Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The vertebral column is also called the spine, the spinal column, or back bone.
It is the central axis of the body. It supports the body weight and transmits it to the
ground through the lower limbs.
The vertebral column is made up of 32-34 vertebrae: 7 cervical (C1-C7), 12 tho-
racic (T1-T12), 5 lumbar (L1-L5), 5 sacral (S1-S5) and 3-5 coccygeal (Co).
Parts of a typical vertebra
Each vertebra (vertebra/позвонок) has body, arch and seven processes.
The vertebral body (corpus vertebrae/тело позвонка) lies anteriorly. It is shaped
like a short cylinder, being rounded from side to side and having flat upper and
lower surfaces that are attached to those of adjoining vertebrae by the intervertebral
discs.
The vertebral arch (arcus vertebrae/дуга позвонка) lies posteriorly. It is con-
nected with the body by the right and left pedicles (pediculus arcus verte-
brae/ножка дуги позвонка). The posterior part of the arch is called the laminae
(lamina arcus vertebrae/пластинка дуги позвонка).
Bounded anteriorly by the posterior aspect of the body and posteriorly by the arch,
there is a large vertebral foramen (foramen vertebrale/позвоночное отверстие).
Each vertebral foramen forms a short segment of the vertebral canal (canalis ver-
tebralis/позвоночный канал) that runs through the whole length of the vertebral
column and lodges the spinal cord.
Passing backwards (and usually downwards) from the posterior surface of the arch
there is the spine or spinous process (processus spinosus/остистый отросток).
*
Latin
****
Russian
Passing laterally (and usually somewhat backwards) from the lateral surfaces of the The posterior arch has a median posterior tubercle (tuberculum pos-
arch there are the transverse processes (processus transversus/поперечный terius/задний бугорок) on its posterior surface. The upper surface is marked
отросток). by a groove for vertebral artery (sulcus arteriae vertebralis/борозда
Projecting upwards (dounwards) from the lateral sides of the arch there are supe- позвоночной артерии).
rior (inferior) articular processes (processus articularis superior, infe- Superior surface of the lateral mass bears the superior articular surface (facies
rior/верхний, нижний суставной отросток). Each articular process has superior articularis superior/верхняя суставная поверхность). This facet is elongated
or inferior articular facet (facies articularis superior, inferior/верхняя, нижняя concave and articulates with the corresponding condyle of the occipital bone to
суставная поверхность) respectively. The superior facet of one vertebra articu- form the atlanto-occipital joint.
lates with the inferior facet of the vertebra above it. The lower surface is marked by the inferior articular surface (facies articularis
The pedicles are much narrower than the body and are attached nearer its upper inferior/нижняя суставная поверхность). This facet is nearly circular, more
border. As a result there are large inferior vertebral notches (incisura vertebralis or less flat. It articulates with the corresponding facet on the axis vertebra to
inferior/верхняя позвоночная вырезка) below the pedicles. Above the pedicles form the lateral atlanto-axial joint.
there are much smaller superior vertebral notches (incisura vertebralis supe- It has no spine.
rior/нижняя позвоночная вырезка). The second cervical vertebra
The superior and inferior vertebral notches of adjoining vertebrae form the inter- It is called the axis (axis/осевой позвонок).
vertebral foramen (foramen intervertebrale/межпозвоночное отверстие) which It has the dens (dens axis/зуб), which is a process projecting upwards from the
gives passage to the spinal nerves emerging from the spinal cord. body. The dens has apex (apex dentis/верхушка зуба).
Side determination The anterior aspect of the dens bears an anterior articular facet (facies articu-
1. The vertebral body lies anteriorly. laris anterior/передняя суставная поверхность) for articulation with the ante-
2. The inferior vertebral notch is more larger than the superior vertebral notch. rior arch of the atlas, the posterior aspect of it shows a posterior articular facet
(facies articularis posterior/задняя суставная поверхность) for the trans-
The cervical vertebrae (vertebrae cervicales/шейные позвонки) verse ligament of atlas.
The transverse process of a cervical vertebrae is pierced by a foramen called the The seventh cervical vertebra
foramen transversarium (foramen transversarium/поперечное отверстие). The It has a long thick spinous process. The tip of the process forms a prominent sur -
vertebral artery passes through the foramen. face landmark. Because this vertebra is called the vertebra prominens (vertebra
Each transverse process has the anterior and posterior tubercles (tuberculum an- prominens/выступающий позвонок).
terius, posterius/передний, задний бугорок).
The anterior tubercle of the sixth vertebra is large and is called the carotid tubercle The thoracic vertebrae (vertebrae thoracicae/грудные позвонки)
(tuberculum caroticum/сонный бугорок) because the common carotid artery can The body of the thoracic vertebrae bears 2 costal demifacets.
be compressed against it. - The superior costal facet (fovea costalis superior/верхняя реберная ямка) is
The groove for spinal nerve (sulcus nervi spinalis/борозда спинномозгового larger and placed on the upper border of the body near the pedicle. It articulates
нерва) lies on the superior surface of the transverse process. with the head of the numerically corresponding rib.
The spine is short and bifid. - The inferior costal facet (fovea costalis inferior/нижняя реберная ямка) is
The first cervical vertebra placed on the lower border in front of the inferior vertebral notch. It articulates
It is called the atlas (atlas/атлант). with the next lower rib.
It is ring shaped. The transverse processes are large and they are directed laterally and backwards.
It has no body, but it has anterior and posterior arches (arcus anterius, pos- The anterior surface of each process bears a transverse costal facet (fovea costalis
terius atlantis/передняя, задняя дуга атланта) and right and left lateral processus transversi/реберная ямка поперечного отростка) near its tip for artic-
masses (massa lateralis atlantis/латеральная масса) laterally. ulation with the tubercle of the corresponding rib.
The anterior arch is marked by a median anterior tubercle (tuberculum an- The spine is long, and is directed downwards and backwards.
terius/передний бугорок) on its anterior aspect. Its posterior surface bears an The superior costal facet on the body of the first thoracic vertebra is complete. It
oval facet for dens (fovea dentis/ямка зуба) which articulates with the dens of articulates with the head of the first rib. The inferior costal facet is a “demifacet”
the second cervical vertebra to form the median atlanto-axial joint. for the second rib.
The body of the tenth thoracic vertebra has only the superior costal facets (for cor- - Lateral to the intermediate sacral crest there is the lateral sacral crest (crista
responding rib). sacralis lateralis/латеральный крестцовый гребень) formed by the fused
The bodies of the eleventh and twelfth thoracic vertebrae have only single complete transverse processes.
costal facets on each side. Transverse processes of these vertebrae have not articu- - The posterior sacral foramina (foramina sacralia posteriora/задние
lar facets. крестцовые отверстия) lie between the intermediate and lateral sacral crests,
they communicate with the sacral canal.
The lumbar vertebrae (vertebrae lumbales/поясничные позвонки) - The foramina separate the lateral part (pars lateralis/латеральная часть) from
The lumbar vertebrae have not foramina transversaria and facets for ribs. the medial part of the bone.
The body has large size. - The lateral part has the auricular surface (facies auricularis/ушковидная
The spine is a vertical quadrilateral plate directed almost backwards. поверхность) for articulation with the ilium, and the sacral tuberosity
The transverse process is the homologous with the ribs. (tuberositas ossis sacri/бугристость крестца).
The posteroinferior aspect of the base of each transverse process is marked by a The inferior articular processes of the fifth sacral vertebra are free and form the
small elevation, the accessory process (processus accesorius/добавочный sacral cornua (cornu sacrale/крестцовый рог), which project downwards at the
отросток). It is the true transverse process of these vertebrae. sides of the sacral hiatus (hiatus sacralis/крестцовая щель).
The vertebral foramen lies behind the body, and leads into the sacral canal. Inferi-
The sacrum (os sacrum/крестец) orly, the canal opens at the sacral hiatus.
The sacrum is a large, flattened, triangular bone formed by the fusion of five sacral
vertebrae. It forms the posterior part of the bony pelvis, articulating on each side with The coccyx (os coccyges/копчик)
the corresponding hip bone at the sacro-iliac joint. The sacrum transmits the body The coccyx is a small triangular bone formed by fusion of 3-5 rudimentary coccygeal
weight to the hip bones. vertebrae.
The sacrum has a base, an apex, pelvic and dorsal surfaces. The upper surface of the body of the first cocygeal vertebra forms the base of the
The upper massive part of the sacrum is the base (basis ossis sacri/основание coccyx, which articulates with the apex of the sacrum.
крестца). It has the superior articular processes (processus articularis supe- This vertebra has rudimentary articular processes called the coccygeal cornua
rior/верхний суставной отросток) which articulate with vertebra L5 to form the (cornu coccygeum/копчиковый рог), which articulate with the sacral cornua.
lumbosacral joint. The projecting anterior margin of this articulation is called the
promontory (promontorium/мыс). THE RIBS (costae/рёбра)
The apex (apex ossis sacri/верхушка крестца) bears a facet for articulation with
the coccyx. There are 12 ribs on each side. The ribs are bony arches arranged one below the other.
The pelvic surface (facies pelvica/тазовая поверхность) is smooth and concave. The space between the ribs is called intercostal space (spatium inter-
- The median area is marked by four transverse ridges (lineae transver- costale/межреберье).
sae/поперечные линии), which indicate the lines of fusion of the bodies of five The first 7 ribs which are connected by means of their cartilages to the sternum are
sacral vertebrae. called true ribs (costae verae/истинные рёбра).
- These ridges end on each side at the four anterior sacral foramina (foramina The remaining 5 are false ribs (costae spuriae/ложные рёбра). The cartiulages of
sacralia anteriora/передние крестцовые отверстия), which communicate the 8th, 9th, and 10th ribs are joined to the next higher cartilage.
with the sacral canal (canalis sacralis/крестцовый канал). The anterior ends of the 11th and 12th ribs are free and they are called also floating
The dorsal surface (facies dorsalis/дорсальная поверхность) is irregular and con- ribs (costae fluctuantes/колеблющиеся рёбра).
convex. Typical rib
- The midline is marked by the median sacral crest (crista sacralis medi- Each rib has anterior and posterior ends, and a shaft with upper and lower borders, and
ana/срединный крестцовый гребень), representing the fused spines of the outer and inner surfaces.
upper four sacral vertebrae. The anterior end is oval and concave for articulation with its cartilage.
- Lateral to the median sacral crest lies the intermediate sacral crest (crista The posterior end is made up of the following parts.
sacralis medialis/медиальный крестцовый гребень) formed by the fused ar- - The head (caput costae/головка ребра) has articular facet (facies articularis
ticular processes. capitis costae/суставная поверхность головки ребра) that is separated by a
crest (crista capitis costae/гребень головки ребра). The lower larger facet
articulates with the body of the numerically corresponding vertebra. The upper The tenth rib
facet articulates with the next higher vertebra. It has only a single facet on the head for the body of the 10th thoracic vertebra.
- The neck (collum costae/шейка ребра) lies between the head and the shaft. The eleventh and twelfth ribs
- The tubercle (tuberculum costae/бугорок ребра) is placed on the outer surface These have pointed anterior ends. The necks and tubercles are absent.
of the rib at the junction of the neck and the shaft. Its medial part is articular and
forms the costotransverse joint with the transverse process of the corresponding THE STERNUM (sternum/грудина)
vertebra.
The shaft (corpus costae/тело ребра) is flattened so that it has 2 surfaces (outer The sternum is a flat bone. The upper part is the manubrium of sternum. The middle
and inner) and 2 borders (upper and lower). part is the body of sternum. The lowest tapering part is the xiphoid process.
- The lower border is thin and the upper border is rounded. The manubrium of sternum (manubrium sterni/рукоятка грудины)
- The shaft is curved with its convexity outwards. It is bent at the angle (angulus The manubrium is the thickest and strongest part of the sternum.
costae/угол ребра) which is situated about 5 cm lateral to the tubercle. The manubrium makes a slight angle with the body, convex forwards, called the
- The angle is marked by an oblique line on the outer surface directed downwards sternal angle (angulus sterni/угол грудины).
and laterally. The anterior surface is convex from side to side and concave from above down-
- The costal groove (sulcus costae/борозда ребра) lies along the inferior border wards.
of the inner surface. It contains the posterior intercostal vessels and intercostal The superior border is marked by the jugular notch (incisura jugularis/яремная
nerve. вырезка) in the median part, and the clavicular notch (incisura clavicu-
Side determination laris/ключичная вырезка) on each side, that articulates with the medial end of the
1. The anterior end bears a concave depression. The posterior end bears a head, a neck clavicle to form the sternoclavicular joint.
and a tubercle. The lateral borders bear costal notches (incisurae costales/реберные вырезки) for
2. The shaft is convex outwards, and is grooved along the lower part of its inner sur - articulation with the 1st and upper end of the 2nd costal cartilages.
face. The body of sternum (corpus sterni/тело грудины)
The anterior surface is marked by 3 transverse ridges, indicating the lines of fusion
The first rib of the small segments.
It is the shortest, broadest and most curved rib. The lateral borders form costal notches for: the lower part of the 2 nd costal cartilage;
The shaft is not twisted. the 3rd to 6th costal cartilage; and the upper part of the 7th costal cartilage.
The shaft is flattened from above downwards so that it has superior and inferior The xiphoid process (processus xiphoideus/мечевидный отросток) has the costal
surfaces, and outer and inner borders. notches for the lower end of the 7th costal cartilage.
The lower surface of the shaft is smooth. The upper surface of the shaft is Applied anatomy
crossed obliquely by the groove for subclavian vein (sulcus venae sub- 1. Bone marrow for examination is usually obtained by sternal (manubrial) puncture.
claviae/борозда подключичной вены) anteriorly, and the groove for subcla- 2. Xiphoid process may be bifid or perforated.
vian artery (sulcus arteriae subclaviae/борозда подключичной артерии)
posteriorly. BONES OF UPPER LIMB
The grooves are separated by a ridge. The ridge lies at the inner border of the (ossa membri superioris/кости верхней конечности)
rib and it is called the scalene tubercle (tuberculum musculi scaleni anteri-
oris/бугорок передней лестничной мышцы). The skeleton of each upper limb consists of the following bones:
The head is small and rounded. pectoral (or shoulder) girdle (cingulum pectorale/пояс верхней конечности) -
The tubercle coincides with the angle of the rib. clavicle and scapula;
Side determination free part of upper limb (pars libera membri superioris/свободная часть
1. The anterior end is larger, thicker and pitted. The posterior end is small and верхней конечности):
rounded. - the bone of the arm is humerus,
2. The outer border is convex. - two bones of the forearm are radius and ulna,
3. The upper surface has the scalene anterior tubercle. The lower surface is - 8 carpal bones of the wrist,
smooth.
- the bones of the palm are 5 metacarpal bones and bone of phalanges (proximal, The acromion (acromion/акромион) is continuous with the lateral end of the
middle and distal); the thumb has only two phalanges. spine. The medial border of the acromion has a clavicular facet (facies articularis
THE CLAVICLE (clavicula/ключица) clavicularis/ключичная суставная поверхность) for articulation with the lateral
end of the clavicle to form the acromioclavicular joint.
The clavicle is a long bone. It has a cylindrical part called the shaft, and two ends me - The superior border (margo superior/верхний край) is thin and short. Its lateral
dial and lateral. part bears the caracoid process (processus caracoideus/клювовидный отросток),
The acromial (lateral) end (extremitas acromialis/акромиальный конец) is flat- medial to the root of which is the suprascapular notch (incisura scapulae/вырезка
tened from above downwards. It bears an acromial facet (facies articularis acro- лопатки).
mialis/акромиальная суставная поверхность) that articulates with the acromion The lateral angle (angulus lateralis/латеральный угол) is broad and bears the
process of the scapula to form the acromioclavicular joint. glenoid cavity (cavitas glenoidalis/суставная впадина) which is directed for-
The sternal (medial) end (extremitas sternalis/грудинный конец) is quadrangular wards, laterally and slightly upwards. Just below the cavity there is the infra-
and has a sternal facet (facies articularis sternalis/грудинная суставная glenoid tubercle (tuberculum infraglenoidale/подсуставной бугорок), immedi-
поверхность) that articulates with the clavicular notch of the manubrium of the ately above the glenoid cavity there is the supraglenoid tubercle (tuberculum
sternum to form the sternoclavicular joint. supraglenoidale/надсуставной бугорок). Medial to the glenoid cavity there is a
The shaft of clavicle (corpus claviculae/тело ключицы) is divisible into the lateral constriction which is called the neck of scapulae (collum scapulae/шейка
one third and the medial two thirds. лопатки).
- The lateral one third is concave forwards. Its inferior surface presents an eleva- Side determination
tion called the conoid tubercle (tuberculum conoideum/конусовидный 1. The lateral angle is large and bears the glenoid cavity.
бугорок) and a ridge called the trapezoid line (linea trape- 2. The dorsal surface is convex and is divided by the triangular spine into the
zoidea/трапецевидная линия). They give attachment to the coracoclavicular supraspinous and infraspinous fossae. The costal surface is concave to fit on the
ligament. convex chest wall.
- The medial two thirds are convex forwards. 3. The lateral thickest border runs from the glenoid cavity above to the inferior angle
Side determination below.
1. The lateral end is flat, and the medial end is large and quadrilateral. Applied anatomy
2. The shaft is slightly curved, so that it is convex forwards in its medial 2/3, and con- Paralysis of the serratus anterior causes ‘winging’ of the scapula, and the arm cannot
cave forwards in its lateral 1/3. be abducted.
3. The inferior surface is rough.
Applied anatomy THE HUMERUS (humerus/плечевая кость)
The clavicle is commonly fractured by falling on the outstretched hand. The common-
est site of the fracture is the junction between two curvatures of the bone (weakest The humerus is a long bone. It has an upper end, a lower end and a shaft.
point). The lateral fragment is displaced downwards by the weight of the limb. The upper end
The head (caput humeri/головка плечевой кости) is directed medially, back-
THE SCAPULA (scapula/лопатка) wards and upwards. It articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the
shoulder joint.
The scapula has two surfaces (costal and posterior), three borders (superior, lateral, The line separating the head from the rest of the upper end is called the anatomical
medial), three angles (superior, inferior, lateral) and three processes (spine, acromion, neck (collum anatomicum/анатомическая шейка).
caracoid process). The lesser tubercle (tuberculum minus/малый бугорок) is an elevation on the
The anterior costal surface (facies costalis/рёберная поверхность) is concave and anterior aspect of the upper end.
is directed medially and forwards. It bears the subscapular fossa (fossa subscapu- The greater tubercle (tuberculum majus/большой бугорок) is an elevation that
laris/подлопаточная ямка). forms the lateral part of the upper end.
The posterior surface (facies posterior/задняя поверхность) gives attachment to The intertubercular sulcus (sulcus intertubercularis/межбугорковая борозда)
the spine of scapula (spina scapulae/ость лопатки). It is a triangular plate of bone separates the lesser tubercle (medially) from the greater tubercle (laterally). The
which divides the surface into a smaller supraspinosus fossa (fossa sulcus has medial and lateral lips (crista tuberculi minoris, majoris/гребень
supraspinata/надостная ямка) superiorly and a larger infraspinosus fossa (fossa
infraspoinata/подостная ямка) inferiorly.
малого, большого бугорка) that represent prolongations of the lesser and greater The medial epicondyle (epicondylus medialis/медиальный надмыщелок) is a
tubercles downward. prominent bony projection on the medial side of the lower end. There is the groove
The line, separating the upper end of the humerus from the shaft is called the surgi- for ulnar nerve (sulcus nervi ulnaris/борозда локтевого нерва) on the posterior
cal neck (collum chirurgicum/хирургическая шейка). aspect of the medial epicondyle.
The shaft of humerus (corpus humeri/тело плечевой кости) The lateral epicondyle (epicondylus lateralis/латеральный надмыщелок) is a
The shaft has three borders and three surfaces. prominent bony projection on the lateral side of the lower end.
The lateral border (margo lateralis/латеральный край) is prominent only at the Side determination
lower end where it forms the lateral supracondilar ridge (crista supracondylaris 1. The upper end is rounded and forms the head.
lateralis/латеральный надмыщелковый гребень). 2. The head is directed medially and backwards.
The upper part of the medial border (margo medialis/медиальный край) forms the 3. The capitulum is directed forwards and laterally.
medial lip of the intertubercular sulcus. The lower end forms the medial supra- Applied anatomy
condilar ridge (crista supracondylaris medialis/медиальный надмыщелковый 1. The common sites of fracture are the surgical neck, the shaft, and the supracondylar
гребень). region.
The upper one third of the anterior border forms the lateral lip of the intertubercular 2. Three nerves are directly related to the humerus and are, therefore, liable to injury:
sulcus. The lower half of the anterior border is smooth and rounded. the axillary at the surgical neck, the radial at the radial groove, and the ulnar behind
The anterolateral surface (facies anterolateralis/переднелатеральная the medial epicondyle.
поверхность) lies between the anterior and lateral borders. A little above the mid-
dle it is marked by a V-shaped deltoid tuberosity (tuberositas del- THE RADIUS (radius/лучевая кость)
toidea/дельтовидная бугристость).
The anteromedial surface (facies anteromedial/переднемедиальная The radius is the lateral bone of the forearm. It has an upper end, a lower end and a
поверхность) lies between the anterior and medial borders. Its upper one third is shaft.
narrow and forms the floor of the intertubercular sulcus. The upper end
The posterior surface (facies posterior/задняя поверхность) lies between the me- The head (caput radii/головка лучевой кости) is disc shaped. It has a superior
dial and lateral borders. The middle one third is crossed by the radial groove (sul- concave articular facet (fovea articularis/суставная ямка) which articulates with
cus nervi radialis/борозда лучевого нерва). the capitulum of the humerus at the elbow joint.
The lower end The articular circumference (circumferentia articularis/суставная окружность)
The lower end forms the condyle of humerus (condylus humeri/мыщелок плечевой of the head fits into a socket formed by the radial notch of the ulna and the annular
кости), which has articular and nonarticular parts. ligament, thus forming the superior radioulnar joint.
The articular part includes the following: The neck (collum radii/шейка лучевой кости) is the constricted region just below
The capitulum (capitulum humeri/головка мыщелка плечевой кости) is a the head.
rounded projection which articulates with the head of the radius. The radial tuberosity (tuberositas radii/бугристость лучевой кости) lies just be-
The trochlea (trochlea humeri/блок плечевой кости) is a pulley shaped surface. low the medial part of the neck.
It articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna. The shaft (corpus radii/тело лучевой кости)
The nonarticulate part includes the following: It has three borders and three surfaces.
The coronoid fossa (fossa coronoidea/венечная ямка) is a depression just above The anterior border (margo anterior/передний край) extends from the anterior
the anterior aspect of the trochlea. It accommodates the coronoid process of the margin of the radial tuberosity to the radial styloid process.
ulna when the elbow is flexed. The posterior border (margo posterior/задний край) is the mirror image of the
The radial fossa (fossa radialis/лучевая ямка) is depression present just above the anterior border (it is clearly defined only in its middle one third).
anterior aspect of the capitulum. It accommodates the head of the radius when the The medial interosseus border (margo interosseus/межкостный край) is the
elbow is flexed. sharpest of the three borders.
The olecranon fossa (fossa olecrani/ямка локтевого отростка) lies just above the The anterior surface (facies anterior/передняя поверхность) lies between the
posterior aspect of the trochlea. It accommodates the olecranon process of the ulna anterior and interosseus borders. It is smooth.
when the elbow is extended. The posterior surface (facies posterior/задняя поверхность) lies between the
posterior and interosseus borders. It is rough.
The lateral surface (facies lateralis/латеральная поверхность) lies between the The trochlear notch bears an articular surface that articulates with the trochlea of
anterior and posterior borders. the humerus to form the elbow joint.
The lower end The shaft
The lower end is the widest part of the bone. The shaft has three borders and three surfaces.
The anterior surface is plane, the posterior surface presents the grooves for exten- The lateral interosseus border (margo interosseus/межкостный край) is the
sor muscle tendons (sulci tendinum musculorum extensorum/борозды sharpest.
сухожилий мышц-разгибателей). The anterior border (margo anterior/передний край) is thick and rounded. It be-
The medial surface is occupied by the ulnar notch (incisura ulnaris/локтевая gins above on the medial side of the ulnar tuberosity and terminates on the medial
вырезка) for the head of the ulna. side of the styloid process.
The lateral surface is prolonged downwards to form the radial styloid process (pro- The posterior border (margo posterior/задний край) begins above at the back of
cessus styloideus radii/шиловидный отросток лучевой кости). the olecranon and terminates at the base of the process styloid.
The inferior surface bears the carpal articular surface (facies articularis The anterior surface (facies anterior/передняя поверхность) lies between the
carpalis/запястная суставная поверхность) for both the scaphoid and the lunate anterior and interosseus borders. It is smooth.
bones. So, this surface takes part in forming the wrist joint. The medial surface (facies medialis/медиальная поверхность) lies between the
Side determination anterior and posterior borders.
1. The upper end forms the head with the circumference, the lower end forms the sty - The posterior surface (facies posterior/задняя поверхность) lies between the pos-
loid process. terior and interosseus borders. It is rough.
2. The anterior surface is plane, the posterior surface is rough. The lower end
3. The interosseus border is directed medially. It is made up of the head and the styloid process.
Applied anatomy The head (caput ulnae/головка локтевой кости) has the articular circumference
1. The radius commonly fracture is about 2 cm above its lower end. This fracture is (circumferentia articularis/суставная окружность) that articulates with the ulnar
caused by fall on outstretched hand. The distal fragment is displaced upwards and notch of the radius to form the inferior radioulnar joint. It is separated from the
backwards. wrist joint by the articular disc.
2. Congenital absence of the radius is rare anomaly. The thumb is often absent also. The ulnar styloid process (processus styloideus ulnae/шиловидный отросток
3. Radio-ulnar synostosis. локтевой кости) projects downwards from the posteromedial side of the lower end
4. A sudden powerful jerk on the hand of a child may dislodge the head of the radius of the ulna.
from the grip of the annular ligament. This is known as subluxation of the head of Posteriorly, between the head and the styloid process there is a groove for the ex-
the radius. tensor tendon.
Side determination
THE ULNA (ulna/локтевая кость) 1. The upper end is hook-like, with its concavity directed forwards.
2. The lateral border of the shaft is sharp and crest-like.
The ulna is the medial bone of the forearm. It has an upper and a lower ends and a 3. The posterior surface of the lower end has a groove for the extensor tendons.
shaft. Applied anatomy
The upper end 1. The ulna is the stabilizing bone of the forearm with its trochlear notch gripping the
The olecranon (olecranon/локтевой отросток) projects upwards from the shaft. lower end of the humerus. On this foundation the radius can pronate and supinate
The coronoid process (processus coronoideus/венечный отросток) projects for- for efficient working of the upper limb.
wards from the shaft just below the olecranon. 2. The shaft of the ulna may fracture either alone or along with the radius. Cross
The upper part of the lateral surface of the coronoid process is marked by the ra- union between the radius and ulna must be prevented to preserve pronation and
dial notch (incisura radialis/лучевая вырезка) that articulates with the head of the supination of the hand.
radius to form the superior radioulnar joint. 3. Dislocation of the elbow is produced by a fall on the outstretched hand with the
The lower corner of the anterior surface of the coronoid process forms the tuberos- elbow slightly flexed. The olecranon shifts posteriorly and the elbow is fixed in
ity of ulna (tuberositas ulnae/бугристость локтевой кости). slight flexion.
The anterior surface of the olecranon process and superior surface of coronoid 4. Fracture of the olecranon is common and is caused by a fall on the point of the el -
process form the trochlear notch (incisura trochlearis/блоковидная вырезка). bow.
Applied anatomy
THE CARPAL BONES (ossa carpi/кости запястья) 1. Fracture of the base of the first metacarpal is caused by a force along its long axis.
The thumb is forced into a semiflexed position and cannot be opposed. The first
The carpus is made up of 8 carpal bones, which are arranged in two rows. cannot be clenched. Other metacarpals may also be fractured.
1. The proximal row contains (from lateral to medial side): 2. When the thumb possesses three phalanges, the first metacarpal has two epiphyses
- scaphoid (os scaphoideum/ладьевидная кость). It has a tubercle (tuberculum one at each end. Occasionally, the first metacarpal bifurcates distally. Then the me -
ossis scaphoidei/бугорок ладьевидной кости) on its lateral side. dial branch has no distal epiphysis, and has only two phalanges. The lateral branch
- lunate (os lunatum/полулунная кость). has a distal epiphysis and three phalanges.
- triquetral (os triquetrum/трехгранная кость). THE PHALANGES (ossa digitorum/кости пальцев)
- pisiform (os pisiforme/гороховидная кость).
2. The distal row contains in the same order: The hand has 5 fingers:
- trapezium (os trapezium/кость-трапеция). It has a tubercle (tuberculum ossis - thumb (pollex/большой палец),
trapezii/бугорок кости-трапеции) on its lateral side. - index finger (index/указательный палец),
- trapezoid (os trapezoideum/трапециевидная кость). - middle finger (digitus medius/средний палец),
- capitate (os capitatum/головчатая кость). - ring finger (digitus annularis/безымянный палец),
- hamate (os hamatum/крючковидная кость). It has a hook of hamate (hamu- - little finger (digitus minimus/мизинец).
lus ossis hamati/крючок крючковидной кости) near its base. There are 14 phalanges in each hand, 3 for each finger - proximal phalanx (pha-
The carpal groove (sulcus carpi/борозда запястья) is limited: lateraly by the tuber- lanx proximalis/проксимальная фаланга), middle phalanx (phalanx me-
cles of the scaphoid and trapezium; medially by the pisiform and the hook of the ha - dia/средняя фаланга), distal phalanx (phalanx distalis/дистальная фаланга), and
mate. 2 for the thumb (proximal and distal).
Applied anatomy Each phalanx has a base of phalanx (basis phalangis/основание фаланги), a shaft
1. Fracture of the scaphoid is quite common. It is caused by a fall on the outstretched of phalanx (corpus phalangis/тело фаланги) and a head of phalanx (caput pha-
hand, or on the tips of the fingers. The importance of this fracture lies in its liability langis/головка фаланги).
to non-union, and avascular necrosis of the body of the bone. The base is marked by the facet for articulation with the head of the metacarpal
2. Dislocation of the lunate may be produced by a fall on the acutely dorsiflexed hand bone (proximal phalanx) or other phalanx (middle or distal phalanges).
with the forearm flexed. This displaces the lunate anteriorly, causing carpal tunnel In the proximal and middle phalanges the head has a pulley shaped articular sur-
syndrom. face.
In distal phalanges the head is marked anteriorly by a rough horse-shoe-shaped
THE METACARPALS (ossa metacarpi/пястные кости) tuberosity of distal phalanx (tuberositas phalangis distalis/бугристость
дистальной фаланги) which supports the sensitive pulp of the finger tip.
These are 5 miniature long bones, which are numbered from lateral to the medial side.
Each bone has a head (placed distally), a shaft and a base (at the proximal end). BONES OF LOWER LIMB
The head (caput ossis metacarpi/головка пястной кости) is rounded. It has an (ossa membri inferioris/кости нижней конечности)
articular surface for the base of the proximal phalange.
The shaft (corpus ossis metacarpi/тело пястной кости) is concave on the palmar The skeleton of each lower limb consists of the bones of the:
surface. pelvic girdle (cingulum pelvicum/тазовый пояс) - hip bone;
The base (basis ossis metacarpi/основание пястной кости) is irregularly ex- free part of lower limb (pars libera membri inferioris/свободная часть нижней
panded. It has articular surface(s) for the carpal bone(s). The metacarpal bones I-IV конечности):
have articular surfaces for the neighboring bones on lateral and/or medial sides of - the bone of the thigh is femur,
their bases. - two bones of the leg are tibia and fibula,
The metacarpal I is the shortest and stoutest of all metacarpal bones. The base is occu- - bones of the foot are 7 tarsal, 5 metatarsal and phalanges (proximal, middle and
pied by a concavoconvex articular surface for the trapezium. distal); the great toe has only two phalanges.
The medial wall is formed by the lateral plate of the pterygoid process of the sphe-
noid bone.
The anterior wall is formed by the infratemporal surface of the maxilla and the
temporal surface of the zygomatic bone.
The superior wall is formed by the inferior surface of the greater wing of the sphe-
noid bone and squamous part of the temporal bone. It is bounded superiorly by the
infratemporal crest of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone also.
The temporal fossa communicates with
- the orbit through the inferior orbital fissure;
- the pterygopalatine fossa through the pterygomaxillary fissure (fissura ptery-
gomaxillaris/крыловидно-нижнечелюстная щель).