Practical Research 2 HANDOUT

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 SJNHS-SENIOR HIGH DEPARTMENT
BRIEF INTRODUCTION
Human history abounds with problems. Problems are everywhere in different variety in different perspective which
affect mankind. Problems are observed along political, social, environmental and many aspects of life. This may between
individuals, groups or in an organization. In that, mankind wants solution to these problems. These solutions should not be
only effective but also be acquired and used for improvement. To be able to achieve that, solutions must be based in
knowledge, not on mere beliefs, guesses, or theories. To acquire this knowledge, it requires a well-planned and systematic
procedure and should be continuously evaluated on its accuracy and usefulness. In that, RESEARCH has been devised to
meet this need.
Research is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. It may in the form of qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative researches are those studies in which the data concerned can be described without the use of numerical data
while quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers. Quantitative research
designs use numbers in stating generalizations about a given problem or inquiry in contrast to qualitative research that
hardly uses statistical treatment in stating generalizations. The numbers in quantitative research are the results of objective
scales of measurements of the units of analysis called variables.
Research findings are subjected to statistical treatment to determine significant relationships or differences between
variables, the results of which are the bases for generalization about phenomena.
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

What is INQUIRY? is to look for information by asking various question about the thing you are curious about. It
is a learning process that motivates you obtain knowledge or information about people, things, places, or events. It is defined
as “seeking for truth, information or knowledge”. Information or knowledge gains in asking questions. The process of inquiry
begins with gathering information and data through applying the human senses. Every individual carry on the process of
inquiry from birth to death. They say “the more you ask questions, the more you know and understand what things ought to
be.
What is RESEARCH? is to discover truths by investigating on your chosen topic – scientifically systematic way
– simple to complex/ pattern of thinking. It is a cautious consideration of phenomenon, a process of inquiry. It must be based
on knowledge and not on beliefs. It is also a product of an experiment done.
*Both involves investigative work in which you seek information about something by searching or examining the
object of your research.
What is RESEARCH?
Research was coined from the word “cerchier” which means to seek, and “re” which means to repeat.
Research is a scientific, experimental, or inductive manner of thinking (Baraceros,2016).
Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information in order to increase our
understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned (Leedy & Ormrod,2013).
Practical research aims to discover truths about topics that interests or affects the researcher(s) in order to
improve.
What research is NOT??? (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013)
1. Research is not merely gathering information.

2. Research is not merely rummaging around for hard-to-locate information.
3. Research is not merely transporting facts from one location to another.
-DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena through
the use of computational techniques. It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results
that can be generalized to some larger population and explain a particular observation. Simply, quantitative research is
concerned with numbers and its relationship with events.
Quantitative Research, through the use of computational procedures, is an objective, methodical experiential
investigation of recognizable phenomena. It is highlighted with numerical analysis of data expecting that the results that
can be generalized to some bigger population and describe a particular observation having no biases. The primary concern
of quantitative research is numbers and its relationship with events
Quantitative Research is a type of research which use computational techniques, an objective, and systematic
empirical investigation of observable phenomena. It is important to note that quantitative research is more on numerical
analysis of data. The gathered numerical data yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and
explain a particular observation. Quantitative research is deals with numbers and its relationship with events.
✓ The quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers.
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✓ Expressions like numerical forms, objective thinking, statistical methods, and measurement signal the existence of
quantitative research.
✓ The term NUMERICAL, is a descriptive word pertaining to or denoting a number or symbol to express how many,
how much, or what rank things are or have in this world.
✓ Expressing meaning through numerals or a set of symbols indicates: Specificity; Particularity; Exactness of
something.
Classification of Quantitative Research:
1) EXPERIMENTAL – (1) True experimental (2) Quasi-experimental (3) Single subject (4) Pre-experimental
2) NON-EXPERIMENTAL – (1) Survey (2) Historical (3) Observational (4) Correlational (5) Descriptive (6) Comparative
research
An example that we can give for this study is a study comparing the performance of Grade 12 in San Joaquin
National High School and Malaga National High School in Physical Science when ICT is integrated in teaching. This can be
approached by getting the average performance of both schools before and after integrating ICT. Then the averages can
be compared and analyzed to see the differences or effectiveness. In this case, numbers are used as data for analysis.
Another is surveying what do viewers in Burgos, La Union prefer to watch: is it GMA dramarama or ABS-CBN Golden
Kapamilya noontime show. In here, it may be approached by making a survey questionnaire asking for the preference of
viewers in Burgos, La Union.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Generally, quantitative researches are classified into non-experimental and experimental as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Matrix on Quantitative Research
Types of
Quantitative
Research
NON-
EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL
DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL QUASI

EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTAL
1. Non-Experimental Research.
This kind of research allows the researcher to either describe a situation or phenomenon or the relationship between
two or more variables without any interference from the proponent. There are two major kinds of non-experimental research.
These are as follows:
A. Descriptive Research. It deals with describing the nature, characteristics and components of the population or
a phenomenon. Manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect is not applicable in relating to the phenomenon.
This design attempts to determine the frequency with which it occurs and to find general attributes of the presently existing
situation. Descriptive research is used if, for example: You want to know how many hours senior high school students spend
in surfing the internet or the number of malnourished students who failed in the achievement test, and how healthy is the
food served during recess in the public schools.
(Degree of control (Code words to

(Purpose) (Time Frame) over factors or look for in (Example)
precision) research articles)
Describe the
Current None or low Describe Interview Survey of students who are
characteristics of a
interested in sports
certain phenomenon
B. Correlational Research. It is primarily concerned with an orderly or systematic investigation of the nature of
relationships, or associations between and among variables without necessarily investigating into casual reasons underlying
them. Furthermore, it is also concerned with, the extent of relationships that exists between or among the variables. For
example, if Performance in Mathematics can be used to predict performance then, the higher the Mathematics grade, the
higher most likely be the score in Practical Research 2. Correlational research is employed if you like to know, for example,
if the following factors are related to each other: sex and mathematical ability, age and leadership style, and occupation
and life span.
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Current or An investigation that focuses on
Relationship
Examine the Past the relationship between the
Related to
relationships (correlation) Low or medium number of hours of television
associated with
between variables Future watching and grade-point
Predicts
(prediction) average
2. Experimental Research.
This kind of research is centrally concerned with constructing research that is high in causal (internal) validity. There
are two major kinds of experimental research. These are the following:
A. True Experimental Research. This kind of research can be identified by three characteristics: randomly formed
groups, manipulation of the treatment (the IV), and comparisons among groups. The purpose is to test the true cause and
effect relationships of variables involve in the study. According to Prieto, et al., it offers the highest internal validity of all the
designs.

To test for true cause Function of Cause The effect of preschool language
- and – effect Current High comparison program on the language skills
relationships Between Effects of of inner-city children
B. Quasi-Experimental Research. This kind of research is almost the same as that of True Experimental Design.
The only difference is the absence of random assignment of subjects to other conditions. Prieto, et al. added that the
commonality between the quasi-experimental and true experimental research is that some subjects receive intervention
and provide data likely to reflect its impact.

Use to estimate the
causal impact of an
Function of Cause
intervention on its The effect of reading programs
Current Medium-high comparison
target population to students’ comprehension
Between Effects of
without random
assignment
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. OBJECTIVE.
Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere
intuition and guesses. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem.
2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS.
The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. The research questions are well-defined for which
objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered.
3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS.
Standardized instruments guide data collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data. Data
are normally gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics of the
population like age, socio-economic status, number of children, among others.
4. NUMERICAL DATA.
Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in order to show trends, relationships or
differences among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the evidence collected.
5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES.

To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large
sample size, depending on how the characteristics of the population vary. Random sampling is recommended in
determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.
6. REPLICATION.
Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing validity
of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions.
7. FUTURE OUTCOMES.
By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated
thus predicting future results. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.
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STRENGHTS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
STRENGHTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• The advantages of quantitative research include the following:
1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving it.
Because of bigger number of the sample of a population, the results or generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since
it provides numerical data, it can’t be easily misinterpreted.
2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to comprehend a huge amount of
vital characteristics of data.
3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external factors, and so can be seen as real and
unbiased.
4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically valid random models, findings
can be generalized to the population about which information is necessary.
5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different areas or over
time with formulation of comparable findings.
6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a
final answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to follow.
WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:
1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the sample is, the more
statistically accurate the findings are.
2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in
reaching out to these people and in reproducing questionnaires.
3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does not
consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research.
4. Much information are difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically on sensitive issues like pre-
marital sex, domestic violence, among others.
5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must be
on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
Standards Qualitative Quantitative
Mental survey of reality Results from social interactions Exists in the physical world
Cause-effect relationships Explained by people’s objective Revealed by automatic descriptions

desires of circumstances or conditions
Researcher’s involvement with Subjective; sometimes personally Objective; least involvement by the
the object or subject of the study engaged researcher
Expression of data, data analysis Verbal language (words, visuals, Numerals, statistics
and findings objects)
Research plan Takes place as the research proceeds Plans all research aspects before
gradually collecting data
Behavior toward research Desires to preserve the natural setting Control or manipulation of research
aspects/conditions of research features conditions by the researcher
Obtaining knowledge Multiple methods Scientific method
Purpose Makes social intentions Evaluates objectives and examines

understandable cause-effect relationships
Data-analysis technique Thematic codal ways, competence- Mathematically based methods

based
Style of expression Personal, lacks formality Impersonal, scientific, or systematic
Sampling technique More inclined to purposive sampling or Random sampling as the most
use of chosen samples based on some preferred
criteria
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NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS
People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to improve or enhance
ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or simply to find answers to questions or
solutions to problems in daily life. Research findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws,
rules and regulations, as well as policies, among others. Widely, quantitative research is often used
because of its emphasis on proof rather than discovery.
In recent times, research studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention. Then, only the faculty in higher
education has so much interest and conduct researchers, but now even the teachers in the basic education are engrossed
in researches and devote time and effort in conducting researches to improve educational practices that may lead to more
quality learning of the students. Many teachers do action researches because there is a serious need to identify the problems
of the deteriorating quality of education.
By doing so, they can address systematically and make educational decisions regarding the problems met. Innovative
teaching strategies are product of research. In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic,
empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective
of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental
connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Health Sciences
(Medical Technology, Dentistry, Nursing, Medicine, etc.) use quantitative research designs like descriptive, pre-
experimental, quasi-experimental, true-experiment, case study, among others.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT (ABM)
Researches can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is needed and ensure the development of
product is highly targeted towards demand. Businessmen can also utilize research results to guarantee sufficient distribution
of their products and decide where they need to increase their product distribution. Conducting researches can also help a
business determine whether now is the proper time to open another branch or whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It
may also help a small business decide if a procedure or strategy should be change to meet the requirements of the customer
base. Research is important for any organization to remain in the market. The primary function of research in ABM is to
correctly determine its customers and their preferences, establish the enterprise in the most feasible location, deliver quality
goods and services, analyze what the competitors are doing and find ways on how to continuously satisfy the growing and
varied needs of the clients.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is a research method of combining qualitative and quantitative research data. It is concerned with
exploring connections simultaneously, amidst cultural differences, alternatives and identity. In the contemporary academic,
socio-cultural and political climate these concepts have immense symbolic overtones. Quantitative research is use in
Anthropology in many aspects. Like, true experiments may use in studying people provided that you follow certain steps
(Bernard, 2004). This is to look into the Effects of an intervention in ethnic behavior of a group. In here, you need at least
two groups, called the treatment group and the control group. On group gets the intervention and the other group don’t.
Next, individuals may be randomly assigned, either to the intervention group or to the control group to ensure that the groups
are equivalent. Then, the groups are measured on one or more dependent variables; this is called the pre-test. After which,
the intervention is introduced. Lastly, the dependent variables are measured again. This is the post test. True in experiments
with people in laboratory are also common. Laboratory experiments often produce results that beg to be tested in the natural
world by Anthropologists. Aaron and Mills (1959, as cited by Bernard, 2004) demonstrated in a lab experiment that people
who go through severe initiation to a group tend to be more positive toward the group than are people who go through a
mild initiation. They reasoned that people who go through tough initiation rites put a lot of personal investments into getting
into the group. Later, if people see evidence that the group is not what they thought it would be, they are reluctant to admit
the fact because of the investments. In Field, Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3-year ethnographic study in middle
school. During the first year, they noticed that African-American and while children seemed to react differently to “mildly
aggressive acts’ – things like bumping in the hallway, poking one another in the classroom, asking for food, or using another
student’s pencil without permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the school, but during interviews
while students were more likely to report being intimidated by their African-American peers than vice versa (Sagar &
Schofield, 1980, as cited by Bernard, 2004)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION
Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a particular communication phenomenon might
generalize to a larger population. For example, researchers can advance questions like “What Effect do punitive behavioral
control statements have on a classroom? What communicative behaviors are associated with different stages in romantic
relationships? What communicative behaviors are used to respond to co-workers displaying emotional stress? (Allen,
Titsworth, Hunt, 2009)
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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and SPORTS MEDICINE
Quantitative research is used to analyze how sports may be used as an alternative way of medicating an illness.
An example is the research done by University of Eastern Finland which investigated the relationship between mushrooming
of fast food chains and obesity, as well as the intervention needed to prevent children’s obesity from reaching serious
proportions. The research focused on the children’s physical activity and physical inactivity and the concomitant impact on
the children’s amount of adipose tissue (fat mass) and the endurance fitness. The study is used to analyze certain the effect
of physical activity in weight control.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION
Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly observational research based on surveys or
correlational studies. The designs test interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or assessment with an
experimental group. Either a comparison or controlled group learners may allow researchers to overcome validity concerns
and infer potential cause-effect generalizations. Researchers are using to cope with the emerging trends in recent times.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Relationship Questions in today’s quantitative trend tend to explore how one behavior exhibited by people is related
to other types of behavior. Examples are verbally aggressive behaviors related to physical aggression – that is, when a
person has a level of verbally aggressive behavior, does he or she tend to be physically aggressive? Are certain supervisor
communication skills related to the emotional experiences of employees? Questions of difference explore how patterns of
behavior or perceptions might differ from one group or type of a person to another: Do people with disabilities experience
emotional labor differently from those without disabilities? Do women perceive talkativeness (or lack of it) differently form
men? Do communication styles differ from one culture to the next? (Alle, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009). When quantitative
researchers explore questions of differences or questions of relationships, they do so in an attempt to uncover certain
patterns of behavior. If the researcher discovers that a certain relationship exists in sample that she or he has drawn form
the population, she/he is then in a position to draw generalizations about patterns expected of human behavior.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Quasi Experiments are most often used in evaluating social problems. Suppose a researcher has invented a
technique for improving reading comprehension among third graders. She/he selects two third grade classes in a school
district. One of them gets the intervention and the other doesn’t. Students are measured before and after the intervention
to see whether their reading scores improve. This design contains many of the elements of true experiment, but the
participants are not assigned randomly to the treatment and control groups.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and PSYCHOLOGY
Mertens (2005) says that the dominant paradigms that guided early psychological research were positivism and its
successor, post positivism. Positivism is based on rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis
Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Immanuel Kant. the underlying assumptions of positivism include the belief that the
social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a method for studying the social world that is
value-free, and that explanations of a causal nature can be provided.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, and MATHEMATICS
Medical practitioners, for example, conduct researches to obtain significant information about diseases trends and
risk factors, results of various health interventions, patterns of care and health care cost and use. The different approaches
to research provide complementary insights. Researchers help in determining the effectiveness and even side effect of
drugs and therapies in different populations and various institutions. It is also necessary in evaluating experiences in clinical
practice in order to develop mechanisms for best practices and to ensure high quality patient care. Researchers in these
fields ultimately aim for man’s longevity. As for engineers, architects, and other builders, research helps in providing designs
which are creatively beautiful and at the same time give more convenience and efficiency as they utilize modern technology
to adapt to the ever-changing society. New materials and procedures may be developed so as to further strengthen the
structural materials than can withstand various calamities and disasters.
THE IN RESEARCH
In research, a variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive
values or properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988). Variables are “changing qualities or characteristics”
of persons or things like age, gender, intelligence, ideas, achievements, confidence, and so on that
are involved in your research study.
Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages of different
persons have different values; so with their size, height, weight and income. The phenomenon of
variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the motivating factors of the research undertaking.
The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the fundamental
concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory. Bernard (1994) defines
a variable as something that can take more than one value, and values can be words or numbers.
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A variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured
or observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).
BASIC TYPES OF VARIABLES:

1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are invariably called
treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the
conditions that act on something else to bring about changes.
EXAMPLE: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of SJNHS senior high school students.
STUDY HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the performance of the students.
EXAMPLE: To determine the positive effects of a modern grammar theory called SFG (Systematic Functional
Grammar) on IC (Intercultural Competence).
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the
influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable.
EXAMPLE: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of SJNHS senior high school students.
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study habits of the students; if the
students change their study habit the academic performance also change.
EXAMPLE: To determine the positive effects of a modern grammar theory called SFG (Systematic Functional Grammar)
on IC (Intercultural Competence).
3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and dependent variables,
and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards payment is negative, loan
repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment would be high.
EXAMPLE:
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4. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES - It is possible that one, two, or more variables or extra variables crop up to create impact
on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Also called as “nuisance variables”.
Extraneous variables are called Participant Variables if they refer to the moods, emotions, or intelligence of the subject.
Extraneous variables are called Situational Variables if they pertain to nature of the place: smelly, chilly, cold, hot,
spacious, and the like.
5. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured in the study because they
potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control
these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of
the independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.
6. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their
influence cannot be directly detected in a study. Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the
study has been completed, because these variables may have operated to explain the relationship between the independent
variables and dependent variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed.
FOUR TYPES OF VARIABLES:

A. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable. This is any variable that has
limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number of children in
family. Discrete variable may also categorize into:
1. NOMINAL VARIABLE – represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. It represents categories
that cannot be ordered in any particular way. It is a variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more categories
but does not imply ordering of cases.
EXAMPLES:
- Biological Sex (Male/Female) - Political Affiliation
- Blood Type - Zip code
- Race - Eye Color
- Political Party - Religion
2. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. This variable has
two or more categories which can be ranked.
EXAMPLES:
- Grade level - Socio-economic status

- Satisfaction rating - Rank
- Education level - Income brackets
B. CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur within the population.
Its values can be divided into fractions. Examples of this type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Continuous
variables can be further categorized as:
3. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. It is a measurement
where the difference between two values does have meaning.
EXAMPLES:
- Employee’s net worth - Body Temperature
- pH level - SAT score (200-500)
4. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is absolute
zero. It possesses the properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none
of that variable.
EXAMPLES:
- dose amount - reaction rate, flow rate - distance
- concentration - pulse rate
- weight - length
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IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM
Generally speaking, a research problem is a situation that needs a solution. Statement of the problem describes an
issue currently existing which needs to be addressed. It also provides the context for the research study. It generates the
questions which the research study aims to answer. Statement of a problem is a clear description of the issue(s). It includes
the objectives, an issue statement, and a method to be used in solving the problem. Nevertheless, objectivity can be
incorporated by answering questions such as:
▪ Is the problem of current interest?

▪ Is the problem likely to continue in the future?
▪ How large is the population being affected by the problem?
▪ How popular, important or influential is the population?
▪ Will the gathered information about the problem have practical applications?
▪ Will the gathered information about the problem have theoretical applications?
▪ Would this study create or improve an instrument?
▪ Would this research findings lead to some useful change towards best practices?
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Sources of Quantitative Research Problem

1. Agencies of the government, or any non-government institutions
2. Your own experience or genuine interest in something
3. Previous research findings which you want to validate or consider as studies
suffering from some inconsistencies or discrepancies.
4. Present political social or economic issues in society
5. Review of related literature
uidelines in Formulating a Quantitative Research Problem and Research Questions
1. Formulate a research problem that is researchable; meaning, open to empirical investigation.

2. See to it that you state your quantitative research problem clearly, concisely, and possibly, if under APA referencing
style, not beyond 12 words.
3. Have your research problem focus on a general understanding of your research topic.
4. Construct a research problem that mirrors the importance of carrying out the research for finding answers or
solutions to a problem.
5. Let your quantitative research problem state the variables and their relationships with one another.
6. Construct an introductory statement to present your research problem, which is the main problem of your research.
7. State your research questions or sub-problems, not in the form of yes-or-no questions, but in informative questions.
8. Express your research problem and research questions either in an interrogative or declarative manner.
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Research Topic - broad subject matter addressed by the study.

Example: SHS Mathematics
Research Problem - a general educational issue, concern, or controversy addressed in research that narrows the topic.
Example: Low grades of SHS students in General Mathematics
Purpose Statement - the major intent or objective of the study used to address the problem
Example: To improve the grades of SHS students in General Mathematics
Research Questions - narrows the purpose into specific questions that the researcher would like answered or addressed
in the study.
Example: How peer tutoring improves the grades of SHS students in General Mathematics?
FRAMING THE TITLE / WRITING THE TITLE OF INVESTIGATION:

A research title must…
-list key variables
-be written in scientific or technical style
-be concise (no more than 12 words) and non-repetitive
-reflect SHS students’ context
-not explicitly provide reference to the research design
Example:
Attitude of Digital Natives/Immigrants on Social
According to Watkins (2008:23) a research title should have the following characteristics:
1. Short, descriptive and to the point
2. Identify the main variables of the research
3. Allude to the area of study
4. Attract the attention and interest of the reader
5. Make academic sense
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WRITING THE TITLE OF INVESTIGATION:
• This should serve as the frame of reference for the entire study (Adanza, 1995).
• This must be brief, specific, and relevant to the researcher, to his work, and the community (Vizcarra, 2003).
• It answers the “what”, “who”, and “where”. The “when” is NOT included because it can be treated in “Scope and
Delimitation” part of the study.
• Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of …”, “A Study of …,” An Investigation of …,” “An Evaluation of …”, “An
Assessment of …”, and the like. All these things are understood to have been done or to be done when a research
is conducted (De Belen, 1984; Calderon and Gonzales,2004). These words just lengthen the title unnecessarily
without adding much meaning to it.
• Humorous or catchy titles are not appropriate for research papers (De Belen, 1984).
• If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid. All words in capital letters
(Calderon and Gonzales, 2004).
• Avoid the use of articles a, an, and the as a beginning word in the title.
• The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the population involved, and the period
when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF CALBAYOG CITY AS PERCEIVED BY THE SCIENCE
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 2007-2008
The contents as required by the guideline are:

Subject Matter : The Teaching of Science
Locale of the Study : High Schools of Calbayog City
Population involved : The Science Teachers and Students
Period of the Study : School Year 2007 – 2008
However, by observing all the other guidelines in title formulation we can write a brief and concise form of the given title
and a better one as follows:
TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF CALBAYOG CITY
It will be noted that the article THE, the population, the science teachers and students as well as the period of the
study, 2007-2008, are omitted when writing the concise form but they have to be mentioned in the scope and limitations of
the study.
of Research- Chapter 1
BACKGROUND OF STUDY - This is the description that leads the reader to understanding the research questions
and appreciate why they are asked.
In writing this section,
• Introduce and briefly define the variables under study
• cite the most important study or related literature
• be consistent with terms used
• ensure that paragraphs summarize unresolved issues, conflicting findings, social concerns, or
educational, national, or international issues.
• write the last paragraph to highlight the research gap
NARRATIVE HOOK - It serves the important function of drawing the reader into a study. It causes the reader to pay
attention; elicit emotional or attitudinal responses, spark interest, and encourage the reader to continue reading.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM - This section contains the purpose statements and the research question(s).
This is divided into two (2) major parts: The General Problem Statement and the Specific Problem Statement.
•The General Problem Statement is the whole focus, which is reflected in the title of the study. It can be
stated by briefly pointing out objectives, the subject, and the coverage as well as the time frame (Vizcarra, 2003).
•The Specific Problem Statements maybe stated declaratively or interrogatively. These are the subdivisions
or the breakdown of the main variable into its component. The pattern of stating or asking question should be based upon
the three (3) levels of inquiry as suggested by Dickoff (as quoted by Adanza, 1995).
“This study (or research) aims to… (make congruent with title).”
“Specifically, this research (or study) seeks to answer the following questions:”
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY - States the audience who will benefit from a study of the problem and explains how
exactly the results will be significant to them.
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION - This presents the coverage of the research in terms of location, time, respondents, etc.,
and the potential weaknesses or problems with the study identified by the researcher.
• Included in this portion are the boundaries like geographic, population, time, and variables to be discussed
(Castillo, 2001).
• Limitations of the study emanating from certain weaknesses/shortcomings should be noted in this section.
Reasons for excluding them in the investigation should be discussed.
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IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Research Problem: SHS Students’ Social Media Usage and Their Attention Span in Class
Background of Study
Over the past decade, social media has drastically increased its breadth in terms of the number of people who use
it significantly. In fact, Facebook alone, as of January 2017 has reached a record high of approximately 1,850,000,000
active users as compared to 400 million in 2012 (Smith, 2017). This exponential increase in social media activity has fueled
the interest of various researchers on the effect of social media usage. Social media are forms of electronic communication
devices through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content
(Merriam-Webster, 2017).
Due to this, several studies have examined the effect of social media on student academics (Matthews, 2014;
Johnson & Johnson, 2016), its relationship with stress (Santos, 2015; Chan, 2016), and attention span (Microsoft Corp.,
2014; Jackson, 2016)
According to a study funded by Microsoft in 2014, people now generally lose concentration after eight seconds, highlighting
the effects of an increasingly digitalized lifestyle on the brain. Attention span, as defined by Webster (2011) is the amount
of concentrated time a person can spend on a task without becoming distracted.
Microsoft found that since the year 2000 the average attention span dropped from 12 seconds to eight seconds.
That is less than the nine-second attention span of the average goldfish.
In the Philippines, there is still a limited number of literatures that directly links the use of social media to attention
span, especially those that look into the Senior High School (SHS) students and their ability to maintain concentration.
Furthermore, the international researches conducted on this topic does not provide evidence that the results transcend
through different cultural backgrounds and age groups.
It is in this light that the purpose of this study to determine whether social media usage possess any
significant relationship with the attention span of Grade 12 students of De La Salle Araneta University.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This section contains the purpose statements and the research question(s).
“This study (or research) aims to… (make congruent with title).”
“Specifically, this research (or study) seeks to answer the following questions:”
Phrase questions with the data to be collected in mind. Answer the questions and rephrase question, if your intended answer
does not match the question.
Examples:
Statement of the Problem
RQ: Does social media usage possess any relationship with a SHS student’s attention span in class?
Research Problem: SHS students’ use of social media and their attention span
This study generally aims to determine if SHS students’ use of social media possess significant relationship with
their attention span in class.
Specifically, this study shall seek answers to the following questions:
1. What is the level of social media usage of Grade 12 students of San Joaquin National High School (SJNHS) in terms of:
1.1 forms of social media,
1.2 frequency of social media use, and
1.3 mode of social media use?
2. What is the attention span in class of Grade 12 students of SJNHS?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the frequency of social media use and the attention span of Grade 12 students
of SJNHS?
RQ: Does a SHS student’s academic performance in Math have any association with his/her stress tolerance?
This study generally aims to determine if a SHS students’ academic performance in Mathematics have any
association with his/her stress tolerance.
Specifically, this study shall seek answers to the following questions:
1. What is the demographic profile of Grade 11 students of SJNHS in terms of:

1.1 sex,
1.2 SHS strand, and
1.3 final grade in General Mathematics?
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2. What is the level of stress tolerance of Grade 11 students of SJNHS?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the SJNHS Grade 11 students’ final grade in General Mathematics and
their level of stress tolerance?
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

States the audience who will benefit from a study of the problem and explains how exactly the results will be significant to
them.
▪ In writing this section,

▪ In paragraph form, cite beneficiaries (e.g., students, professors or teachers, university administrators, parents) of
results of study.
▪ For each beneficiary group, specifically describe how it will benefit from the findings.
Example:
Significance of the Study

This study will be able to contribute research-based data and knowledge on the possible relationship between SHS
students’ use of social media and their attention span. Furthermore, the society, in general can make informed decisions
that are relevant to this area.
More specifically, this study shall be beneficial to the various groups of people.
Students, not only in the senior high school level can use the information which this study will produce to regulate
and be more responsible their use of social media to hopefully improve their performance and concentration in class.
Teachers…
Parents…
Other researchers…
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

This presents the coverage of the research in terms of location, time, respondents, etc., and the potential weaknesses
or problems with the study identified by the researcher.
▪ What the researcher does NOT intend to do

▪ A researcher must appreciate that the research must define LIMITATIONS and inform others about what these
limits are.
In writing this section, cite data collection
▪ Identify school involved, number of classes, their grade/year level, number of participants (or respondents,
subjects), and topics of lessons covered (if applicable).
▪ State inadequate measures of variables, loss or lack of participants, small sample sizes, errors in measurement,
and other factors typically related to data collection and analysis.
SCOPE: Identify the boundaries of the study in terms of respondents, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues
to which the research is focused.
DELIMITATION: State the delimiting factors of the study by geographic location, age, sex, population size, etc.
Example:
Scope and Delimitation
The study is a correlational research focusing on the association between the use of social media and attention
span of 50 senior high school students of San Joaquin National High School under the General Academic strand in the first
term of the academic year, 2017-2018.
Furthermore, the study delimits itself to attention span in class and will not attempt to measure this variable in other
environment. Social media use will be limited to the use of social networking sites and exclude the use of the internet by
the respondents for educational purposes.
Example:
Research Title: Role of Mass Media in Educational Development of San Joaquin National High School
Scope and Delimitation

The scope of the study is limited to the role of Mass Media in educational development of Lala National High School
from 2010 to 2020. The scope of mass media equipment that is being used are the television, radio and other electronic
sets which are meant to give out information objectively through their effective usage to educate the poor masses. There
are 300 questionnaires to be adequately filled and returned by the target audience to ascertain some variables.
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LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL)
is one major activity in research that makes you examine or study again concepts or ideas related to your research
that people manage to publish in books, journals, or other reading materials in the past.
Purposes of Review of Related Literature (RRL)
▪ To find out the connection of your research to the current conditions or situations of the world.
▪ To know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to learn from them with respect to your own
research study.
▪ To discover the relation of your research with previous research studies.
▪ To obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of your research questions.
▪ To familiarize yourself with technical terms related to your research.
RRL in Quantitative Research
Two basic methods of reviewing related literature: TRADITIONAL (for qualitative research) and SYSTEMATIC
(for quantitative research) review.
Systematic Review, ‘a question-driven methodology’ is used by quantitative researchers who begin their research
work by asking questions – one big question that states the main problem of the research and a set of sub-questions that
deal with specific aspects of the research.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

1. Clarifying the research questions
2. Planning the research based on your understanding of the research questions
3. Searching for literature
4. Listing criteria for considering the values of written works
5. Evaluating the quality of previous research studies
6. Summarizing the various forms of knowledge collected
META-ANALYSIS in Quantitative Research

is a kind of review of related literature in which you re-examine and combine the results of two or more statistical
studies for coming out with a grand total to indicate stronger effects of the research outcome.
STANDARD STYLES IN REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, CITATION, OR REFERENCES

One cardinal principle in research is acknowledging or recognizing the owners of any form of knowledge you intend
to include in your research paper. Doing this practice signals not just honesty and courtesy to learned people whose ideas
lend information to your paper, but also indicates your appreciation for their contribution to the field.
The following are the three terms used to express your appreciation for or recognition of people’s ownership of
borrowed ideas:
1. ACKNOWLEDGMENT – the beginning portion of the work that identifies individuals who have contributed something for
the production of the paper.
2. REFERENCES OR BIBLIOGRAPHY – a complete list of all reading materials, including books, journals, periodicals, etc.
from where the borrowed ideas came from.
3. CITATION OR IN-TEXT CITATION – references within the main body of the text, specifically in Review of related
literature.
If you use the name of the author(s) in your writing, place the year of publication of the work in parentheses after
the author ’s name.
Ex. Mullane (2006) conducted research into the effect of…
If you refer to a work in the text of your paper, place the author's last name and the year of publication of the work
in parentheses at the end of the sentence.
Ex. The research conclusively proved a correlation between the results (Mullane, 2006).
REFERENCING STYLES
Aspect APA System MLA System
Full surname first, followed by full first
Full surname first, then followed by initials
Writing the Author’s name name, and optional initial of the middle
of first and middle name
name
Italicized title with only the beginning word
Underlined or italicized title with all content
Writing the title of the reading material capitalized (exception: capital for every
words capitalized
proper noun)
Writing the copyright date Written after the author’s name Written after the publisher’s name
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN LITERATURE-REVIEW WRITING

- The ethical way of literature writing tells you to acknowledge the owners of borrowed ideas and put quotation
marks around copied words from books or articles.
- Intentionally or negligently disregarding the use of quotation marks around words copied exactly is not only
unethical but an indication of gross plagiarism as well.
13
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Definition:
A conceptual framework is a graphical presentation of your concepts or ideas on the basic structure or
components of your research as well as on the relationships of these elements with one another.
It is a graph or non-prose material, specifically, a schematic diagram that shows a well-ordered elements of
research.
Purpose of Conceptual Framework

-Conceptual framework shows the organization, order, and direction of your research study.
-It is an essential initial activity of your research because by means of a schematic diagram, explained verbally as
well, it enables the readers to obtain a general understanding of the research.
-It also serves the purpose of clarifying concepts and their relationships with one another in a research study.
CONCEPT MAP
Made up of varied figures: lines, circles, boxes and other marks or symbols representing your concepts on these
varied features of your research- a conceptual framework looks like a map showing the main features or variables in the
research.
Through the proper connection of lines and pointing of arrows to boxes and other codes symbolizing your concepts
about the research, the readers are able to visualize a comprehensive picture of your study.
Conceptual Framework Vs Theoretical Framework

Conceptual framework enables the readers to clearly see in their minds the basic structure of the research and
the relationships of variables and other factual things involved in the study.
Theoretical framework, on the other hand, makes people know and understand evidence-based truths, concepts,
speculations, and assumptions underlying each aspect of the research and the relationships of these features with one
another.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

Research Problem or Topic:
“Improving Critical Thinking through Systematic Functional Grammar”
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

Systematic Functional Grammar is a modern language theory which states that man’s critical thinking increases
whenever he uses language for these reasons: first, for ideational function or for knowledge acquisition; second, for
interpersonal function or creating human relationships, and third, for textual function or for strategic and coherent expression
of ideas.
Research Topic
You are about to conduct a study to deal with the challenges on financial literacy of selected professionals
to be able to promote sound decision-making and ensure sustained economic growth and stability. Furthermore, you
wanted to investigate if there is a relationship between the level of financial literacy and factors affecting one’s
finances. This research topic was chosen because understanding the factors affecting a person’s finances, his/her
financial knowledge and sources of income would lead to formulation and implementation of possible ways to
strengthen financial status and financial literacy of the selected professionals.
Supposed that the formulated Statement of the Problem based on the background information are as follows:
1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents;
2. What is the level of the respondents’ financial literacy;
3. What are the factors affecting the respondents’ finances; and
4. Is there a significant relationship between the level of financial literacy of the selected professionals and
the factors affecting one’s finances?
By carefully studying the formulated Statement of the Problem stated above, we can say that the level of the
respondents’ financial literacy and the factors affecting their finances are the two variables under study.
14
If we are going to visualize the above said variables and its presumed relationship, the conceptual framework
will look like this:
The sample conceptual framework presented above can also be presented in a narrative way as:
The conceptual framework presents that research variables: respondents’ demographic profile, level of
financial literacy, and factors affecting respondents’ finances. It also shows that factors affecting respondents’
finances have something to do with their financial literacy level.
Examining the above example of how a conceptual framework is being prepared, one can say that conceptual
framework is an excellent visual summary of the study as it helps the reader to easily identify the research
variables and the presumed relationships amongst it. It is therefore important to carefully write the research
questions, identify the variables of the study, and craft the conceptual framework well to correctly identify the method
or the procedures to be used in the study.
HYPOTHESES IN RESEARCH
A Hypotheses is a tentative explanation or an answer to a question about variables, their relationships, and other
facts involved in the research.
Purpose of Hypotheses
1. They guide you on which aspect of the research to focus on.
2. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship between variables.
3. They give the right direction of the research.
4. They outline your thoughts on your manner of summarizing the results and of explaining the conclusions.
5. They push for an empirical study to prove the existence of relationship pf variables and the effects of independent
variable on the dependent variables.
CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESES
▪ NULL HYPOTHESES:
- is symbolized by Hn or H0.
- This state the absence of the relationships between independent variable and dependent variables.
▪ ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES:
- is symbolized by Ha or H1.
-This state the relationships between independent variable and dependent variables.
Example:
Research Problem: “Relationships between availability of internet connection at home and average sleeping time
of students.”
H0: There is no significant relationship between availability of internet connection at home and average sleeping time of
students.
H1: There is significant relationship between availability of internet connection at home and average sleeping time of
students.
Guidelines in Formulating Hypotheses

1. Express your hypotheses in a declarative sentence.
2. Support your hypotheses with ideas based on theories, known facts, previous studies, or your own experience and
wisdom.
3. Establish a logical relationship between the hypotheses and the research problem.
4. Have your hypotheses predict the nature of relationship between or among variables.
5. Ascertain the possibility of having some means of testing, analyzing, and investigating your hypotheses.
6. Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact, or specific language in stating the hypotheses.
15
Null and Alternative Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho) – it pertains to the claim that the means of the variables under study are equal or
the values are zero. It is an assumption that the values observed has no change.
Examples:
a. There is no significant relationship between the memory-boosting tablet and the students’ score in examination.
b. The memory-boosting tablet has nothing to do with the student’s score in examination.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1) – it is a statement that states the complete opposite of null hypothesis
as it suggests potential outcome of the study. It is also the so called affirmative hypothesis as it claims that there is
a significant change, effect, relationship, not equal, not the same, and not equivalent to zero in the value of the
means being studied.
Examples:
a. There is a significant relationship between the memory-boosting tablet and the students’ score in examination
b. The memory-boosting tablet significantly affects the student’s score in examination.
Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis

1. Directional hypothesis – the direction of the relationship between the variables is indicated.
Example:
Children of family with low income experience more inferiority complex than children of family with high
income.
2. Non-directional hypothesis – there is no indication of the direction of the relationship between the variables.
Example:
There is a difference between the inferiority complex level of children of family with low income and those of
family with high income.
Points to Remember!
o Reject the null hypothesis if the sample supports the alternative hypothesis.
o Accept the null hypothesis if the sample does not support the alternative hypothesis.
o If the study failed to reject the null hypothesis, it means that it needs to gather more data.
EXAMPLES OF APA REFERENCING STYLE
1. CITATION OR IN-TEXT CITATION

(Lopena, 2016)
(Olivarez, 2017)
(Cortez, Mabeza, Brado, 2016, pp. 120–130)
(Ligos et al., 2016)
According to Flores (2017)…
Olidan (2016) maintains that...
A study on the Pork Barrel Scam is a “doable research work”
(Abunda, 2016, p.78)
2. BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
One author
Floro, J. A. (2016). The Colds Virus. Quezon City: GB Press.
Gorrez, B. M. (2017). The Philippine Educational System. Manila: Adarna Publishing House.
Two Authors
Oropesa, N. C. and Danes, J. L. (2017). Coron Islands. Baguio City: KLM Company.
Reylado, M. R. and Sabando, J. M. (2017). Academic Institutions. Manila: National Bookstore.
Three Authors (List down the names in the order they appear in the title page.)
Regalaa, C. A., Bautista, C. C. and Laya, G. F. (2017). The Philippines’ Supreme Court Justice. Pasay City: ABC
Press.
Agoda, J. D. Oracia, B. C., and Torres, S. V.(2017). The Rescuers of super-typhoon Yolanda. Quezon City:
Abiva Publishing House.
Three or More Authors (Use the name of the first author listed on the title page.)
Bora, E. N. et al. ( 2016). BIR Regional Offices. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore.
Avilla, V. et al. (2016). Labour Unions. Pasig City: Hope Press.
16
Anonymous Author (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the title page, the name is given in brackets.)
[Candelario, E.]. The opium craze. (2016). Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.
[Amarillo, L.]. Pragmatism. (2016). Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication.
(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name before the closing bracket.)
[Candelario, E.?] The opium craze. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler

Parehas, G. F. (2016). ed. Folk’s lucky charms. Manila: PH Press.
Delarosa, L. F. (2016). comp. Philippine Banking System. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
Anahaw, J. S. ( 2016). Summer illnesses. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author

Garabillo, G. F. (2016). Science textbook writing. Edited by Gina Alano and Chito Fortez. Manila: PH Press.
Lirado, Izza F. (2016). Classroom observations. Compiled by Baby Rapido. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
Amante, J. S. ( 2016). Pope Francis. Translated by Carina Davalos. Makati City: Rex Press.
Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author

International Monetary Fund, 2008. Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and
Philippines. New York: International Monetary Fund.
No Ascertainable Publication Facts

Corona, L. The rise and fall of the Roman empire. (n.p., n.d.)
Socorro, D. Private law schools. (n.p., n.d.)
Popular Magazines
Alamares, M. (March 2016). “The French cuisine.” Panorama, pp. 23–26.
Paras, A. (May 8, 2016). “The 2016 ASEAN conference.” World Mission, p. 8.
Newspapers
Tan, C.S. “Posh subdivisions in Pasay City.” (2016). Philippine Daily Inquirer. 7 May.
Manila Bulletin. (2017). Editorial, 2 December.
Malaya. (2016). Editorial, 18 July.
Interviews
Corpuz, F. (April 2016). “Quantitative research: interview with Felicitas Corpuz.” April
2016. Interview by Anabelle Gomez. The Manila Bulletin, Claro, E. (May 2017). “High-school
institutions: interview with Dr. John.
Almeda.” Interview by Lina Carillo. The Daily Tribune.
Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works

Parayno, R. D. (2016). “Meta-cognitive reading among basic learners.”
Ph. D diss., U.P. Diliman.
Mariano, D. G. (2017). “English plus textbooks in college: discourse
Analysis.” M. A. UST.
Slides and Film’s Videocasettes

Prudencio, K. C. (2016). “Urban planning.” Quezon City: Palmall Press. slides.
Barcenas, E. A. (2017). “Philippine shopping malls.” Manila: SSG Press. filmstrip.
Materials through Computers
1. Signed article in a magazine

Alegre, R. (July 2016). “Social-media networks.” Personality growth. Retrieved from
http://www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/
2. Unsigned article in a magazine

“Unstructured interview. (August 2016).” Business Trends Magazine. Retrieved from
http://www.BusTRendscom/Bus Trends/Trends/ctshoot. htmlz.
3. Article in Journal
“Linguistic competence. (18 May 2016).” English Forum. Retrieved from http://www.jhu.edu/English Studies
Journal/vol.83/83.1strethson. htmlz.
4. Article in Newspaper
Davalos, J. “The era of globalization.” (21 December 2016). New Daily Life Star. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE. htmlz.
5. An Editorial
“Politics in the Philippines. (7 July 2016).” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from http://www.a-
pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.htmlz/
17
6. Online books
Silverman, F. D. (2016). American pragmatics. Retrieved from http: AMPRA 2 etext2014/14w0310txtz. Forbes, J.
G. (15–20, May 2017). “Non-verbal language.” Retrieved from dialog ERIC AED23376.
Additional References for Review of Related Literature:
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS CITED

Sarno (2010) enumerated the different characteristics of the literature and studies to be cited in the present study:
1. The materials must be as recent as possible, maybe 10 years back
2. Materials must be objective and unbiased as possible
3. Materials must be relevant to the study.
4. Coherence principle must be observed in writing literature review.
CITATION STYLE GUIDE

Reference is an important part of research paper. It must be consistent and easy to read across different papers.
Referencing is a method used to demonstrate to the readers that you have conducted a thorough and appropriate literature
search and reading.
1. APA (AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION). It is an author/date-based style. This means emphasis

is placed on the author and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
2. MLA (MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION). It is most often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly
in the USA. It is arguably the most well used of all the citation style.
REFERENCING SOURCES
Referencing your sources means systematically showing what information or ideas you are quoting or paraphrasing
from another author’s works and where they come from. It is appropriately is important for some reasons as stated below:
1. Adds authority to your work by supporting it with previous research.

2. Demonstrate reading and understanding of relevant literature.
3. Enables the reader to track down the original sources to check its quality
4. Ensures that you write in an ethical manner by giving credit to the original authors (Demster & Hanna, 2016)
HOW WILL THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE BE PRESENTED?
1. CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH. The literature is presented according to time they were written, following the time-
sequence pattern.
2. FINDING OR THEME APPROACH. Literature of similar findings or themes are grouped together.
3. COUNTRY APPROACH. Literature is classified by country or into specific country like the Philippines, or into foreign
countries.
ORGANIZING A LITERATURE REVIEW

A successful literature review should have three parts that break down in the following way:
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Defines and identifies the topic and establishes the reason for the literature review.
2. Points to general trends in what has been published about the topic.
3. Explains the criteria used in analyzing and comparing articles.
B. BODY OF THE REVIEW
1. Groups articles into thematic clusters, or subtopics. Clusters may be grouped together chronologically,
thematically, or methodologically (see below for more on this).
2. Proceeds in a logical order from cluster to cluster.
3. Emphasizes the main findings or arguments of the articles in the student’s own words. Keeps quotations from
sources to an absolute minimum.
C. CONCLUSION
1. Summarizes the major themes that emerged in the review and identifies areas of controversy in the literature.
2. Pinpoints strengths and weaknesses among the articles (innovative methods used, gaps in research, problems
with theoretical frameworks, etc.).
3. Concludes by formulating questions that need further research within the topic and provides some insight into
the relationship between that topic and the larger field of study or discipline.
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Course Content 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Its Meaning:
In any research type, much more, in a quantitative research where you do a great deal of abstraction and scientific
or logical thinking, a research design is a part and parcel of your study. By means of your research design, you are able to
make these aspects of your research clear: your methods or techniques in finding answers to your research questions and
in collecting data.
Coming out with the design of your research is not an initial act of your study. It not the starting period of your
research that makes you pour much of your time in mulling over your research problem and in obtaining background
knowledge about your research topic. Preparing the design of your research work takes place after finalizing your mind on
these major aspects of your research: research topic, background of the study, research questions, hypothesis and research
strategy like: case study; experimentation, survey, and action research, among others, that would introduce you to the
different data collecting techniques of observation and questionnaire. Simply stated, quantitative research focuses numbers,
statistics; and relationships between variables.
RESEARCH DESIGNS
DESIGN is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the mind. A design in the field of
research serves as a blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study.
Types of Quantitative Research Design
➢ DESCRIPTIVE - Describing characteristics; This design aims to describe systematically the facts and
characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately.
Types:
▪ Observational methods - are used to document and describe animal and human behavior in a natural or artificial
environment.
▪ Case Studies - Involves an in-depth study of an individual or a small group of individuals
▪ Survey research designs involves administering a survey to a sample or the entire population of people to
describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of the population
Use it when…?
✓ Describing trends
✓ Determining individual opinions about policy issues
✓ Identifying important beliefs and attitudes of individuals
Type of Survey Research Designs

• Cross-sectional survey is used when the researcher collects data at one point in time. The purpose is to
examines current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices. Compare two or more groups in terms of
attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices.
• Longitudinal survey designs involve the survey procedure of collecting data about trends with the same
population, changes in a cohort group or subpopulation, or changes in a panel group of the same individuals
over time. Evaluates a program.
Examples:
What are the sleeping habits of SHS students in SJNHS?
What factors affected the SHS track choice of SHS students?
➢ CORRELATIONAL - Studying relationships; aims to describe and measure the degree of association between
two or more variables or sets of scores.
Types:
▪ Explanatory research design determines the extent to which two variables (or more) co-vary.
Co-vary means to predict a score on one variable with knowledge about the individual’s score on another variable.
▪ Prediction research design seeks to identify variables that will predict an outcome or criterion. Variables can be
the predictor variable or the criterion variable.
Examples:
Does wearing school uniform have any relationship with students’ ability to participate in class?
Is there a relationship between phone brand and Facebook usage among teens?
➢ EXPERIMENTAL - Manipulating conditions and studying effects; An experiment tests an idea to determine
whether it influences an outcome. Used when the researcher wants to establish possible cause and effect
between variables.
➢
Types of Experimental Research Designs:
▪ In TRUE EXPERIMENTS, the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions of the experimental
variable.
EG: R O1 x O2
CG: R O1 x O2
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▪ QUASI-EXPERIMENTS include assignment, but not random assignment of participants to groups.
EG: O1 x O2
CG: O1 x O2
Examples:
Does the use of audio-visuals in class have any effect on students’ memory?
Does playing indie pop music improve students’ ability to solve Math problems while in class?
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Basic Concept
In research, SAMPLING is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or people to
answer questions meant to yield data for a research study. The entire population involved but for your research study, you
choose only a part of the whole.
The chosen ones constitute the SAMPLE through which you will derive facts and evidence to support the claims or
conclusions propounded by your research problem. The word population is a technical term in research which means a big
group of people from where you choose the sample or the chosen set of people to represent the population. Sampling
frame, on the other hand, is the list of the members of the population to which you want to generalize or apply your findings
about the sample, and sampling unit is the term referring to every individual in the population.
The sampling, as well as the research results, is expected to speak about the entire population. Unless this does
not refer to the population, in general, the sample-selection procedure has no scientific value.
FACTORS AFFECTING SAMPLE SELECTION
1. Sampling Size
2. Sampling Technique
3. Heterogeneity of Population
4. Statistical Technique
5. Time and Cost
CLASSES OF SAMPLING
➢ PROBABILITY SAMPLING – This is a sampling method that makes you base your selection of respondents on
pure chance. In this case, everybody in the population participates. All are given equal opportunity or chance to
form the sample that is capable of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population from where such sample
was drawn.
The following are the different probability sampling techniques:
▪ SIMPLE-RANDOM SAMPLING – choosing of respondents based on pure chance
▪ SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING – picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th member listed in the sampling frame
until the completion of the desired total number of respondents
▪ STRATIFIED SAMPLING – choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into strata, or sub-groups, or sub-
samples during the stage of the data analysis
▪ CLUSTER SAMPLING – selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate individuals such as choosing 5
classes of 40 students each from a whole population of 5,000 students.
➢ NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING - The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen randomly,
but purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to bias. Unlike the probability sampling techniques that
exclude the researcher's judgment, the non-probability sampling techniques succumb to the control, likes or wishes
of the researcher and to restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling- procedure.
The following are the non-probability sampling techniques:
▪ QUOTA SAMPLING - choosing specific samples that you know correspond to the population in terms of one, two
or more characteristics.
▪ PURPOSIVE SAMPLING - choosing respondents whom you have judged people with good background
knowledge or with great enthusiasm about the research.
▪ CONVENIENCE SAMPLING - picking out people who are easy to find or locate and willing to establish contact
with you
▪ SNOWBALL SAMPLING - selecting from several alternative samples like drug dependents, human traffickers,
street children, and other wayward and homeless; people whose dwelling places are not easily located for they
are like nomads moving from place to place
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SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND THE SAMPLE
Remember when you were taught how to write your scope and delimitation, you stated the subjects,
participants, or respondents of your study. You also described their characteristics which qualify them to
be the source of your research data.
The next question you have to answer is, how many of the subjects, participants, or respondents
should be selected as a source of data? This lesson will teach you how to describe sampling procedures
in quantitative research. Note that the sampling procedure should be aligned to your chosen research
design.
POPULATION AND SAMPLE
The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic of interest. The
population is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is understood that
this population possesses common characteristics about which the research aims to explore.
There are two types of population: target population and accessible population. The actual population is the
target population, for example, all Senior High School Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of Calbayog City. While the accessible population is the portion of the population in
which the researcher has reasonable access, for example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at San Joaquin
National High School – X.
When the whole population is too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a sample
representative is identified. Sampling pertains to the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the
research study. The goal is to get information from a group that represents the target population. Once a good sample is
obtained, the generalizability and applicability of findings increases.
The representative subset of the population refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior High School Students enrolled
in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a school, for example, constitute the population;
60 of those students constitute the sample. A good sample should have characteristics of the represented population
– characteristics that are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable
the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and delimitation and research design of the study.
Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

Heuristics. This approach refers to the rule of the thumb for sample size. The early established approach by Gay
(1976) stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p 172), sample sizes for different research designs are the
following:
Research Design Number of Subjects/Participants
Descriptive Research 10% to 20% maybe required
Comparative Research 15 subjects or groups
Lunenberg and Irby (2008), as cited by Barrot (2017, p 107), also suggested different sample sizes for
each quantitative research design.
Research Design Number of Subjects/Participants
Survey 800
Correlational 100 to 200
Ex post facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more
Literature Review. Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your current research study.
Since you are done writing your review of related literature and studies, you might want to recall how these studies determine
sample size. Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.
Formulas. Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable sample size. The common
formula is Slovin’s Formula.
600
SLOVIN’S FORMULA: n=
1 + 600 (0.05)2
𝐍 600
𝐧= =
𝟏 + 𝐍𝐞𝟐 1 + 600 (0.0025)
where: n is the sample size
600
=
N is the population size 1 + 1.5
E is the desired margin of error
= 𝟐𝟒𝟎
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RESEARCH INSTRUMENT, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
What do you think will happen if tools for building a house is not prepared meticulously? The same thing
when getting information for answers to a research problem, tools, or instruments should be prepared
carefully. In constructing a quantitative research instrument, it is very important to remember that the tools
created should require responses or data that will be numerically analyzed.
Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research
problems. Common instruments are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation
checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in quantitative research, while the last two instruments are
often in qualitative research. However, interviews and observation checklists can still be used in quantitative
research once the information gathered is translated into numerical data.
In constructing the research instrument of the study, there are many factors to be considered. The type of
instrument, reasons for choosing the type, and the description and conceptual definition of its parts are some of the factors
that need to be decided before constructing a research instrument. Furthermore, it is also very important to understand the
concepts of scales of research instruments and how to establish validity and reliability of instruments.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
➢ CONCISE. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick the answer without
even reading it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.
➢ SEQUENTIAL. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest to the
most complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents to answer.
➢ VALID AND RELIABLE. The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more appropriate
and accurate information.
➢ EASILY TABULATED. Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor should
be considered. Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the variable and research
questions are established. These will be an important basis for making items in the research instruments.
WAYS IN DEVELOPING RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your study.
1. First is adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies.
2. The second way is modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the
exact data that will answer the research problem.
3. And the third way is when the researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable
and scope of his current study.
COMMON SCALES USED IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
❖ LIKERT SCALE. This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked to rate
or rank statements according to the scale provided.
Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance learning.
Strongly Strongly
Items Agree Disagree
Agree Disagree
There would be difficulty in communicating
our concerns to our teacher.
There would be many distractions when
learning at home than in school.
❖ SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL. In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This
scale seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easier to construct.
Example: On a description of an active student in school activities.
Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Enthusiastic 5 4 3 2 1 Not Enthusiastic
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
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Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to establish its validity and reliability.
Types of Validity of Instrument

Face Validity. It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative Validity
judgment of the instruments as it “appear.” Just by looking at the instrument, the
A research instrument
researcher decides if it is valid.
is considered valid if it
measures what it
Content Validity. An instrument that is judged with content validity meets supposed to measure.
the objectives of the study. It is done by checking the statements or questions if
this elicits the needed information. Experts in the field of interest can also provide
specific elements that should be measured by the instrument. When measuring oral
communication
proficiency level of
Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds
students, speech
to the theoretical construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific measure
performance using
relates to other measures.
rubric or rating scale is
more valid than
Concurrent Validity. When the instrument can predict results similar to students are given
those similar tests already validated, it has concurrent validity. multiple choice tests.
Predictive Validity. When the instrument is able to produce results similar Validity also has
to those similar tests that will be employed in the future, it has predictive validity. several types: face,
This is particularly useful for the aptitude test. content, construct,
concurrent, and
predictive validity.
RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT
Test-retest Reliability. It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group
Reliability refers to of respondents twice. The consistency of the two scores will be checked.
the consistency of
the measures or Equivalent Forms Reliability. It is established by administering two identical tests
results of the except for wordings to the same group of respondents.
instrument.
Internal Consistency Reliability. It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is
reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also get one in similar items. There are
three ways to measure the internal consistency; through the split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-
Richardson formula.
THE INSTRUMENT – THE KEY TO FINDING THE ANSWER

1. This refers to the questionnaire or data gathering tool to be constructed, validated and administered.
2. If researcher-made, it must be tested for validity and reliability.
3. If adopted, the student should indicate its description as to its items, scoring and qualification.
4. The researcher must explain its parts, and how the instrument will be validated. The instrument to be
used should be appended.
A survey questionnaire is a commonly used type of instrument in research that lists questions about a topic
with spaces for responses.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS:
✓ Yes/No – Example: Do you consider research to be important?
✓ Recognition - Example: Which of the following do you consider in buying a phone?

___ brand name
___ price
___ specs
___ others, please specify
✓ Completion - Example: When I hear my phone ring, I _____________________
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✓ Coding - Example: I use my phone during class.
___ 4 Always
___ 3 Often
___ 2 Seldom
___ 1 Never
✓ Subjective - Example: How do you feel when you leave your phone at home accidentally.
Instrument Design: A good questionnaire must…

1. Contain different types of questions: personal, attitudinal or behavioral; sensitive questions (if
applicable).
2. Use strategies for good construction; uses clear language, makes sure that answer options do not
overlap; posing questions that are applicable to participants.
3. Valid and reliable. Underwent pilot testing to a small number of individuals.
Common Errors when constructing questions in questionnaire.

Examples:
1. Do you like cellphones? (Unclear, vague question)
Correct: Do you believe that students must be allowed to use cellphones during class?
2. Do you believe cellphones and laptops must be allowed for use inside the classroom?
(A combination of two questions)
Correct: Do you believe that laptops must be allowed for use inside the classroom?
Correct: Do you believe that cellphones must be allowed for use inside the classroom?
3. Do you consider a quadcore processor to be an important feature of a cellphone?

(Contains jargon)
Correct: Is the speed of response of the cellphone important to you?
4. Whenever the teacher is discussing in front of the class and a phone rings right in the
middle of it, it can be distracting. Do you find the ringing of a phone distracting enough to
take you out of your focus? (Too long)
Correct: Do you find ringing sounds of a phone distracting while in class?
5. Agree or disagree: The school should not discontinue its ban of cellular phones in class.
(Double negatives)
Correct: Do you agree that the school should continue banning phones in class?
In writing the instrument section;

1. What instruments will you use to gather data to answer your research questions?
Describe the instruments.
2. Why did you choose these instruments?
3. What are the major parts of your instruments including the major variables and sub-
variables to be measured?
4. What rating scale will you use?
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THE INTERVENTION: What treatment?
Clearly and completely describe how the intervention will be implemented, such that the reader can replicate the
intervention. Describe what happens in comparison group.
1. How many groups are there? Describe the group(s). If there are two, state the similarities and differences.
2. What will happen to each group in the experiment that you intend to do? Discuss the procedure step-by-step.
3. Explain what each participant will do in each step. Also, describe how long each of these steps will take.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Let others know step by step!
1. Describe whose permission will be sought and what arrangements need to be made to administer instruments.
2. After all permissions have been granted, discuss how the samples will be contacted and explain the process of
administering the questionnaires.
3. State how the questionnaires will be retrieved.
Sample:
The process for gathering the needed data in the study is described in the following steps.
1. The researcher shall seek the permission of the authors of the instruments that will be adapted in this study.
2. The researchers will secure permission of the school to obtain a list of SHS students from which the samples will
be selected. Also, a permission to conduct data collection will be sought from the concerned officials of the school.
3. The questionnaires shall be distributed to the selected samples during one of their classes with a permission from
the facilitating teacher and the note of approval of the school.
4. Questionnaires shall be retrieved the same day as they were given to ensure a higher return percentage of
questionnaires.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known. Once these data answers the
research problem, it becomes helpful to research. When research data appears to be measurable in the numerical form, it
is considered quantitative data. However, some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given
a numerical value. For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning, if it is categorized
and numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis.
TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA

The following are the common quantitative data gathering technique.
Observation. It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher records the
observation as seen and heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect observation by the use of gadgets or apparatus.
An observation checklist aid the researcher in recording the data gathered.
Survey. Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you use series of
questions or statements that respondents will have to answer. Basically, respondents write or choose their answer from
given choices. On the other hand, interview is when you ask respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are
doing quantitative research, it is expected that responses have numerical value either it is nominal or ordinal in form.
Experiment. When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous lesson that it
would use treatment or intervention. After the chosen subjects, participants, or respondents undergone the intervention, the
effects of such treatment will be measured.
THREE PHASES IN DATA COLLECTION

In doing research, data collection is a major component of research. Neglecting to clarify the collection procedure
would result in acquiring inaccurate data that will make you research study invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure is
given meticulous attention to gather appropriate data. You are making sure that data you will gather answers to your
research questions.
The data gathering procedure is presented in a paragraph format in your research paper. Basically, the contents
are the steps you are going to follow: (1) before you will gather the data, (2) what to do during the actual gathering of
data, and (3) the things to consider after data has been gathered. The following are the suggested steps but not limited
to it, are the procedures in gathering quantitative data.
BEFORE DURING AFTER

• Prepare the research • Clear the instructions provided to • Summarize the data gathered, in
instruments the respondents. a tabular form
• Identify the authorities that will • Administer the research • Analyze the summarize data
be involved and need to ask instrument or implement the corresponding to the research
permission research intervention, if questions.
• Determine the samples size and applicable.
corresponding respondents; per • Collect or gather or take note of
group if applicable. the responses.
• Ask consent form (if respondents
are 18 years old above) or
parent's consent (if minor).
• Pilot test the research instrument
if needed.
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PLAN FOR DATA ANALYSIS
In planning your data analysis in quantitative research, you also need to consider your research problem, type of
data, hypothesis, and scale used in your research instrument. This lesson focuses on designing your data analysis
procedure.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a manner that it will
yield answers to the research questions. During quantitative data analysis gathered information were break down and
ordered into categories in order to draw trends or patterns in a certain condition. In quantitative research, the numerical data
collected is not taken as a whole. In order to understand it better, it is analyze into components based on the chosen
research variables and research questions you are going to answer.
These numerical data are usually subject to statistical treatment depending on the nature of data and the type of
research problem presented. The statistical treatment makes explicit the different statistical methods and formulas needed
to analyze the research data.
PLANNING YOUR DATA ANALYSIS

Before choosing what, statistical test is appropriate for your research study it is important to determine what
statistical formation is applicable to your current study. In immersing yourself into planning your data analysis, you have to
decide what basic descriptive statistical technique you are going to use. Although this technique does not give you the
degree of association or effect between variables, this will help you to code and simply tabulate your data.
Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced data from your research sample.
Frequency distribution, measure of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and standard deviation are the sets
of data from DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS is used when the research study focuses on finding predictions; testing hypothesis;
and finding interpretations, generalizations, and conclusions. Since this statistical method is more complex and has more
advanced mathematical computations, you can use computer software to aid your analysis.
You also have to identify types of statistical analysis of variable in your quantitative research.
A univariate analysis means analysis of one variable. Analysis of two variables such as independent and
dependent variables refers to bivariate analysis while the multivariate analysis involves analysis of the multiple relations
between multiple variables.
Furthermore, selecting what test to use is basically done by identifying whether you will use parametric test or non-
parametric test. As these were already discussed in your Statistics and Probability subject, a summary of what to consider
is presented below:
In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in quantitative research, the purpose or objective of the research study
should be considered.
Test of Relationship between Two Variables

➢ Pearson’s r (parametric)
➢ Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
➢ Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One Group

➢ T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
➢ McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
➢ Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two Different Groups
➢ T-test for independent samples (parametric)
➢ Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)
➢ Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test More than Two Population Means

➢ Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)
Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact

➢ Regression (parametric)
26
Putting Puzzle Pieces Together
This section indicates how the data will be analyzed and reported; it should specify the qualitative and/or quantitative
methods that will be used in analyzing the data gathered for the research.
1. Describe analysis to be done for each research question, following sequence in Statement of Problem.
2. State if tests of hypotheses will be done and for what purpose.
3. Add scoring system for instruments.
4. Avoid giving formulas or standard procedures for statistical tools.
Sample:
To answer the questions presented under the Statement of the Problem, the following statistical tools will be
employed:
1. Percentages will be used to present and analyze data regarding the demographic profile of the respondents.
2. Weighted mean will be computed to represent the responses of each respondent to the questionnaire and their
attention span score while standard deviation will be used to determine the degree of variability in these values.
This mean shall be interpreted as follows:
3. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient will be used to determine the degree of relationship between
social media use and attention span. The correlation coefficient will be interpreted as follows (Dela Cruz, 2005)
PRESENTING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Indeed, designing the research methodology in quantitative research is quite challenging. At this point, it is assumed
that you are now ready to present your written output. You need to consider the parts of your research methodology; these
are:
Research Design
Research Population and Sample
Sampling Procedure
Research Instruments
Validity and Reliability of Instruments
Research Intervention (if applicable)
Data Collection Procedure
Data Analysis
All of these are written in paragraph format as part of your research methodology. In this lesson, you will be given
guidelines in presenting this research portion. After presentation, the most exciting part follows; and that is gathering your
data.
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

Collecting data is the first step you need to perform before you proceed in writing your data analysis and
interpretation. Data Collection involves obtaining relevant information regarding the specified research questions or
objectives. This can be done by utilizing research instruments that are either developed or adopted. In collecting the data,
the researcher must decide on the following questions: (1) Which data to collect? (2) How to collect the data? (3) Who will
collect the data? (4) When to collect the data? (Barrot, 2018, p138).
Quantitative research instruments comprise questionnaires, interviews, tests, and observation. On the other
hand, data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involve: (a) direct interaction with individuals on a one to
one basis, (b) and or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting.
When developing and utilizing a research instrument, the following steps are to be considered:
1. Be clear with your research question.

2. Plan how you will conduct the data collection.
3. Use appropriate research instruments.
4. Collect, tabulate, tally, and analyze the data.
5. Verify the validity and reliability of the collected data.
6. Present your findings.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of a series of questions about a research topic to gather data from the participants. It
consists of indicators that is aligned to the research questions. Gathering of information can be carried out in the following
methods: face to face, by telephone, or through e-mail, messenger, social media post, or using computer programs or forms
(Barrot, 2018, p 138).
In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches: (1) scale (usually Likert scale); and (2)
conversion of responses into numerical values,
e.g. strongly as 5, agree as 4, neutral as 3, disagree as 2, and strongly disagree as 1.
27
The terms survey and questionnaire have different meanings. A questionnaire is an instrument used to collect
data while a survey is a process of collecting, recording, and analyzing data. Questionnaires can be structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured.
There are three structures of making a questionnaire. The first, structured questionnaires employ closed-ended
questions. Unstructured questionnaires, on the other hand, use open-ended questions in which the research
participants can freely answer and put his thoughts into it. Lastly, semi-structured questionnaires are combinations of
both the structured and unstructured ones. Structured type is commonly used in quantitative studies because it is easier
to code, interpret objectively, and, most of all, easier to standardize.
Advantages of Using Questionnaire
1. Data can be quickly gathered from a big number of participants.

2. The participants are encouraged to be open to the researchers since their identity can be made anonymous.
Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire
1. The questions can be interpreted differently by the participants.

2. Some participants will not be able to complete the required responses.
3. Some questionnaires will not be returned on time.
4. Some questionnaires will be lost.
5. The answers from participants may lack depth.
Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection
1. Choose the method of administering the questionnaire.

a. Face-to-face Method. Use this when you need to capture the emotions, behavior, and non-verbal cues
of the participants
b. Online Method. Use this when behavior and non-verbal cues need not to be taken
2. Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts.
a. Personal information. This section which contains background information of the participants. (Names
are optional)
b. Main section. This lists the specific questions or indicators.
c. Open-ended question section. This contains additional information that might be needed. (This applied
only for quantitative research)
3. Make sure to craft questions and choices that are aligned with specific research questions or objectives.
4. Provide specific and clear directions for respondents in answering the questionnaire.
5. Use routing (directing) technique if there is a need to skip some items in the questionnaire.
6. Begin with the general questions first followed by the specific ones.
7. Prefer to have brief, clear, and concise questionnaire. Use simple terms.
8. Predetermined responses or choices should match the nature of the questions.
a. If the content is about belief, use agreement (strongly agree , agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)
b. If the questionnaire is about behavior, use extent (very great extent, great extent, moderate extent, small
extent, none at all)
c. If questions are about frequency, use frequency (always, frequently, sometimes, seldom, never)
d. If the content is about quality, use quality (excellent, very good, good, poor)
Later, these responses will be translated into numerical values (e.g. five-point Likert scale)
9. Avoid negative statements unless necessary.

10. Avoid leading and biased, double-barreled, and very sensitive questions.
11. Do not split the questions or choices over two pages.
12. If possible, schedule an appointment before distributing the questionnaires.
13. Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire especially for agency connected respondents.
14. Make a follow-up on the participants who did not to return the questionnaire.
15. Tally and encode the data immediately once you have collected them and archive them digitally.
TESTS
Tests are used for assessing various skills and types of behavior as well as for describing some characteristics.
There are two types of test used in quantitative research: Standardized test and Non-standardized test.
Standardized test is scored uniformly across different areas and groups. It is usually administered by institutions
to assess a wide range of groups such as students and test-takers. It is considered as more reliable and valid. Examples
are Achievement test, University Entrance Exam, Personality Tests, and the likes.
Non-standardized test may not be scored uniformly. It is administered to a certain set of people.
Types of Test Questions

1. Recall Questions. It requires participants to retrieve information from memory (e.g. fill-in-the blank test,
identification test, enumeration test, etc.)
2. Recognition Questions. It provides respondents to select from given choices the best or correct choice
(e.g. multiple-choice test, true or false test, yes or no test, etc.)
3. Open-ended Questions. It allows the respondents more freedom in their responses, expressing their
thoughts and insights (e.g. essay writing tests and other performance-based tests.
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Course Content 5: Finding Answers through Data Collection
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
The following table shows the types of test and examples
Type Subtype What the Participants will Do Example

Cloze test Supply words or phrases that Questionnaires can be structured, semi-
have been deleted/removed structured, or _____________.
from a test.
Recall Identification Provide an answer to the given What type of questionnaire employs close-
question using pure recall. ended questions?
Enumeration List down the answers, whether List the steps in conducting quantitative
chronologically or not. research.
Multiple Choose the best/ correct answer Which of the following does NOT belong to the
Choice from three to five options. group?
A. Collecting data
B. Tabulating data
C. Interpreting data
D. Differing data
Recognition
Matching Match the items in Column A Match the terminologies in Column A with their
with the items in Column B. synonyms in Column B.
Column A Column B
__1. Data A. Participants
__2. Respondents B. Representative
__3. Sample C. Information
Dichotomous Choose an answer from two Write TRUE on the space before each number
4 or False or
options either True if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is
Modified True or False. incorrect.
_____1. Data collection is the first step in
conducting quantitative research.
Non- Provide a lengthy answer in Explain the process of obtaining the sample
performance writing or orally. size from the population.
based
Open-Ended
Performance- Perform a task where they are Present a role play about conducting an
based expected to prepare a interview on study habits among students.
presentation or written work.
INTERVIEW
A quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s behaviors, opinions, values,
emotions, and demographic characteristics using numerical data.
Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Interviews
Quantitative Interviews Qualitative Interviews

It uses closed-ended questions. It uses open-ended questions.
It contains a rating scale or rubric. No rating scale or rubric needed.
Responses are numerical. Responses are non-numerical.
A large sample size is used. Small sample size is used.
Structured type is used to minimize “interviewer effect”, Unstructured, semi-structured, informal
which means that the responses of the participants may be interviews, and focus group discussions
affected by the behavior displayed by the researcher on the (FGD) are used.
manner that the questions are presented.
29
The questionnaire and quantitative interview are both highly structured, but here’s a distinction between the two:
Quantitative Interviews Questionnaires

Items are read to the participants. Participants answer on their own.
Researchers may ask follow-up questions. Researchers may not ask follow-up questions.
Useful when the target participants can’t answer a Not applicable for blind and uneducated (no read,
printed or encoded questionnaire (blind or no write) participants.
uneducated).
OBSERVATION
Observation is another method of collecting data that is frequently used in qualitative research. However,
it can be used in quantitative research when the observable characteristics are quantitative in nature (e.g. length,
width, height, weight, volume, area, temperature, cost, level, age, time, and speed)
Observation allows the researcher to observe the actual event or phenomenon. It has greater flexibility
in the observation method. However, observation may lack participant validity and may be prone to the
Hawthorne effect phenomenon. Furthermore, it is more exhausting and time-consuming especially when
observations need to be conducted for many years).
Forms of Observation
1. Controlled Observation. It is usually used in experimental research and is done under a standard
procedure. It provides more reliable data (obtained through structured and well-defined process). The
procedure can be replicated, and the data are easier to analyze. Lastly, the observer performs a non-
participant role (i.e. does not interact with the participants).
2. Natural Observation. It is carried out in a non-controlled setting. It has greater ecological validity (i.e.
flexibility of the findings to be generalized to real-life contexts). It also responds to other areas of inquiry
not initially intended by the researcher. Its major limitation is its strength to establish a causal
relationship due to the presence of extraneous variables which can affect the behavior of the
participants
3. Participant Observation. It allows the observer to become a member of the group or community that
the participants belong to. It can be performed covertly (i.e. participants are not aware of the purpose
behind the observation. It can be done also overtly, wherein participants know the intention or
objectives of the observation.
Different Roles of a Researcher during a Participant Observation

Observational
Description
Role
Complete Observe the spontaneous natural behavior of the participants with as few external
observer factors affecting it as possible. The observer is neither seen nor noticed by the
participants. The participants are less prone to the Hawthorne effect.
Observer as Researcher does not prioritize recording spontaneous or natural behavior with as few
participant external factors affecting it as possible. The observer is known and recognized by the
participants as part of their group or community but has limited interaction with them.
Participant as Researcher does not primarily aim to capture spontaneous or natural behavior. The
observer observer is considered a researcher and not a member of the group or community which
is being investigated. However, the observer is fully engaged with the participants.
Complete Researcher is to observe the spontaneity or natural behavior of the participant with as
participant few external factors affecting it as possible. Taking this role raises ethical issues about
possible deception. He acts like an “undercover” member of the community. He fully
involved with the participants who are unaware that they are being observed.
30
Guidelines in Conducting an Observation
Before the Observation During the Observation After the Observation

• Clarify the research • Make sure to note the • Code or arrange the data
objectives. date, time, and place gathered according to the
• Be ready with observation where the observation is variables of the study.
checklist. conducted. • Tabulate the data, use
• Determine your time of • Limit the person who will numerical value for
observation and collection observe. quantitative research.
technique. • Explain the purpose of the • Review the data gathered
• Record only relevant observation to participants to determine the gaps
information. if applicable. before proceeding.
• Prepare consent form for • Avoid causing disruptions
human observation. while observing.
• Make sure to guarantee
anonymity of paticipants.
• Make use of multiple
recording schemes such
as taking notes, videos,
audios, and photos but
with proper ethical
considertions.
Ethical Considerations in Data Collection of Quantitative Research

Ethical considerations should always be practiced especially when human participants are involved.
Researchers ensure that participants are treated properly; especially during data collection. The use of consent
form respects the right of every participant to be informed and to make voluntary participation.
INFORMED CONSENT FORM is a document that provides the participants with the information they need
in deciding whether they will participate or not in your study. The informed consent form must be accomplished
before gathering data from the participants. This document must be signed both by the researcher and the
participant as they agree to the conditions during the actual conduct of the data collection process. It usually
contains the following:
1. Background of your study (Title of the Study, Purpose of the Study)
2. Name of Researchers and the Institution you are affiliated with
3. Data Collection Procedure
4. Possible discomfort or risk factors
5. Anonymity of the participants and their responses
6. Termination of Research (may refuse to participate anytime)
7. Authorization of the Participants (participants acknowledge the conditions that they will be subject to the
study)
DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

Data presentation and analysis is one of the most essential part in your research study. An excellent
data presentation can be potential for winning the hearts of the panelists, clients, or simply the readers. No matter
how good your data, if it is not well presented, you will not be able to earn the preferences of those whom you
are trying to persuade. Good data presentation matters.
The following are the significant steps you need to take note in preparing and writing your data analysis
after gathering the data:
(1) encode and organize your data for analysis according to the data asked by your research questions;
(2) use your data for statistical tests you have identified in Module 4. You may ask assistance from your
statistics and research teacher;
(3) present the result in tabular or graphical form appropriate for your data and research purpose;
(4) write the interpretation for each table or graph highlighting the significant results and its implications;
(5) support your findings from relevant literature and studies you have cited in the Chapter 2 of your
research paper; and
(6) edit the grammatical and typographical errors in your interpretation. You may use
www.grammarly.com to edit your work.
(7) Submit your work using the format given to you. Remember the institutional format of your school.
31
TECHNIQUES IN DATA PROCESSING
Remember to organize your data based on your research questions. The data processing involves three
actions: editing, coding, and tabulation.
Editing is a process wherein the collected data are checked. At this stage, handling data with honesty
should be employed. When you edit it is expected that you will not change, omit, or makeup information if you
think that the data you collected is insufficient or does not meet your personal expectations. The main purpose
of editing is for checking the consistency, accuracy, organization, and clarity of the data collected. Data editing
can be done manually like traditional tallying or with the assistance of a computer or combination of both.
Coding is a process wherein the collected data are categorized and organized. It is usually done in
qualitative research. In quantitative research, coding is done to assign numerical value to specific indicator
especially if it is qualitative in nature. This numerical value will be useful when you are going to analyze your
data using statistical tool. Just make sure that the categories created are aligned with your research questions.
Consider the following example.
Students’ reasons for lack of motivation is qualitative in

Tired nature. The research will then assign a numerical. Data
also shows that this will be summarized using frequency
Sleepy Bored and percentage distribution.
Assigned values:
Student's Sleepy – 1
Lack of Tired – 2
Motivation
Bored – 3
TABULATION is a process of arranging data. In many studies, table is used to do this process.
Tabulation can do manually or electronically using MS Excel. Again, organize the data based on your research
questions. Before inputting your data into the table, it will be helpful to review your statistics class on how to
arrange data according to the statistical techniques you will use. Take note that the digital tool you are going to
use will also matter on how you are going to tabulate your data; like MS Excel, Minitab, or other digital tools have
different ways of entering your data. Correct arrangement of your data will be helpful during actual data analysis.
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The next step after editing, coding, and tabulating the data is to present them into graphical or visual
presentation called non-prose materials. The purpose of presenting the data in this way is to make the outlined
of the results more presentable. Non-prose materials are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams,
illustrations, drawings, and maps.
In quantitative research, tables and graphs are usually used. Standard format in presenting the data into
a table or a graph like its title, labels, contents, and many more can be followed as well when school institutional
format is not provided or identified. You may visit APA, CMOS, or MLA on how to do so.
TABLES
Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains headings that indicate
the most important information about your study.
To interpret the tables, one needs to do the following:
1. Analyze the connections among the details of the headings.
2. Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the reason behind these.
3. Begin with the table number and the title.
4. Present significant figures (overall results, high and low values, the unusual pattern).
5. Refrain from repeating again what’s inside the table.
6. Support your findings with literature and studies that confirm or contrasts your results.
7. Establish the practical implications of the results. This will add value to your research findings.
8. End with a brief generalization.
32
Sample Interpretation for the Given Table
Sample 1
Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Student’s Overall Performance in Pre-Calculus Pretest
Student’s Overall Performance f %
Outstanding 2 4
Very Satisfactory 15 30
Satisfactory 33 66
Unsatisfactory 0 0
Poor 0 0
Total 50 100
Table 1 shows the summary of the overall adjectival rating in frequency and percentage of students
in their pretest in Pre-calculus at San Joaquin National High School for S.Y. 2019-2020. Results reveal
that 66% of the students have satisfactory rating. Only 5% have outstanding rating. Overall, the data
showed that the students at San Joaquin National High School have fair ratings based on their pretest
scores. This implies that most of the students do not have prior mastery on the concepts of this subject.
Hence, teacher is expected to apply teaching strategies that will increase students’ concepts of the subject.
This result is supported by Ignacio (2016) that pretest scores especially if it is valid and reliable shows
prior knowledge of the learners of the subject matter.
Graphs
Graphs focuses on how a change in one variable relates to another. Graphs use bars, lines, circles, and
pictures in representing the data. In interpreting the graph, it is the same process in table. In choosing what type
of graph to use, determine the specific purpose of the presentation.
Line Graph illustrates trends and changes in data over time,
Bar Graph illustrates comparisons of amounts and quantities, while
Pie Graph (Circle Graph) displays the relationship of parts to a whole.
Sample Interpretation of a Bar Graph
Figure 1. GRSHS-X Canteen Lunch Menu
Figure 1 shows the canteen lunch menu of SJNHS. The graph reveals that rice is highly patronized by
the students and teachers with 150 cups sold daily. It can also be noted that pork and chicken menus have a
good number of buyers (315 serve/pieces). Vegetable menus cannot be undervalued since several consumers
(135 serve/pieces) also patronized the food. At the same time, seafood menus earn the last spot (50
serve/pieces sold). Generally, students and faculty of SJNHS preferred meat (pork and chicken) menus next
to rice.
33
Sample Interpretation of a Line Graph
Students Quarterly Average Grade by Sections in Elective Mathematics SY: 2019-2020
Figure 2. Students Quarterly Average Grade by Sections in Elective Mathematics (S.Y. 2019-2020
Figure 2 showed changes in the average grade of Elective Mathematics between Grade 10- Max and
Grade 10-Min from the first quarter to the fourth quarter for S.Y. 2019-2020. From the graph, it is evident that
both sections are performing well, but Grade 10-Max managed to maintain consistently its high performance
than Grade 10-Min every quarter. During the second quarter, there is a noticeably far difference between the
two sections. Overall, Grade 10-Max gained a better performance in Elective Mathematics than Grade 10-Min.
Sample Interpretation of a Pie Graph
Figure 3. Dream Job of the Grade 7 Students from SJNHS
Figure 3 showed the result of the survey conducted to Grade 7 students when asked about their
dream job. From the graph, forty percent (40%) and thirty percent (30) of the participants wanted to become
a doctor and an engineer, respectively with just thirty percent (30%) left for other professions. Only about
five percent (5%) wanted to become a teacher. From the data, more than 70% of the Grade 7 students will
likely pursue STEM strand courses when they graduate in high school.
34
Course Content 5: Finding Answers through Data Collection
USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES TO ANALYZE DATA
In the previous lesson, you were presented with options on how to present and analyze your data through
tables and graphs. As mentioned previously, data analysis goes hand in hand with data presentation and is
considered a time-consuming task because it involves a series of investigations, classifications, mathematical
calculations, and graphical recording, among others.
You are fully aware that planning your research study is needed. Thus, it is assumed that when you begin
your research study, you have already identified the scale of measurement to use in your research study.
Comprehensive statistical analysis is important before making conclusions about your study.
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
1. Percentage is any proportion from the whole.
𝑃𝐴𝑅𝑇
Formula: 𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸(%) = ( ) 𝑋100
𝑊𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐸
Example:
Here’s a data gathered by San Joaquin National High School administration regarding the number of
Grade 7 parents who opted to receive digital copies of the learning modules.
Table 1: Percentage of Parents who Opted to Receive Digital Copies of Learning Modules
Total Number Number of Parents who opted to received
Sections Percentage (%)
of Parents digital copies of learning modules
7-A 30 24 (24÷30) X100 = 80%
7-B 25 25 (25÷25) X100 = 100%
7-C 32 16 (16÷32) X100 = 50%
7-D 30 11 (12÷30) X100 = 40%
TOTAL 117 76 (76÷117) X100 = 64.96%
2. Mean or average is the middlemost value of your list of values and this can be obtained by adding all the
values and divide the obtained sum to the number of values.
SUM OF ALL VALUES
Formula: ̅) =
MEAN(X
NUMBER OF VALUES
Example:
1. UNGROUPED DATA
Refer to Table 1 above, to get the mean or average number of parents who opted to receive digital copies
of learning modules, do the following:
𝟐𝟒+𝟐𝟓+𝟏𝟔+𝟏𝟏 𝟕𝟔
̅) =
𝑴𝑬𝑨𝑵(𝑿 = = 𝟏𝟗
𝟒 𝟒
2. GROUPED DATA
Here’s the data gathered from the survey on Study Habits conducted by the Grade 12 students to the
150 Grade 7 students of San Joaquin National High School.
Table 2: Mean Distribution of the Study Habits of Students
A Questionnaire to Review Your Study Habits

Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly ̅) Verbal
Mean (𝑿
Agree (5) (4) (3) (2) Disagree (1) Description
I study where 600 + 40 + 0 + 30 + 5

120x5 10x4 0x3 15x2 5x1 Strongly
there is good 150
=600 =40 =0 =30 =5 Agree
lighting. =4.5
I study in a 500 + 80 + 15 + 20 + 15
room where the 100x5 20x4 5x3 10x2 15x1
150 Agree
temperature is =500 =80 =15 =20 =15
cool. =4.2
35
3. Standard Deviation shows the spread of data around the mean.
𝟐
√∑(𝒙−𝒙)
̅̅̅
Formula: 𝑺𝑫 =
𝒏
Example:
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation Distribution of the Study Habits of Students
A Questionnaire to Review Your Study Habits
Mean
SA A U D SD Mean (𝑋) Standard Deviation (𝑆𝐷)
(𝑋̅)
I study where 3000 + 160 + 0 + 60 + 5

120x25 10x16 0x9 15x4 5x1 =√21.50 − 4.5
there is good 4.5 150
lighting. =3000 =160 =0 =60 =5 =4.12
=21.50
I study in a
room where 2500 + 320 + 45 + 40 + 15
100x25 20x16 5x9 10x4 15x1 =√19.47 − 4.2
the 4.2 150
temperature is =2500 =320 =45 =40 =15 =3.91
=19.47
cool.
Abbreviation Numerical Values

Strongly Agree (SA) - 5
Agree (A) - 4
Undecided (U) - 3
Disagree (D) - 2
Strongly Disagree (SD) - 1
One need to get the range from which the mean of a five-point Likert can be interpreted. There are two
methods to do this, if we treat the Likert scale as interval/ratio. First, the usual way is to calculate the interval by
computing the range (e.g. 5 − 1 = 4), then divided it by the maximum value (e.g. 4 ÷ 5 = 0.80). Ultimately, we get
the following result:
From 1 to 1.80 represents (strongly disagree).
From 1.81 to 2.60 represents (do not agree).
From 2.61 to 3.40 represents (true to some extent).
From 3:41 to 4:20 represents (agree).
From 4:21 to 5:00 represents (strongly agree).
The other way is to treat the selection as the range themselves, and so we get these results:
From 0.01 to 1.00 is (strongly disagree);
From 1.01 to 2.00 is (disagree);
From 2.01 to 3.00 is (neutral);
From 3.01 to 4:00 is (agree);
From 4.01 to 5.00 is (strongly agree)
Here’s how it will appear in your research paper.
̅) Standard Deviation
Study Habit Mean (𝑿 Verbal Interpretation
(𝑺𝑫)
1. I study where there is good

4.5 4.12 Strongly Agree
lighting.
2. I study in a room where the
4.2 3.91 Agree
temperature is cool.
4. Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r) is a statistical method used to estimate the strength of relationship
between two quantitative variables.
𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦)−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)
Formula: 𝑟=
√[𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 )−(∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑛(∑ 𝑦 2 )−(∑ 𝑦)2 ]
36
Example 1:
Here’s a data of five students with their corresponding grade in Math (Independent Variable) and grade
in English (Dependent Variable). Is there a significant relationship between the grade in Math and the grade in
English?
Table 3. Grade in Math and Grade in English of Five Students
Student Grade in Mathematics (x) Grade in English (y) x2 y2 xy

A 96 97 9216 9409 9312
B 90 92 8100 8464 8280
C 93 96 8649 9216 8928
D 94 95 8836 9025 8930
E 92 90 8464 8100 8280
Sum 465 470 43265 44214 43730
Step 1. Compute the value of 𝑟 using the Pearson’s r formula.
5(43730)−(465)(470)
𝑟= =0.77
√[5(43265)−(465)2 ][5(44214)−(470)2 ]
Step 2. From the table of values, there is a strong positive correlation between the grade in Math and the grade
in English.
Example 2: Determine the correlation between study hours and exam scores.
STUDENT Scores (x) Study Hours
(y)
1 30 4
2 25 3
3 15 1
4 26 4
5 18 2
Let X be the Scores

Let Y be the Study Hours
37
Solution 1:
Study Hours
Student Scores (x) (x̅) (x-x̅) (x - x̅)² (y)
(Ῡ) (y-Ῡ) (y-Ῡ)²
1 30 22.8 7.2 51.84 4 2.8 1.2 1.44
2 25 22.8 2.2 4.84 3 2.8 0.2 0.04
3 15 22.8 -7.8 60.84 1 2.8 -1.8 3.24
4 26 22.8 3.2 10.24 4 2.8 1.2 1.44
5 18 22.8 -4.8 23.04 2 2.8 -0.8 0.64
114 150.8 14 6.8
Scores (x) Study Hours (y)

Mean – 22.8 (30+25+15+26+18)/5 2.8 (4+3+1+4+2)/5
Variance – 30.16 (150.8/5) 1.36 (6.8/5)
Std. Deviation – 5.49 √[30.16] 1.17 √[3.4]
Computation for Covariance: Solution 2:

Let x = (Scores – Mean)
Study
Let y = (Study Hours – Mean) Scores
STUDENTS
(x)
Hours x2 y2 xy
(y)
Student (x-x̅) (y-Ῡ) (x-x̅) (y-Ῡ)
1 30 4 900 16 120
1 7.2 1.2 8.64
2 2.2 0.2 0.44 2 25 3 625 9 75
3 -7.8 -1.8 14.04 3 15 1 225 1 15
4 3.2 1.2 3.84 4 26 4 676 16 104
5 -4.8 -0.8 3.84
5 18 2 324 4 36
Σ(x-X̅) (y-Ῡ) 30.8
114 14 2750 46 350
𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦)−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)

Variance 1 – 5.49 x 5.49 = 30.14 𝑟=
√[𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 )−(∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑛(∑ 𝑦 2 )−(∑ 𝑦)2 ]
Variance 2 – 1.17 x 1.17 = 1.37
Σ(x - x̅)(y - Ῡ) 5(350)−(114)(14)

Covariance= 𝑟=
n √[5(2750)−(114)2 ][5(46)−(14)2]
30.8
5 (1750)−(1596)
𝑟=
6.16 √[(13750)−(12996)][(230)−(196)]
(154)
𝑟=
covariance √[754][(34)]
Correlation (r) =
variance1 x variance2
(154)
𝑟=
6.16 √[25636]
√[(30.14)(1.37)]
(154)
6.16
𝑟=
160.11
6.43
𝑟 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟗 𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔
0.96
38
Course Content 5: Reporting and Sharing Findings
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
You learned that there are different kinds of writing: technical writing, expository writing,
fictional writing, and academic writing, among others. Research-report writing is an academic writing,
in that, its focus is on reporting or telling about the results of your investigation of a specific subject
matter. It is not simply communicating your opinions but doing this in a controlled way; that is, you have
to follow socially determined and discipline-specific rules in terms of language, structure, and format or
style. Governed by several Writing rules and standard, research-report writing is the most challenging
and demanding kind of writing among learners in higher education institution.
Research Writing vs Report Writing
How would you compare and contrast research writing and report writing? Both depend on
various sources of data or information, but they differ from each other as to what kind of data they
present. Research writing presents facts and opinions of other people about a particular subject matter.
It also includes your own interpretations, as the researcher, about these known facts. Report writing
too, presents facts and opinions of others; however, it does not claim that these opinions originally
come from the writer, for the reason that some reading materials books, journals, magazines, and other
reading materials have already published these facts and opinions. This is where the main difference
between the two lies.
The research paper gives you what other people think of a certain topic in addition to what
you, the researcher thinks, about this topic, while report just presents facts and information about a
subject matter without adding something new to this existing body of facts and opinions. Further, a
genuine research paper does net only shed a new light on a subject by finding new facts and opinions
but also aims at saying something original by re-evaluating or using these known facts and opinions.
Guidelines in Research-Report Writing

Now you know that research-report writing is plain writing of a report where you just present
facts and opinions of other people that you got from varied reading materials- It is a special kind of
writing that communicates not only declarative knowledge discovered ideas, but also procedural
knowledge or the processes you did in discovering ideas. Hence, to make your research report
communicate all these forms of knowledge to readers, you need- to apply the following guidelines in
research-report writing.
Organize the parts of your research report based on the standard research-report: structure
that consists of the following sequential components:
a. Title - This part of your research paper gives information and descriptions of the things
focused on by your research study
b. Abstract - Using only 100 to 150 words, the abstract of a research paper, presents a summary
of the research that makes clear the background, objectives, significance, methodologies,
results, and conclusions of the research study
c. Introduction - Given a stress in this section of the paper are the research problem and its
background, objectives, research questions, and hypotheses
d. Methodology - This part of the research paper explains the procedure in collecting and
analyzing data and also describes the sources of data.
e. Results or Findings - There's no more mentioning of analysis of data or not yet analyzed data
in this section. What it does is to present the research findings that are expressed through
graphics, statistics, or words.
f. Conclusions - This explains things that will lead you to significant points, insights, or
understanding, or conclusions, that derive their validity, credibility or acceptability from the
factual evidence during the data collection stage. Stated here, too, is the significance of the
results; that is whether or not these are the right answers to the research questions or the means
of hypotheses acceptance or rejection.
39
Your assessment of the data in relation to the findings of previous research studies is also given
a space in this section of the research paper.
g. Recommendations. Due to teachers’ instructions or discipline-specific rules, this section
tends to be optional in some cases. Done by some researchers, this section gives something
that will expand or extend ones’ understanding of the conclusions raised earlier, such as
suggesting a solution to the problem recommending a further research on the subject.
h. References. It is in this part where you display the identities' or names of all writers or owners
of ideas that you incorporated in your research paper.
i. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like questionnaires, graphs, and
letters, among others that you used in all stages of your academic work, and are, then, part
and parcel of your research study
Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.
Research-report writing is an academic writing and central to this kind of writing is the
expression of ideas, viewpoints, or positions on issues obtained through learned or trained methods of
producing sound evidence to support your claims or conclusions about something. Geared toward
bringing out what are generally true, valid, and the language of research-report writing uses rich-
information vocabulary and adopts an objective, formal or impersonal tone or register.
Here are some ways to maintain an objective and an impersonal tone in academic texts such
as your report about-your research study:
a. Dominantly use passive voice than active voice sentences.

b. Use the third-person point of view by using words like his or her, they or the user, instead of
the personalized first-person point of view like l, We, Me, Our, etc.
c. De-emphasize the subject or personal nature of the academic text by avoiding the use of
emotive words like dissatisfied, uninteresting or undignified.
d. Use modality (words indicating the degree of the appropriateness, effectiveness or
applicability something) to express opinionated statements that are prone to various degrees
or levels of certainty. For instance, use low modality when you think your opponents have
strong chances to present their valid reasons against your argument, or high modality when
you are sure you have sufficient basis to prove your point.
High modality expressions like could, should, must, definitely, absolutely, surely,
necessarily, and essentially are usually used for recommending solutions to problems or for
specifying reasons for some actions.
2. Observe the mechanics of research-report writing which are as follows:

a. Physical Appearance. Use white bond paper having the size of 8 ½ x 11 in. and provide 1
½ left margin, plus 1 in. top-bottom-right margin. Unless your teacher instructs you use a
particular font style and size, use the standard Times Roman, 12 pts
b. Quotations. A one-line, double-spaced quotation is in quotation marks; 4- to 5-line- single-

spaced quotations are indented further from the margin to appear as block quotation.
c. Footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page and are numbered consecutively
starting with number one' (1) in each chapter.
d. Statistics and Graphs. Use tables, charts, bar graphs, charts, pictograms, flowcharts,
schematic diagrams, etc. in connection with the objectives of the study.
e. Final Draft. Subject the final form of the research report to editing, revising, rewriting, and
proofreading.
f. Index. Alphabetize these two types of index subject index and author index.
40
Research-Report Writing Styles or Format
Depending on the requirements of your teacher or the area of your discipline, adopt any of
the lowing research-report writing styles or format:
1. APA (American Psychological Association)
2. MLA (Modern Language Association)
3. CMS (Chicago Manual of Style)
The first two styles—APA and MLA—are the most commonly used styles or format.
Prone to objectivity, those in the fields of Science, Psychology, Business, Economics, Political Science,
Anthropology; Engineering and Law go for APA; to subjectivity, Humanities (Religion. Literature, and
Language) go for MLA.
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter contains the conclusions drawn from the analysis and interpretation of the data
discussed in the preceding chapter and the recommendations of the researchers based on the
conclusions.
CONCLUSION
The portion that gives meaning to your research and your results. The objective of the
Conclusion section is to examine the results, determine whether they solve the research question,
compare them within themselves and to other results (from literature), explain and interpret them, and
then draw conclusions or derive generalizations, and make recommendations for applying the results
or for further research (Wilkinson, 1991:327).
▪ Interpret and summarize the findings.
▪ Revisit research questions and craft conclusion. State answers to research questions following
their sequence.
▪ Relate the conclusions to the research questions.
▪ Limit the conclusions to the data presented
▪ Be objective.
▪ Avoid exaggerating or manipulating data to prove your point.
▪ Present answers as general statements of findings.
▪ Do not include related literature.
41
SAMPLE:
Respondent’s Perception of Online Shopping

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. Majority of senior high school students of San Joaquin National High School for the
second term of the academic year 2019-2020 are females with the Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics track accounting for the highest number of enrollees. On the
average, SHS students receive PhP100.00 allowance per week.
2. SJNHS-SHS students have a positive perception towards online shopping in terms of
security, and convenience but do not perceive products sold online to be of good quality.
3. There is no significant relationship between the weekly allowance of SJNHS-SHS
students and their perception on online shopping.
SAMPLE RESEARCH
Conclusion
After having analyzed the gathered data, the researcher concludes that the grade VI pupils
could do well using their literal ability but they perform low in both creative and evaluative abilities,
thus, their higher level of thinking/ comprehension must be enhanced by employing the lesson
model designed in this study as it geared toward the maximum use of students higher order
thinking skills through its various activities.
RECOMMENDATION

✓ Write recommendations for beneficiaries of results of study cited in Significance of Study.
✓ Look at limitations of study, in scope, sample, instruments, intervention implemepntation and
adequacy, and data collection.
✓ Give suggestions on how to improve the study based on the limitations.
✓ Include areas for future research and give at least one example.
SAMPLE:
Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations are proposed:

1. Online retailers pmust improve the selection of the products they sell online by raising
quality standards that are in line with the expectations of consumers, including SHS students.
What else can they do base on the conclusions drawn?
2. Who are the other beneficiaries of the research mentioned under “Significance of the
Study?” What can you suggest to them based on your conclusions?
3. Future researchers may consider doing a correlational research on consumers’
perception on online shopping and their income or socio-economic status. Experimental
researches that seek to evaluate interventions that may help improve consumer perception on
the quality of online products may also be conducted to inform online retailers of innovative
practices that can increase their sales.
42

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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 SJNHS-SENIOR HIGH DEPARTMENT

NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

What research is NOT??? (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013)

1. Research is not merely gathering information.

-DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Classification of Quantitative Research:

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Figure 1. Matrix on Quantitative Research

DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL QUASI

(Degree of control (Code words to

(Degree of control (Code words to

(Degree of control (Code words to

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES.

• The advantages of quantitative research include the following:

WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE

Standards Qualitative Quantitative

Cause-effect relationships Explained by people’s objective Revealed by automatic descriptions

Obtaining knowledge Multiple methods Scientific method

Purpose Makes social intentions Evaluates objectives and examines

Data-analysis technique Thematic codal ways, competence- Mathematically based methods

Style of expression Personal, lacks formality Impersonal, scientific, or systematic

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT (ABM)

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and PSYCHOLOGY

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, and MATHEMATICS

BASIC TYPES OF VARIABLES:

FOUR TYPES OF VARIABLES:

- Grade level - Socio-economic status

▪ Is the problem of current interest?

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Sources of Quantitative Research Problem

uidelines in Formulating a Quantitative Research Problem and Research Questions

1. Formulate a research problem that is researchable; meaning, open to empirical investigation.

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Research Topic - broad subject matter addressed by the study.

FRAMING THE TITLE / WRITING THE TITLE OF INVESTIGATION:

The contents as required by the guideline are:

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Specifically, this study shall seek answers to the following questions:

2. What is the attention span in class of Grade 12 students of SJNHS?

Specifically, this study shall seek answers to the following questions:

1. What is the demographic profile of Grade 11 students of SJNHS in terms of:

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

▪ In writing this section,

Significance of the Study

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

▪ What the researcher does NOT intend to do

In writing this section, cite data collection

Scope and Delimitation

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

META-ANALYSIS in Quantitative Research

STANDARD STYLES IN REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, CITATION, OR REFERENCES

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN LITERATURE-REVIEW WRITING

Purpose of Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework Vs Theoretical Framework

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY