll. x This type of
bridge is used within a harbour area to provide an arrangement for shifting of men and materials across a channel.

 Types of Bridges
Bridges can be classified in different ways

(e) Span - L ≤ 6m (Culvert) - 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges) - 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges) - 50 ≤ L≤
150m (Large Span Bridges) - L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges) Fundamental of Bridge Design 8

(f) Construction Materials - Timber Bridges - Masonry Bridges - Reinforced Concrete Bridges - Prestressed
Concrete Bridges - Steel Bridges - Composite Bridges

(a) Traffic type/functionality - Road bridge - Railway bridge - Pedestrian bridge - Aqueduct - Viaduct - Equipment
bridge

(b) Life Span - Temporary bridges - Permanent bridges - Semi-permanent bridges

(c) Horizontal Arrangement - Straight/Normal bridge - Skewed bridge - Curved bridge

(d) Vertical Arrangement - Horizontal/ Flat/ Normal - Inclined

(g) Span Arrangement - Simply Supported - Continuous - Cantilever

(h) Structural Arrangement - Slab Bridges - Girder (Deck girder Bridges) - Box Girder - Portal Frame Bridges - Arch
Bridges - Truss Bridges - Plate Girder Bridges - Cable Stayed Bridges - Suspension Bridges - Box Cell/ Box culvert

(i) Movements - Movable Bridges - Fixed Bridges[Ma3][Ma4].

 Bridge Loadings
Types of loads - The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges
where applicable. The load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing bridges.

·Permanent Loads > DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments DD = down drag DW =
dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities EH = horizontal earth pressure load EL = accumulated locked-in effects
resulting from the construction process ES = earth surcharge load EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill ·

Transient Loads > BR = vehicular braking force CE = vehicular centrifugal force CR = creep CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake FR = friction IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance LL = vehicular live load LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load SE = settlement SH = shrinkage TG = temperature gradient TU = uniform temperature WA =
water load and stream pressure WL = wind on live load WS = wind load on structure.

Dead Loads Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached
thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.

Live Loads Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer
part of the ratio w/3600, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers. Multiple Presence
of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state for which one design truck
is used, regardless of the number of design lanes. Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple
design lanes but this is unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered by the
multiple presence factors.

Centrifugal forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force): Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved
bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.

Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force): From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles, and
assumeng uniform deceleration (retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is: b =
v2/2ga From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or
tandem per lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction. These forces shall be assumed to act
horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme
force effects. 4.3.5

Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force): Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN
applied at 1.2m above the ground should be considered. 4.3.6

Pedestrian Loads A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa (kN/m2 ) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.

Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure) · Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to
act perpendicular to the surface that is retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of
water above the point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2 ). p = g
* g * z * 10-9

Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical components of static
pressures, acting on all components below design water level.

Stream Pressure Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream
pressure and the projected surface exposed thereto. p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2

Wind Loads (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure) § Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and
medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on structures shall be neglected.
Loads and Load Combinations
Loads on Bridges: o The following are the various loads to be considered for the purpose of computing stresses,
wherever they are applicable
1 ƒ Dead load ƒ Live load ƒ Impact load ƒ Longitudinal force ƒ Wind load ƒ Seismic load ƒ Racking force ƒ Forces due
to curvature ƒ Forces on parapets ƒ Frictional resistance of expansion bearings ƒ Erection forces
 Dead Load:
ƒ The dead load is the weight of structure and any
permanent load fixed thereon. ƒ The dead load is
initially assumed and checked after design is completed
and the design should be revised if the dead weight
exceeds the assumed load by more than 2.5%.
 Live Load: ƒ On bridges main live load is due to the road
traffic and railway trains for designing road bridges,
standard live loads are taken as specified by Indian Road
Congress Section II and for railway bridges as specified
by railway board.
IRC has classified the live loads for road bridges as
follows:
1. IRC class AA loading. 2. IRC class A loading. 3. IRC
class B loading. 4. IRC class 70R loading
1. IRC class AA loading: x This class of loading is based
on heavy military vehicles likely to run on national
highways, state highways and other specified areas as
industrial areas. In class AA loading following two types
of vehicles are specified: o Tracked vehicles such as
tanks and chained tractors. o Wheeled vehicles such as
trucks, busses etc.
2. IRC class A loading: x The IRC class A loading is based
on the heavier type of commercial vehicles likely to run
on Indian roads. x Primarily adopted on all roads on
which permanent bridges are constructed.
3. IRC class B loading: x This class of loading generally is
adopted for temporary bridges as timber bridges and in
specified areas. x It is same as class A loading except that
it is 40% less than class A loading.
4. IRC class 70R loading x The letter R indicates revised
classification. x For specified highway bridges IRC class
70R loading is used in place of IRC class AA loading. x It
consists of tracked as well as wheeled vehicles.
 Impact Load: o The fast moving loads on uneven
surface of the bridge have jumping action. o The
jumping action produces shocks and vibrations in the
structure. o Thus additional stresses produced are
known as stresses due to impact. o It is computed by the
relation: ‫ ܤ ܣ = ܫ‬+ ‫ ܮ‬where, A = a constant whose
value is taken as 4.5 for concrete bridges and 9.0 for
steel bridges B = a constant whose value is taken as 6.0
for concrete and 13.5 for steel bridges L = span (in
metre)
 Longitudinal Forces: o Longitudinal forces are caused
by any of the following: ƒ Tractive efforts of the
locomotive caused through acceleration of the driving
wheels. ƒ Breaking affect due to application of brakes of
wheels. ƒ Friction resistance offered to the movement
of free bearings due to change in temperature etc.
 Thermal Forces: o The free expansion or contraction
of a structure due to changes in temperature may be
restrained by its form of construction. o Where any
portion of the structure is not free to expand or contract
under the variation of temperature, allowance should
be made for the stresses resulting from this condition. o
The coefficient of thermal expansion or contraction for
steel is 11.7 x 10-6 / 0 C.
 Wind Load: o Wind load on a bridge may act ƒ
Horizontally, transverse to the direction of span ƒ
Horizontally, along the direction of span ƒ Vertically
upwards, causing uplift ƒ Wind load on vehicles o Wind
load effect is not generally significant in short span
bridges; for medium span, the design of sub structure
is affected by wind loading; the super-structure design
is affected by wind only in long spans. o For the purpose
of the design, wind loadings are adopted from the maps
and tables given in IS: 875 (Part-III). o A wind load of 2.40
kN/m2 is adopted for the unloaded span of the railway,
highway and footbridges. o In case of structures with
opening the effect of drag around edges of members
has to be considered.
 Seismic Load: o If a bridge is situated in an earthquake
prone region, the earthquake or seismic forces are given
due consideration in structural design. o Earthquakes
cause vertical and horizontal forces in the structure that
will be proportional to the weight of the structure. o
Both horizontal and vertical components have to be
taken into account for design of bridge structures. o IS:
1893-1984 may be referred to for the actual design
loads
 SUBSTRUCTURE
Piers - Piers provide vertical supports for spans at intermediate points and perform two main functions: · transferring
superstructure vertical loads to the foundations · resisting horizontal forces acting on the bridge

Although piers are traditionally designed to resist vertical loads, it is becoming more and more common to design piers
to resist high lateral loads caused by seismic events.

Pier Types

Solid Wall Pier: A solid wall pier (also known as a continuous wall pier) as its name would imply, consists of a solid wall
which extends up from a foundation consisting of a footing or piles. The top of the wall is equipped with individual
pedestals upon which the superstructure rests. Their slender and streamlined proportions provide a minimal
resistance to flood flows. Using solid wall piers in stream or river crossings is advantageous since they are not as prone
to accumulating debris as multiple column piers.

Hammerhead Pier: A hammerhead pier utilizes one or more columns with a pier cap in the shape of a hammer. They
are predominately found in urban settings because they are both attractive and occupy a minimum of space, thereby
providing room for underpass traffic.

Columns Bent Pier: A column bent pier, as its name would imply, consists of a cap beam and supporting columns in a
frame-type structure. In dense urban interchanges, use of column bent piers can lead to a cluttered image producing
a “concrete jungle” effect.

Pile Bent Pier: The pile bent pier is a variation on the column bent pier with the supporting columns and footing
replaced with individual supporting piles. The end piles are generally equipped with a batter in the transverse
direction. Figure: Pile bent pier Finally selection of pier is made based on the following considerations. · Aesthetics ·
Economy · Flow of water and traffic under the bridge · Superstructure

 Backwall and Wingwall

Wingwall - A wingwall is a side wall to the abutment back wall or stem designed to assist in confining earth behind the
abutment backwall.

Backwall - A backwall, sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the abutment acting as a retaining
structure at each approach.

Scour - Scour is the washing away of streambed material by water channel flow

Abutments – Abutment is component of a bridge · provides the vertical support to the bridge superstructure at the
bridge ends · connects the bridge with the approach roadway · retains the roadway base materials
From the view of the relation between the bridge abutment and roadway or water flow that the bridge overpasses, bridge
abutments can be divided into two categories: open-end abutment and closed-end abutment. For the open-end abutment, there
are slopes between the bridge abutment face and the edge of the roadway or river canal that the bridge overpasses. Those slopes
provide a wide open area for the traffic flows or water flows under the bridge. It imposes much less impact on the environment
and the traffic flows under the bridge than a closed-end abutment. Also, future widening of the roadway or water flow canal under
the bridge by adjusting the slope ratios is easier. However, the existence of slopes usually requires longer bridge spans and some
extra earthwork.

Abutments can be classified based on the load resisting mechanism as:

1. Gravity abutments: resist the load acting with its dead weight and dead weight of retained soil or backfill on its inclined back face. They can
be constructed using stone masonry or concrete masonry.

2. Cantilever abutments: load resistance derived from cantilever action and usually constructed from reinforced concrete.

3. Counterfort abutments: are similar to cantilever ones but ties called counterforts are provided to tie the stem to the footing.

4. Reinforced earth abutments: The essential concept is the use of multiple-layer strips or fibers to reinforce the fill material in the lateral
direction so that the integrated fill material will act as a gravity retaining structure. Overturning and sliding are needed to be checked under the
assumption that the reinforced soil body acts as a gravity retaining wall.