Parenting Perceptions in India and Uganda

Master thesis Youth, Education and Society

Utrecht University
2022-2023

Student: Lisa Stoffer

Student number: 1809126
Supervisor UU: Dr. Tjitske de Groot
2nd assessor UU: Prof. dr. Paul Leseman
Supervisor internship organization: Liesbeth Speelman
Date: 23th of June, 2023
 Abstract
Parenting is both positively and negatively related to the wellbeing of children. To influence
parenting, interventions are implemented worldwide. Research shows that there is no universal way of
parenting. However, parenting strategies that are encouraged in interventions worldwide, are often
derived from Western communities, with the risk of ignoring local needs and violating ethical codes.
Crucial for parenting intervention development is research into local models of childrearing, which
can be done by consulting local experts. For this reason, this study investigated parenting perceptions
by consulting local experts in two different countries: India and Uganda. Moreover, this study aimed
to provide suggestions for future intervention development. The ideal-parent beliefs approach (Lin et
al., 2022) and the Parent Development Theory (Mowder, 2005) served as conceptual frameworks for
this research. Respondents for this study were five Indian and five Ugandan experts working for Help
a Child (Dutch NGO) in the areas of community work and parenting. The results of this study were
collected through semi-structured interviews. This study showed that in both India and Uganda
parents are the most important caregivers. Further the focus of parents is mainly on meeting the basic
needs of children. Only in Uganda this comprises education as well. Parents in both countries exhibit
little responsivity and sensitivity towards their children. In both countries the roles of fathers and
mothers are separated. Lastly, Ugandan parents are more actively working towards a better future for
their children than Indian parents. Recommendations for future intervention development and follow-
up research are provided.
Keywords: Parent Role, India, Uganda, Ideal-Parent Beliefs Approach, Parent Development Theory,
Experts, Intervention Development.
 Samenvatting

Ouderschap is zowel positief als negatief gerelateerd aan het welzijn van kinderen. Om
ouderschapsstrategieën te beïnvloeden worden wereldwijd opvoedingsinterventies toegepast. Ondanks
dat onderzoek aantoont dat er geen universele manier van opvoeden bestaat, zijn de
opvoedingsstrategieën die wereldwijd in interventies worden gepromoot vaak afgeleid van Westerse
denkbeelden over opvoeding. Hiermee lopen interventies het risico dat zij lokale behoeften negeren
en ethische codes schenden. Cruciaal voor de ontwikkeling van opvoedingsinterventies is onderzoek
naar lokale opvoedingsmodellen en een manier om dit te doen is het raadplegen van lokale experts
over opvoeding (Morelli et al., 2018b). Dit onderzoek heeft daarom opvoedingspercepties in India en
Oeganda onderzocht door lokale experts te consulteren met als doel om suggesties te doen voor
interventie ontwikkeling. De ‘ideal-parent beliefs approach’ (Lin et al., 2022) en de ‘Parent
Development Theory’ (Mowder, 2005) dienden als conceptuele kaders. Respondenten waren vijf
Indiase en vijf Oegandese experts die werkzaam zijn voor Red een Kind (Nederlandse NGO) op het
gebied van gemeenschapswerk en ouderschap. De resultaten zijn verzameld via semigestructureerde
interviews. Dit onderzoek laat zien dat in zowel India als Oeganda ouders de belangrijkste opvoeders
zijn. Verder ligt de focus van ouders op het voorzien in de basisbehoeften van kinderen, alleen in
Oeganda omvat dit ook onderwijs. Ouders in beide landen laten weinig responsiviteit en sensitiviteit
zien. In beide landen hebben vaders en moeders een eigen rol. Tot slot werken Oegandese ouders
actiever aan een betere toekomst voor hun kinderen dan Indiase ouders. In dit onderzoek worden
aanbevelingen gedaan voor interventie ontwikkeling en vervolgonderzoek.
Kernwoorden: Ouderrol, India, Oeganda, Ideal-Parent Beliefs Approach, Parent Development Theory,
Experts, Interventie Ontwikkeling.
 Parenting Perceptions in India and Uganda
Parenting is important for the development of a child (Krochek & Mowder, 2012; Morris et
al., 2021; Turley et al., 2010). Research shows that parenting is related to the well-being of children,
both positively and negatively (Kotchick & Forehand, 2002; Krochek & Mowder, 2012; Lansford,
2021). It is argued that the link between parenting and child wellbeing, transcends the boundaries of
ethnicity or culture, and that having a nurturing relationship with a parent or caregiver is vital for all
children (Morris et al., 2017). Because of the importance of this parent-child relationship, there are
many ‘parenting manuals’, ‘parenting guides’ and parenting classes’ aiming to improve parenting
skills or achieve a form of positive parenting (Kotchik & Forehand, 2002; Lee et al., 2014; Morris et
al., 2021). These parenting interventions that take place in both Western and non-Western settings, are
meant to have a positive influence on the wellbeing and development of children (Morelli et al.,
2018a; Scheidecker et al., 2023).
In order to find an ideal developmental path for children, earlier studies have focussed on
discovering what ‘the optimal’ parent-child interaction would resemble (Lavi, 2021). Researchers
have even tried to find a global way of parenting that is beneficial for every child (Steinberg, 2001).
Some researchers claim to have found this in the authoritative parenting style of Baumrind (Steinberg,
2001), which is a warm and demanding parenting style that would have the most positive
development outcomes in all contexts (Lavi, 2021; Morris et al., 2021; Smetana, 2017; Steinberg,
2001). According to Bornstein (2012) however, a more nuanced view on parenting is needed. He
explains that while some parenting elements are universally recognized, other parenting elements are
culture-specific and essential for children to become culturally competent members of their society
(Bornstein, 2012; Lavi, 2021). Being culturally competent means that you know how to be an
acceptable, good and moral person in the community in which you live and that you know how to
manage and make sense of everything you experience in a way that is consistent with the beliefs and
practices of your community (Morelli et al., 2018a). Parents that follow their own cultural beliefs and
help their children to become culturally competent, all have unique patterns of caregiving (Ashdown
& Faherty, 2020; Bembich, 2016; Bornstein, 2012). This means that developmental pathways of
children are not all the same (Keller, 2018), and that there is no universal way to define ‘good’ or
‘optimal’ parenting (Ashdown & Faherty, 2020).
Despite research indicating that there is no universal approach to parenting (Ashdown &
Faherty, 2020), prominent organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF
view Western child care strategies as universally normative, and promote them in the interventions
they implement worldwide (Scheidecker et al., 2023; Schmidt et al., 2023). By promoting Western
child care strategies as universally desirable, local cultural practices are devalued (Morelli et al.,
2018a; Schmidt et al., 2023), resulting in interference with communities and their way of living
together (Keller, 2018; Morelli et al., 2018a). A well known example of a child care strategy in non-
Western contexts, is the tendency of communities to raise their children together. Both adults and
other children, kin and kith take care of children (Keller, 2018; Morelli et al., 2018a). Neglecting this
child care strategy while promoting Western parenting strategies, might result in a focus on the
nuclear family that is inappropriate for the context (Scheidecker et al., 2023). Furthermore,
dismantling community care practices can even make it more likely for children to be exposed to
dangers from which they would otherwise be protected (Keller, 2018; Morelli et al., 2018b). This
shows the importance of expanding our knowledge of parenting in non-Western contexts before
imposing our own parenting strategies (Schmidt et al., 2023).
Promoting Western parenting beliefs and practices, without validating its assumptions locally,
does not only have serious consequences, but is also considered unethical (Morelli et al., 2018b).
Child care practices consistent with Western lifestyles may be very different from what people with
other lifestyles want for their children or consider as good care. Thus, encouraging caregivers to
change their practices and views, usually without them understanding how these changes will affect
their child, family and community, undermines the ability of researchers and practitioners to uphold
the ethic codes of respect and beneficence (Morelli et al., 2018b). To avoid a violation of the ethical
codes and other previous mentioned consequences, a crucial first step before considering
implementation of an intervention, is investigating local models of childrearing (Lansford, 2021;
Morelli et al., 2018b; Scheidecker et al., 2023).
This study is commissioned by Help a Child, an international development organization in the
Netherlands. Help a Child aims to implement the parenting intervention in India that they already
implemented in Uganda. As investigating local models of childrearing is crucial before implementing
an intervention (Morelli et al., 2018b), this study will research the local models of childrearing in
India and Uganda. Research in both countries is necessary because no official study has ever been
conducted prior to the implementation of this intervention. A way of investigating local models of
childrearing, is consulting local experts (Morelli et al., 2018b). For this reason, this thesis will consult
local experts on the parenting perceptions they observe in Indian and Ugandan parents. Next to
describing the local parenting perceptions as observed by experts, this research aims to provide
suggestions for future intervention development. The results of this research will thus be helpful for
examining the parenting intervention of Help a Child and for future intervention development. The
research question of this study is: What do the perceptions on parenting of parents in India and
Uganda, as observed by experts, imply for the development of interventions?
Frameworks
When examining parenting perceptions, there are several approaches known. A first
framework that investigates beliefs of parents concerning child-rearing bottom-up, is the ideal-parent
beliefs approach (Lin et al., 2022). This framework was developed in response to previous studies that
mostly used Western frameworks to research parenting in the non-Western world (Lin et al., 2022).
Ideal-parent beliefs can be defined as a meaning system and a lens through which parents perceive,
understand, and engage in their parenting practices (Tromssdorff, 2023). In other words, all parents
have ideas about what good parents should ideally do to promote their children’s health, development
and well-being. Parents rely on these ‘ideal-parent beliefs’ to know how to fulfill their parental role.
This is a universal phenomenon (Lin et al., 2022). Ideas about what an ‘ideal parent’ is, however, vary
across cultural settings. Ideas that are considered good or even ideal in one cultural setting might be
considered inappropriate in another. In their research Lin et al. (2022) for example found that African
parents are more focused on responsibility and proper behaviour, while Western parents are more
focused on love and patience. Ideal-parent beliefs thus give parents a direction to shape their
parenting practices and demonstrate what is culturally considered good parenting.
A second framework developed for researching parenting perceptions, is the Parent
Development Theory (PDT). Originally called Parent Role Development Theory, the PDT examines
how parents perceive their role (Mowder, 2005). The parent role can be defined as the values and
behaviors parents use to raise their children. Initially, research identified six characteristics of parental
role: bonding, discipline, education, general welfare and protection, responsivity and sensitivity
(Mowder, 2005). Later research distinguished a seventh characteristic, negativity (Mowder &
Shamah, 2010). How parents views these different characteristics is related to the developmental stage
of the parents' children and the broader sociocultural context of which parents and children are a part
(Mowder, 2005). In a Western context this for example means that concerning the characteristic
bonding, mothers are expected to be the primary attachment figure for children, having an exclusive
bond with the child (Keller, 2016). Furthermore, regarding discipline Western parents are encouraged
to use appropriated ways of disciplining, like timeout, ignoring, reasoning, removing privileges and
correction, instead of punishment (Kim & Hong, 2007). In short, parents have a perception of their
role based in part on their sociocultural background, and this may become apparent in their attitudes
toward the characteristics as distinguished by the PDT.
The ideal-parent beliefs approach and the PDT have some similarities and possibilities to
complement each other. The frameworks or approaches are similar in that they both explain how
parenting behaviours are shaped by the beliefs that parents have about parenting (Lin et al., 2022;
Mowder, 2005), but they also have their own strengths. The ideal-parent beliefs approach is a very
open approach researching parental beliefs bottom-up. The advantage of asking openly what ideal-
parent beliefs are, is that it includes all culturally unique parenting beliefs and perceptions. A
challenge with this approach when using it for research, however, is that it will result in a great variety
of parenting perceptions that can be hard to compare. The PDT on the other hand, while perhaps less
suited to examine parenting bottom-up, does allow for comparison of parenting perceptions over time
and across different people or cultures. Since these two frameworks together make it possible to both
explore and compare parenting perceptions, this study will use these frameworks for researching
parenting perceptions as observed by local experts.
Method
Respondents
 To gain insight into local child-rearing practices, local experts were consulted about the
parenting perceptions they observe in parents. Respondents were considered local experts when they
were working or living in the area in which the parenting intervention was (or will be) implemented
and had experience with parenting, either professionally or personally. All respondents were staff
members of either Help a Child or partner organizations of Help a Child in India or Uganda. The
respondents were chosen in collaboration with staff members from Help a Child and colleagues on
leading positions in India and Uganda.
In total ten respondents were part of this research. Five respondents were living in India, five
respondents were living in Uganda. In both countries three of them were men and two of them were
women. The respondents were working in rural areas in the regions Odisha in India and the West Nile
region in Uganda, consistent with the locations in which the parenting intervention of Help a Child
was (or will be) implemented. No further demographic information was asked of the respondents.
Ethical Considerations
Before carrying out the research, the research has been approved by the Ethics Review Board
of the Faculty of Social & Behavioural Sciences (FERB) of Utrecht University. The respondents have
been informed about the procedure and goals of the research through an information letter. The
information letter clearly stated that participation in this study was voluntary and that respondents
could stop participating at any time. To confirm their participation respondents were asked to sign an
informed consent form that was drawn up in collaboration with Help a Child and Utrecht University.
All respondents provided consent preceding the data collection. There were no participants that
withdrew from the research. To protect participants, the data gathered in this research was confidential
and anonymized during the transcription phase. Only the country of residence of respondents was
noted, so that the different countries could be compared on parenting perceptions.
Research Instruments
The qualitative method chosen for consulting experts on parenting perceptions in India and
Uganda, are interviews. The interviews were semi-structured to be able to both structure the research
topics and ask in-depth questions about respondents' answers. This was in line with both the
exploratory and comparative nature of this study. The interviews were performed in English, because
both researcher and most respondents were comfortable in this language. Two interviews were
conducted with direct translation, where the questions of the researcher were translated for the
respondents and the answers or the respondents were translated for the researcher. The interviews
were performed online. Most of the interviews lasted no longer than 45 minutes, but three interviews
took 5 to 15 minutes longer due to either translations or the enthusiasm of experts to speak about their
experiences.
Before examining the perceptions about the parent role, the experts were asked if parents are
the only people taking care of children or if there are others that take over the parent role or fulfill part
of it. This was asked to get a more complete picture of what parenting is and who are responsible for
children. Then, based on the ideal-parents beliefs approach and Parent Development Theory,
questions were designed to identify both current and ideal parenting strategies in India and Uganda.
Sub questions were formulated to support experts in describing what parenting looks like in their
community. These sub questions were related to the six main characteristics as described by the PDT
(Mowder, 2005), negativity was excluded since negativity can be part of all other characteristics as
well. Further, ideal parenting strategies were investigated by asking experts to describe the ideal
picture of what a parent should be, according to parents. Then, in line with Help a Child's mission,
experts were asked what hopes and dreams parents have concerning their children's future and
whether and how parents are working toward this future in their role as parents. Finally, to examine
the priorities of parents, experts were asked what is the most important job of a parent. The topics of
the interviews were chosen in collaboration with the internship supervisor from Help a Child and the
university supervisor.
Interview topics
1. People taking care of children and their roles
2. Current parenting practices
3. Ideal parenting
4. Future goals from parents for children
5. Most important parent job

Data Analysis
To analyze respondents’ answers, interviews have been recorded, transcribed and coded. The
transcribed interviews were coded in Nvivo in several phases. First large text fragments were divided
over the different groups of people taking care of children, namely: parents, grandparents, siblings,
uncles and aunts, the community, governmental institutions, schools, churches and others. After
dividing the fragments over the above mentioned groups, all fragments under the group parents were
subdivided into several nodes, namely the six characteristics as provided by the PDT: bonding,
discipline, education, general welfare and protection, sensitivity and responsivity, and additionally the
nodes: future hopes and dreams, most important, role division and parents’ relationship, and passive
parenting. The nodes passive parenting and role division and parents’ relationship were added based
on the answers of experts. After dividing and subdividing all the coded fragments, descriptive coding
and topic coding were used to organize the answers of experts.
During the analysis the first step was to analyze whether parents are the only ones taking care
of children or if there were other people involved in raising children. Then the next step in analyzing
the answers of experts was examining which parent role characteristics as described by the PDT were
considered important by parents in fulfilling the parent role. In this part of the analysis it was
examined what experts said about each characteristic and whether the answers given by experts
affirmed or denied this characteristic to be part of the parent role. The results that followed out of this
analysis were compared to the answers to the question about what is considered the most important
job of a parent. The next step in the analysis, was examining how parents implement these different
characteristics of the parent role, the question was asked for example: What do experts say about how
parents discipline their children? Next to analyzing the parent role characteristics separately, it was
analyzed what experts said about ideal and passive parenting, the future goals of parents for children,
and role division and parents’ relationship. Regarding all these different topics, the similarities and
differences between the answers of Indian and Ugandan experts were analyzed and lastly the
implications of the results for intervention development.
Results
The current study examined parenting perceptions in India and Uganda as observed by local
experts in order to provide suggestions for future intervention development. Through qualitative
interviews experts were consulted on several topics: People taking care of children, the role of
parents, ideal parenting, future goals from parents for children and what is the most important parent
job. Additionally, the topics passive parenting, and role division and relationship between parents
were brought up by the experts. Based on the answers of experts, the following results were found.
Caregivers of Children
To gain insight into who are the most important caregivers in India and Uganda, and to
understand at who a parenting intervention could be directed, respondents were first asked who are
the people taking of children in their community.
In both India and Uganda experts named the biological parents as most important caregivers.
In both countries grandparents, or if they are not available, the uncles and aunts were named as
alternative caregivers, for example when parents pass away, when parents migrate because of work or
when parents abandon their children because of remarriage. Besides these personal caregivers,
institutions were named as caregivers: the government, the churches and the schools. In raising
children, schools mostly have an education role, but schools sometimes also provide food and/or
clothing to children.
Additionally an important caregiver mentioned in India was the elder sister. All Indian experts
reported that the responsibility for children is often given to the elder sister when parents are at work.
This means that during a regular day, parents leave in the morning after giving instructions and the
elder sister will take care of the house and her siblings. When there is no elder sister this
responsibility goes to either the grandparents or the neighbours. Experts in Uganda mentioned that
when children live with their parents, the task of disciplining the children is sometimes given to the
extended family. Both these examples show how the upbringing of children can be shared by multiple
caregivers.
The Role of the Parent
 In order to understand what the parent role consists of in India and Uganda, experts where
asked to describe the role of parents. Answers were coded according to the six role characteristics of
the Parent Development Theory (PDT): Bonding, General Welfare and Protection, Education,
Discipline, Sensitivity and Responsivity.
Bonding
Regarding the characteristic bonding, a few separate topics were discussed with the
respondents: time and interaction with children, physical contact, expressing love, and conversations.
India
According to the experts in India mothers have more time for children and more interaction
with children, compared to fathers. Experts explained that the role of the father is to work for income
and the role of the mother is to care for the children. However, some experts said that in some cases
children hardly spend time with any of their parents, because both parents have to work. Sometimes it
even happens that parents migrate for work, and leave their children with their grandparents. In this
last case, parents come back during festival time to spend time with their children.
In line with the observation that children spend more time with their mothers, most Indian
experts also reported that it is especially the mother who expresses her love to the children. One way
of doing this is through physical contact, like hugs and kisses. This happens mostly with younger
children. Another way a mothers can express her love to her children is by playing with her children
and asking her children how their day was when she comes home. Furthermore, most Indian experts
explained that both father and mother express their love also through providing the needs and
requirements of children, such as clothing, food and requirements for school.
Regarding conversations between parents and children in India, the experts all had slightly
different statements. The overall picture they provide together is that parents and children do not have
conversations regularly, only when necessary they can have a conversation. In addition, most of the
conversations that take place are between a mother and a girl, and mothers are most approachable for
both boys and girls to ask what they need.
Uganda
Most experts explained that parents in Uganda mainly spend time with their children in the
evenings, when they are working together in and around the house. In those moments the most
communication between parents and children involves the parents talking and the children listening.
More specifically, parents give their children instructions on what to do. Some experts explicitly
stated that parents are not intentional in taking time for their children or having conversations with
their children. In contrast, other experts reported that (some) parents take time to play with their
children, and that open communication is possible between children and parents. Lastly, experts
explained that in Uganda, mothers are the ones most approachable for asking what you need or having
a conversation.
 When it comes to expressing love most experts in Uganda agreed that parents express their
love through providing in the basic needs of children. Physical contact in the form of hugs and kisses
were not common according to two respondents, hugging is however something children started
learning in school. Carrying children is a way in which parents do have physical contact with their
children.
General Welfare and Protection
According to all experts in both India and Uganda parents consider providing in the basic
needs of children an important part of their role. Most comments experts made were about providing
food, clothing and accommodation. To be able to provide these needs, parents in India and Uganda
spend a lot of time on generating income through agriculture or labour work. A few experts from
India and Uganda said that in some cases parents keep their children at home from school to also
work and contribute to the income.
Another aspect of this characteristic is protection and according to all experts, parents seek to
make sure their children are safe, which for example meant that children were typically not allowed to
go to places parents considered dangerous. A last similarity between India and Uganda according to
experts is that parents see it as their responsibility to take care of the health of their children.
India
Another basic need of children is schooling. Experts from India explained that parents are
starting to be aware of the importance of education, but even though schooling is paid by the
government, parents do not prioritize education for their children. Experts explained that children and
especially girls attend school only for a few years. After those years children are expected to help in
the home or start earning their own income.
Uganda
According to experts, parents in Uganda have a very different view of schooling, namely that
parents are aware of the importance of education and work to be able to provide school fees. The
answers of experts in Uganda indicate that it is common for children in Uganda to go to school.
Education
In both India and Uganda providing education is part of the parent role. Experts from both
countries explained that one of the things parents teach their children is how to be safe. Parents for
example teach their children to not go out at night or to touch objects they perceive as dangerous.
Other topics for educating children that were named by experts from both countries are: culture and
traditions, providing income, what to do and what no to do, and interacting with the community.
India
According to experts in India manners and good behaviour are important topics for educating
children on. Experts contradicted each other on whether parents teach their children to do chores in
and around the house. One expert said that children learn how to cook at a young age, another expert
said that many children in India are unable to cook when they are older. Lastly experts from India
explained how some children learn from their parents’ example in drinking alcohol. In this way
parents teach their children (unintentionally) to drink themselves too.
Uganda
Ugandan experts explained that an important part of educating children in Uganda revolves
around working in and around the house. From a young age children learn how to contribute to the
household by carrying out minor tasks. Another subject parents in Uganda teach their children about
is God and how to live as a christian. A way that parents in Uganda educate their children, is to show
them by example how it is done. This concerns tasks around the house, but also the ways of greeting
and welcoming people.
Discipline
India
Most Indian experts claim that parents in India punish their children sometimes, and
according to some of them a way of doing so can be physical punishment. They also explained how
the behaviour and choices of children are controlled by parents. Girls in particular are expected to
behave in a certain way or they will be punished. In contrast with this, one expert stated that rural
parents do not have rules, in particular when children get older. This expert also said that parents give
their boys specifically complete freedom to do what they want, and that parents consider this a way of
showing love.
Uganda
All Ugandan experts said that disciplining children is part of the parent role. The most
common way of doing so in Uganda is physical punishment. Another form of punishment can be
withholding benefits like food or certain activities. According to experts, a reason for parents to
discipline their children is when children do not correctly follow the instructions parents give them.
Responsivity and Sensitivity
Regarding responsivity and sensitivity experts were asked how parents respond on their
children displaying emotions like sadness or anger. Since questioning and answers on responsive and
sensitive behaviours overlapped, these concept will be described together. Responsivity was
understood as parents responding to children, while sensitivity was defined as parents trying to
understand children.
Remarkably, experts in both India and Uganda explained that a first possible response from
parents to their children’s emotions is that parents want their children to stop showing their emotions.
Parents try to accomplish this through force, with either words or (physical) punishment. Experts from
both countries also deemed it possible that parents ignore their child when it displays emotion. Some
experts indicated that parents might respond differently when children are physically hurt.
Another response of parents described by experts is that parents try to provide what their
child requires. This can for example be food or a toy. In order to understand what their child needs,
experts explain that parents ask questions to their children.
 India
Experts explained that in India there is a difference between the father and mother in their
response to emotions. They said a father uses words to ask its child was is going on, while a mother
takes her child in her arms while asking questions.
Uganda
Finally, the experts from Uganda made some conflicting statements about responsiveness and
sensitivity. Some experts implied the absence of responsiveness and sensitivity through their
statements, while another expert gave the impression that parents are actually responsive and sensitive
to their children.
Ideal and Passive Parenting
In order to discover what parenting would ideally look like in the future, in both India and
Uganda experts were asked what parents think their role should be ideally. It turned out that experts
were unable to answer this question, because parents do not have a vision of an ideal parent. The
conversation resulted in experts explaining their own aspirations and observed forms of passive
parenting.
Some experts from India explained how parents expect that everything will stay the same,
which would mean they do not actively have to change anything in their role, since they already give
what they are able to give. Ugandan experts said that some parents do not reflect on their role and do
not realize that there are different ways to parent. Next to that experts explain that some parents do not
know at all what it means to be a parent and that this results in parents not taking responsibility for
their children.
Future of Children
To determine whether parents in India and Uganda also believe it is part of their role to take
care of the future of their children, experts were also asked about the future that parents see for their
children.
The experts from India explained that parents are mostly focused on survival, as they are
struggling to generate enough income to provide for their family. For this reason, parents do not
prioritize the future of their children in terms of education, even though some parents are starting to
see the importance of education. Something parents do consider important, according to experts, is
that their children will get married. Parents in India, however, must collect a dowry for their daughters
to marry. This adds to the already existing pressure to generate enough income and determines the
focus of parents.
As explained before, experts mentioned that in Uganda parents do prioritize education,
because they know how important schooling is in order for their children to get a better future.
Ugandan parents therefore work hard to give their children educational opportunities. Marriage was
hardly mentioned by the Ugandan experts, only one expert thought this was something parents
considered important.
Role Division
During the interviews with experts it became clear that parenting in India and Uganda is not
the same for fathers and mothers. As this study researches what parenting is, this subject contributed
by experts was further investigated.
Both in India and Uganda, experts said that it is the mother who cares for the children and
carries the greatest responsibility in raising the children. Moreover, in both countries an expert
explained that although mothers raise the children, fathers are praised for the accomplishments of the
children. Next to that, both Indian and Ugandan experts reported that fathers spend little time
interacting with their children, because they are often not at home or have limited time. Furthermore,
in both countries it is more likely for fathers to interact or bond with a boy, than with a girl.
Indian experts explained that the role of a father is to generate income and provide the needs
of the family. Only when the father is unable to generate enough income, the mother will contribute in
doing work for income. Further it is the role of the father to stand up for children in case of an
external threat, like someone bullying the children. In addition, fathers were described as decision
makers, leaders and the ones who give moral advice. Mothers in India are according to the experts the
ones who take care of the children and do the household work. Mothers are also the ones who provide
emotional support and who show their affection to their children. Lastly experts said it is the mother
who is at home most of the time.
Some Ugandan experts mentioned that the role of the father is to work, more was said about
the role of the mother. In Uganda, mothers are the ones who usually have responsibility for the
children. They are also are the most approachable for children to go to and ask what they need,
however one of the experts said this only counts for girls. Lastly, the experts reported that mothers
have the most time for their children.
Relationship between Parents
Last of all some Ugandan experts mentioned the influence that the relationship of parents can
have on children. Two experts made a separate remark about this, with one saying that some parents
in Uganda do not work together and have violence between them. Another expert said that fathers
look down on mothers and that parents sometimes conspire with their children against the other
parent, lacking love.
Discussion
This study examined parenting perceptions of parents in India and Uganda as observed by
experts with the aim of providing suggestions for (future) intervention development in local contexts.
Besides, Help a Child and other organizations can use the results of this study to evaluate their own
parenting interventions on appropriateness for the context of India and Uganda. This is relevant so
that the needs of the local population are taken into account and ethical codes are safeguarded.
Most Important Findings on Parenting Perceptions
1. Parents as Most Important Caregivers
 Firstly, both in India and Uganda parents are the most important caregivers. Sometimes other
family members take over the responsibility for children. This can be grandparents, uncles and aunts
or in India elder siblings. Literature about India affirms that parents have become increasingly
important in households in rural India (Sahithya, Manohari & Vijaya, 2019), but also that in rural
areas elder siblings are expected to help with child care (Seymour, 2013). With respect to Uganda,
however, existing literature emphasizes that in African societies, children are often the responsibility
of the community (Keller, 2018; Morelli et al., 2018a). While this research does negate the importance
of the extended family (Kabatanya & Vagli, 2021), it does show that parents are the primary
caregivers and not the community.
2. Focus on Providing
A second finding is that parents in both India and Uganda focus primarily on providing for
their children's basic needs, which is also a way of expressing love. In Uganda, schooling is an
important part of these basic needs that parents provide for. Regarding India, this finding was
confirmed by an article on parenting ideals which found that nutrition was one of the top two concerns
for parents (Tuli, 2012). Existing literature on Uganda also confirmed this finding, it namely
explained how parents view caring for their children in basic needs, including schooling, as essential
to positive parenting (Boothby et al., 2017).
3. Limited Responsivity and Sensitivity
A third finding is that according to the experts parents in both countries are often not
responsive or sensitive towards their children. However, according to experts Indian mothers show
more responsive and sensitive behavior towards their children, than Indian fathers and this is the same
for Ugandan mothers compared to Ugandan fathers. Existing literature explains how mothers in
Indian cultures can actively withhold emphatic attention in order for their children to learn to find
comfort and attention with other people in the household, that are alternative caregivers (Seymour,
2013). This is a possible explanation for the limited responsivity and sensitivity that experts observed.
Further, in African societies children are expected to obey their parents without question, which is a
way of displaying respect (Kabatanya & Vagli, 2021). This pattern of behavior in which parents speak
and children listen may antagonize parents in their responsive and sensitive behavior.
4. Role Differences between Fathers and Mothers
A fourth finding is that especially in India, the role of the mother is very different from the
role of the father. All respondents mentioned gender discrimination and how parents also treat girls
differently than boys. An explanation is that separated gender roles are deeply embedded in Indian
culture. Literature validates this fourth finding regarding the different roles for men and women, girls
and boys in India. According to literature fathers are the head of the family and breadwinners, and
mothers are nurturing caregivers (Sahithya, Manohari & Vijaya, 2019). Further, parents in Indian
culture adjust their expectations for their children based on the gender of their children. An example is
that girls are socialized into becoming mothers and wives, while boys are socialized into becoming
providers to their family (Alexander & Chauhan, 2020).
Regarding Uganda, it was only found that mothers have the greatest responsibility in raising
children. Nothing was mentioned about what this means for the father. This finding about the role of
the mother is also affirmed by previous research in which mothers are called the most important
socialization agents for children in African societies (Kabatanya & Vagli, 2021).
5. Perspective for the Future
Then, the last and fifth finding is that parents in Uganda and India look very different at the
future. In Uganda parents are aware of the difference that schooling can make in the lives of children,
and therefore parents focus on achieving schooling for their children. In India, parents are focused on
survival and getting enough income to support themselves daily and to save for the dowry their girls
need to get married. Parents are therefore unable to think about what their children’s future could be,
through for example education. Regarding this findings, existing literature shows a link between
poverty in Indian families and lack of schooling at least for girls (Yunus, 2021). The same source also
mentions the focus parents have on getting their girls to marry (Yunus, 2021). The focus of Ugandan
parents on the future of children through schooling has also been affirmed in research (Boothby et al.,
2017).
Implications for Practice
The main question of this research was: What do the perceptions on parenting of parents in
India and Uganda, as observed by experts, imply for the development of interventions? In this section
it will be explained why the mentioned findings are relevant for (future) intervention development.
The first and fourth finding show that in India and Uganda parents are the most important
caregivers and that specifically mothers are the ones who provide the most direct care to children, this
is similar to what is found in Western societies where mothers are considered the primary caregiver
(Morelli et al., 2018a). However, it became apparent that there are other caregivers as well. As
mentioned in the third finding, Indian mothers strive to ensure that their children not only depend on
them, but also seek comfort and attention from others, as mothers are aware that they cannot always
be present to take care of their children (Seymour, 2013). This is in contrast to the focus on the
exclusive bond between a mother and child there is in Western contexts. This means that interventions
should not solely focus on the relationship between parents and children, but also on who are other
available caregivers and how they can take care of child while parents are absent.
The second and the fifth finding show that especially in India, but also in Uganda parents give
priority to generating income, because they need it to provide for their children both now and in the
future. And as Morelli et al. (2018b) argue, it cannot be assumed that parenting interventions will be
beneficial for parents when underlying problems are not addressed. For this reason, it is important that
interventions aim to help parents in multiple areas of life, which specifically means that interventions
should be directed at helping parents to find ways of generating income more effectively, next to
helping parents to change their parenting behaviors. This is in contrast to Western interventions, of
which the greatest focus is to improve the development of children and parents, so that the cycle of
poverty will be eventually be broken (Morelli et al., 2018b; Scheidecker et al., 2023).
Further, the third finding that parents in both India and Uganda display limited responsive and
sensitive behaviors, is explained differently for parents in India and Uganda. In India the explanation
is again linked to the absence of mothers and presence of other caregivers (Seymour, 2013), while in
Uganda this finding is linked to a behavior pattern in Uganda that reflects the respect that children
ought to have for their parents (Kabatanya & Vagli, 2021). In both these cases the absence of
responsivity and sensitivity is related to making children (culturally) competent for living in their
context. It is therefore important to further research the impact of promoting responsivity and
sensitivity in these contexts, before doing so in parenting interventions.
The fourth finding showed that according to experts, the roles of fathers and mothers in India
are separate and boys and girls are expected to start behaving according to their future role already
(Alexander & Chauhan, 2020). Existing literature however explains that through the exposure of
children in urban areas to Western norms and values, the roles children see for themselves are already
changing (Alexander & Chauhan, 2020). It is therefore important for intervention development to take
into account the traditional gender norms when teaching parents different behaviors, but to also
prepare parents on how to respond to or deal with changing norms and values in their children.
This connects to the practical implication of the last finding, according to which parents in
India are not as focused on the educational future of their children as parents in Uganda. This means
that in India, parents need to be made aware of the disparities between their own lives and the future
of their children. This understanding can instill a sense of urgency regarding the significance of
educational investment in their children. However, it must again be taken into consideration that
parents in rural India currently need their children to contribute to the household (Yunus, 2021), and
therefore need a solution if their children will be going to school. In case of Uganda, parenting
interventions do not have to focus on the importance of education. It might however be relevant to
investigate with parents what jobs their children can perform with the education they received, so that
parents will be more able to guide their children into a remunerative job.
Suggestions for Frameworks
This study used the ideal-parent beliefs approach and the parent development theory (PDT) in
consulting experts on parents’ parenting perceptions in India and Uganda.
According to the ideal-parent beliefs approach all parents have beliefs about what makes an
ideal parent, and in line with those beliefs, they understand and engage in parenting practices
(Trommsdorff, 2023). This approach was expected to be universally applicable (Lin et al., 2022),
however this research called that into question. During the interview namely, it became clear that
experts were unable to formulate these beliefs for parents. In addition, some experts stated that parents
do not reflect on their role. Because it is possible that the inability of experts to talk about ideal-parent
beliefs is related to the terminology that was used in this study, this thesis suggests that future research
based on this approach should investigate what are the culturally appropriate terms of ideal-parenting,
before starting the research.
The PDT provided six parent role characteristics that can be more or less present in parents
depending on the culture of parents or their children’s age (Mowder, 2005). The six role
characteristics proved to be very useful for identifying different elements of the parent role in both
cultures and for parents of children of all ages. This affirms the theory as described by Mowder
(2005). The only remark based on this research is that the seventh characteristic, negativity, that is
described in later research on the PDT (Mowder & Shamah, 2010), can be considered optional when
doing future research.
Limitations and Strength
This study had some limitations. Firstly, the sub questions that were formulated and used for
investigating the parent role, were based on Western knowledge about parenting, which meant that
experts were asked about parenting concepts that are important in Western cultures, such as taking
time for children and having conversations with children. This might have caused experts to
contribute less culturally specific parental perceptions.
This leads to the second limitation, which is the researcher’s positionality. Since the
researcher was not only from a Western background but was also female, this may have increased the
social desirability of the experts' responses. The experts were namely mostly male and came from a
culture where women do not have the same position as men.
Thirdly, the generalizability of the results is limited because of the cultural specificity of
parenting perceptions (Schmidt et al., 2023). The results of this study can therefore only be
generalized to rural areas in the regions Odisha in India and the West-Nile region in Uganda.
Finally, one strength will be named, which is that the respondents in this study were not held
back during the interviews, which allowed them to speak passionately about their observations and
what they felt was most important for the researcher to know.
Future Research
One of the findings of this study was that in India and Uganda there is a clear role division
between fathers and mothers in parenting, and that the roles of fathers and mothers therefore differ.
Since this study did not actively look into the role differences between fathers and mothers, a first
recommendation for future research about parenting practices is to research these roles separately.
Furthermore, this research explained how Western parenting practices are widely promoted,
and that at least in India and Uganda a Western approach to parenting is not always suitable.
Therefore a recommendation for future research is to look into how intervention developers can be
encouraged into tailoring their interventions to the needs of the target population, even when
influential organizations like the WHO and UNICEF have a different agenda.
 All in all, this thesis is just another example of how important it is to take into account
specific cultures and parenting practices of local people, when you try to improve the lives of these
very people through intervention implementation.
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 Acknowledgements
“All good things come to an end”. In the same way this thesis writing process has now come
to an end. For half a year I have poured heart and soul into conducting this research and writing down
the things that I learned, to share it now with you. Luckily I did not have to go through this process
alone. First of all, I want to express my gratitude to my university supervisor, Tjitske. Without you,
your guidance and feedback, it would not have been possible to complete this master thesis. I am also
grateful for the organization Help a Child, and all the amazing colleagues, which contributed to me
having a great time at the organization and getting a representative experience of how it is to work in
an international development organization. I especially would like to thank my internship supervisor,
Liesbeth, who helped me find my respondents and gave me all the time I needed for completing this
thesis. I also want to express my sincere gratitude to the respondents who gave their time and energy
to speak with me and were very open about their (personal) experiences with parenting. You have
made this thesis possible!
Then I still would like to thank my husband for encouraging me to follow this master’s in the
first place and supporting me in completing it. I would like to thank my daughter for giving me
insight into what parenting is, which helped me to connect with this topic and with the respondents in
a way I was not familiar with before I became a mother. Last of all, but most importantly, I want to
thank God, who has been there with me all my life, but also during this master’s and this master
thesis, in all my struggles, in all my victories and who I know will also be there when it is time to look
for what is the next step. The end.