Composites Part B: Engineering

Volume 35, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 331-343

Bearing strength of carbon fibre/epoxy laminates: effects of

bolt-hole clearance
Gordon Kelly, Stefan Hallström

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2003.11.001
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Abstract

The bearing strength of carbon fibre epoxy laminates manufactured from non-crimp fabric from heavy tow yarn has
been investigated. The effects of laminate stacking sequence and geometry on the bearing strength have been
determined experimentally together with the effect of initial bolt-hole clearance on the bearing strength at 4% hole
deformation and at ultimate load. Significant reduction in bearing strength at 4% hole deformation was found for both
pin-loaded and clamped laminates as a result of bolt-hole clearance. It was concluded that the effect of bolt-hole
clearance is significant with regard to the design bearing strength of mechanically fastened joints. A three-dimensional
non-linear finite element model was developed to investigate the effects of bolt-hole clearance on the stress field in
the laminate adjacent to the hole. The magnitude and distribution of stress at the hole was found to be significantly
dependent on the level of clearance.

Introduction

The introduction of composite materials in the automotive industry, places new demands on the materials and
manufacturing processes in terms of cost, cycle time and automation. Manufacture and assembly of composite
structures require knowledge of reliable joining techniques. Mechanical fastening is a common method used to join
composite materials. Mechanically fastened joints commonly adopted in aerospace structures are characterised by
tight tolerances on both the fasteners and on the machined holes. However, if composite materials are to be used in
mass production, different tolerance levels may be necessary for the joining and attachment of components to allow
shorter cycle times and minimise production costs. As a consequence, knowledge of the effect of tolerances between
the fastener and the hole on the strength and fatigue life of mechanically fastened joints will be required for design and
selection of manufacturing processes. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of bolt-hole clearance on the
static bearing strength of composite laminates.

A common method used to determine the strength of mechanically fastened joints is through pin-loading, where the
bolt is replaced by a pin. The pin-loading condition is most representative of the middle laminate in a balanced double-
lap joint configuration where the effects of load eccentricity and secondary bending are omitted. The pin-bearing
strength of the composite laminates has been the focus of a significant research effort. The strength and failure modes
of mechanically fastened joints have been shown to be significantly effected by relations between geometrical
parameters such as the bolt-hole diameter d, laminate thickness t, width w and edge distance e [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].
Other factors such as the laminate stacking sequence [2], [6], [7], [8], lateral clamping force [1], [2], [3], [4], [6], [9], [10],
[11], [12] and material non-linearity [13], [14] have been investigated and shown to be important for the joint strength.

While the main part of the published literature regarding pin-loaded joints has focussed on strength characterisation
and prediction, literature regarding the effect of manufacturing aspects on joint structural performance is limited.
Persson et al. [15] investigated the effect of hole machining techniques and manufacturing defects on the static
strength and fatigue life of carbon fibre/epoxy joints. Manufacturing defects relating to hole machining were found to
significantly reduce the static strength and fatigue life of pin-loaded joints in comparison to defect-free laminates.

Another important manufacturing- and assembly-related issue is the hole machining tolerance and fit between the
bolt and the hole. This is discussed in more detail Section 2.

The dimensional tolerance of the machined holes and fasteners can lead to large clearances in mechanically fastened
joints. The effect of bolt-hole clearance has been studied by several researchers [16], [17], [18], [19]. Hyer et al. [16]
investigated the effects of pin elasticity, clearance and friction on the stress state of pin-loaded joints. The effects of
friction and clearance were found to be most significant affecting both the distribution and magnitude of the stresses
around the hole. Clearances of 0 (neat fit) and 40 μm were considered for a nominal hole diameter of 4 mm. The 40 μm
clearance resulted in a reduction of the contact angle by 22% with a corresponding reduction in the predicted joint
strength of 12%. The bolt-hole contact angle is illustrated in Fig. 1. A shift in the maximum tangential stress from the
net-section plane (90°) towards the bearing plane (0°) was also noted.

Eriksson [17] conducted a numerical investigation on the effects of the laminate elastic properties, clearance, friction,
load magnitude and bolt stiffness on the contact stresses in pin-loaded joints. The results were in general agreement
with Ref. [16], highlighting the importance of including these parameters in stress analysis and strength prediction
models.

Naik and Crews [20] studied the effects of clearance between a rigid pin and quasi-isotropic laminate using an inverse
formulation. A two-dimensional finite element analysis (FEA) was performed assuming frictionless contact between
the pin and the laminate. The contact angle and maximum radial and hoop stresses around the hole were shown to be
dependent on the pin-hole clearance.

DiNicola and Fantle [18] investigated the effects of clearance on pin-loaded quasi-isotropic carbon fibre epoxy
laminates. Specimens with bolt-hole clearances of 0 (neat fit), 76, 152 and 276 μm for nominal hole diameters of 3.18
and 6.35 mm were compared and the bearing strength determined as the stress at 4% deformation of the hole diameter
and the stress at the ultimate bearing load. The bearing strength at 4% hole deformation was found to decrease
significantly with the increase in clearance but the ultimate bearing strength exhibited limited dependence on the
clearance. The ultimate bearing strength was reached after complex damage propagation around the bolt-hole and it
was concluded that the ‘design’ bearing load is clearance dependent.

Lanza Di Scalea et al. [19] investigated the effect of clearance and interference fit pin-loaded joints in cross-ply glass
fibre reinforced epoxy laminates. Larger tolerances were examined than in any of the previous studies. Clearances of 0
(neat fit), 0.35 and 2.35 mm were investigated for a nominal hole diameter of 6.35 mm. From a linear elastic FEA, the
peak bearing stresses were found to increase by 900% for the 0.35 mm clearance and 3000% for the 2.35 mm clearance
relative to the neat fit case. In support of the previous studies [16], the magnitude of the maximum tangential stress
remained unchanged but was found to shift location with increasing clearance. A shift of 14° towards the bearing plane
was observed for the case of 0.35 mm clearance but no further shift was noted for the 2.35 mm clearance.
The prior numerical investigations of the effects of clearance or interference effects in mechanically fastened joints in
composite materials have been limited to two-dimensional analysis where an assumption of plane stress has been
assumed. However, the stress field in the region of bolt-hole contact is three-dimensional and several researchers have
identified the need for three-dimensional analysis in order to include the effects of the through-thickness stress [21],
[22]. The three-dimensional model developed in the current work is used to study the effects of the bolt-hole clearance
and the through-thickness stress field in the vicinity of the hole.

A comprehensive experimental program has been undertaken to study the load bearing behaviour of the laminates and
the effect of the geometrical parameters such as width to hole diameter ratio (w/d), edge distance to hole diameter
ratio (e/d) and the thickness to hole diameter ratio (t/d) on the bearing strength. A series of specimens were
manufactured with a range of geometrical parameters as listed in Table 1. The effect of lateral clamping on the bearing
strength and joint failure mode was also investigated with a series of joint specimens being clamped with a torque of
5 Nm. A nominal pin diameter of 6.35 mm and a neat fit between the bolt and the hole was used for all of the initial
pin-bearing tests.

The effect of bolt-hole clearance on the laminate bearing strength was investigated for both pinned and clamped joints
under static loading. The specimen width and edge distance values were selected after the first series of tests to ensure
that bearing failure occurred in the specimens. Three different clearance levels were investigated with the clearance λ
being defined as where φhole and φpin are the nominal diameters of the hole and the pin,
respectively. The specimen configurations which were manufactured to investigate the bolt-hole clearance effects are
listed in Table 2.

Specimens were machined from carbon fibre epoxy laminates manufactured by resin transfer moulding (RTM). A
continuous carbon fibre (Toray T700) non-crimp fabric from heavy tow yarn was used together with epoxy resin (Shell
Epicote LV 828). Two different laminate thicknesses were considered with stacking sequences [0/45/90/−45]s and
[0/45/90/−45]s2, respectively. Specimens were machined from laminates of size to the geometry
illustrated in Fig. 2 using a diamond tip saw. Three specimens were tested per configuration with a total of 100
experiments being performed.

Holes were machined in the specimens using a Twinspin® machine based on a new orbital drilling technique [23]. The
technique involves a cutting tool revolving at high speed around its own axis and at a lower speed eccentrically around
a principal axis. The method allows for a hole to be machined axially and radially simultaneously. The hole diameter is
machined accurately by controlling the eccentricity of the cutting tool and the technique has been shown to be able to
produce high precision, delamination free holes in carbon fibre reinforced plastics [15]. The technique has the
advantage of allowing holes to be drilled with different diameters using the same cutting tool, which in this study has
been used to assess the effect of clearance or hole machining tolerance.

Static tests were conducted using a universal testing machine (Instron 4505) with a load capacity of 100 kN. The system
is fully computer controlled and allows for acquisition of load, displacement and strain data. The specimens were
mounted in the pin-loading fixture at one end and clamped within the grips of the testing machine at the opposite
end. The tests were run in displacement control at a rate of 1 mm/min. Loading was stopped after the first significant
load drop. Selected specimens were instrumented with uniaxial strain gauges to determine the strain field around the
bolt-hole and provide verification data for numerical simulations.

A pin-loading fixture which allowed for the testing of pinned and clamped joints was used to test the laminates as
shown in Fig. 3. The specimens were loaded with a steel pin of diameter 6.35 mm and washers of inner diameter 6.35
mm and outer diameter 12 mm were used for the clamped joint specimens.

The strain in the laminate was measured using a strain gauge extensiometer with a gauge length of 50 mm. The strain
was measured at the laminate mid-point as shown in Fig. 2.
Typical load displacement behaviour of pinned and clamped laminates is shown in Fig. 4. In the case of the pin-loaded
laminate, the load displacement relationship was relatively linear up to 60% of the failure load. A slight non-linearity
occurred as a result of damage at the hole edge. Failure of the pin-loaded laminate was sudden with a drop in load
occurring after the maximum load was reached. Visual inspection of the laminate revealed a ‘brooming’ type failure at
the edge of the hole with local through-thickness expansion evident over the region of the bolt-hole contact.

The load displacement behaviour of the clamped laminate was similar to the pin-loaded laminate for load levels below
40% of the failure load. For higher loads, a continuous reduction in stiffness was noted as damage developed at the
bearing surface in the region beneath the washers. The load continued to increase until the maximum load was
attained and failure was characterised by a minor drop in the load. Visual inspection of the clamped specimens
revealed that internal damage within the laminate surfaced at the edge of the washers. The washers acted to suppress
the brooming failure found in pin-loaded laminates and shifted the out-of-plane expansion associated with pin-
bearing failure away from the hole edge [10], [11].

The load displacement behaviour was also found to be dependent on the geometry of the test specimens and the
resulting failure mode. Fig. 5 illustrates typical load displacement curves for specimens failing in bearing and net-
section failure modes. The load displacement curve for specimens failing by net-section mode illustrates a linear load
displacement relation prior to catastrophic failure. At failure, the laminate fractured across the net-section
perpendicular to the direction of the applied load with the fracture originating at the hole edge. In contrast, the
specimens failing by bearing failure mode underwent progressive damage accumulation as illustrated by the non-
linearity in the load displacement curve. While a clear indication of the damage was evident in the current material at
approximately 40% of the failure load, Camanho et al. [21] found that for laminates made from pre-impregnated (pre-
preg) carbon epoxy (Hexcel T300/914), damage initiation occurred at load levels approximately 60% of the final failure
load with no apparent loss of stiffness evident from the load displacement curve. The authors also reported that
damage in specimens failing by net-section failure mode did not occur until 80% of the ultimate failure load was
reached.

The load displacement behaviour of the specimens failing by shear-out failure mode exhibited a combination of initial
bearing failure followed by a sudden reduction in load carrying capability. Pure shear-out failure, as found in laminates
made from pre-preg material, did not occur in any of the laminates used in the current study. This is assumed to be due
to the microstructure of the laminates and the high percentage of ±45° plies.

Similar dependence on the lateral clamping load and specimen geometry was noted for the load displacement
behaviour of both the [0/45/90/−45]s and [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates.

The effects of the geometrical parameters w/d, e/d and t/d on the laminate's ultimate bearing strength are illustrated in
Fig. 6, Fig. 7. The ultimate bearing strength (σbu) of the hole is defined as where Pu is the ultimate failure
load, d the hole diameter and t the thickness of the laminate. The nominal hole diameter was used
throughout this investigation.

Fig. 6 illustrates the effect of the width to hole diameter ratio (w/d) on the ultimate bearing strength of the laminates.
For pinned joints, bearing failure occurred for w/d values ≥2. At lower values of w/d, the laminates failed in net-section
mode. Similar behaviour was noted for the [0/45/90/−45]s and [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates.

The transition from net-section to bearing failure occurred at a higher value of w/d for clamped joints in comparison to
pinned joints. This was due to the lateral support at the hole edge which inhibited the through-thickness expansion.

A significant increase in the ultimate bearing strength was noted for the laminates subject to a lateral clamping load.
An increase in strength of over 100% was found in comparison to the pin-loaded laminates. The increase in strength
due to the clamping load is in agreement with the results from other authors [1], [2], [3], [4], [6], [9], [10], [11], [12].
The effect of e/d on the bearing strength is illustrated in Fig. 7. For low edge distances e/d<1.5, the failure mode was a
combination of bearing failure and shear-out failure. The laminates sheared through the thickness and there was no
evidence of individual plies shearing out which is a common occurrence for 0° plies in pre-preg laminates. Full bearing
strength was achieved in laminates with e/d≥2 for the pin-loaded laminates and e/d≥3 for the clamped laminates. A
similar increase in the ultimate bearing strength was noted between the pin-loaded and clamped laminates as
discussed previously.
The deformation of the bolt-hole in the laminate significantly influences the stiffness and strength of a mechanically
fastened joint. The interaction between the bolt and the hole at different load levels governs the contact area over
which load is transferred. Permanent deformation of the hole results in looseness in the joint, which can result in
significant strength reduction, especially during cyclic loading.

The deformation of the bolt-hole can be used to define a design load limit for mechanically fastened joints. The testing
standard ASTM STD D953-87 [24] outlines a procedure for determining the bearing strength defined as the stress at 4%
hole deformation. In this paper, the bearing strength at 4% hole deformation will be referred to as σb4%.

Assuming that the measured displacement (δtotal) is the sum of the elastic deformation ahead of the hole (δspecimen)
and the deformation of the hole itself (δhole), the hole deformation at a given load can be determined as
or substituting for the deformation of the specimen, where
L is the specimen length, e the edge distance, Lo the free length of the specimen ahead of the hole (see Fig. 2) and ϵ is
the far-field strain. The last term in Eq. (4) accounts for the reduction of the net-section at the hole where P is the
applied load, E is the modulus in the length direction of the laminate and A(x) is the effective cross-sectional area of a
strip of material in the laminate length direction x.

The bearing stress (P/dt) versus hole deformation for specimens with different bolt-hole clearance subject to pin-
loading is illustrated in Fig. 8. The bolt was located at the centre of the hole at the start of each test. For clearance fit
specimens, the initial portion of the curve corresponds to the bolt movement within the hole prior to contact between
the bolt and the laminate. The initial displacement prior to contact is equal to the radial clearance between the bolt
and the hole measured from the centre of the hole.

The bolt-hole clearance is shown to influence the hole deformation behaviour as shown in Fig. 8. The neat fit
specimens (λ0) immediately transfer load in comparison to the clearance fit specimens where the initial clearance
results in a delay in the load transfer. The slope of the bearing stress versus hole deformation curves indicates a slightly
lower stiffness associated with the clearance fit specimens. For a given bearing stress, the hole deformation in
clearance fit specimens is slightly larger in comparison to that of neat fit specimens. This is physically reasonable given
that the contact area between the bolt and the hole is reduced for clearance fit specimens resulting in higher local
contact stress. The hole deformation versus bearing stress behaviour was found to be thickness independent below
certain bearing stress levels for a given clearance (see points A in Fig. 8). The stress level where the [0/45/90/−45]s and
[0/45/90/−45]s2 curves diverge is shown to decrease with increasing bolt-hole clearance. It is assumed that this
reduction is due to the earlier onset of damage in specimens with larger clearance.

A thickness effect is evident when considering the ultimate failure of both laminates with the thicker [0/45/90/−45]s2
laminates illustrating a higher ultimate bearing strength. Similar thickness dependent behaviour was reported by
Collings [1] who found that the ultimate bearing strength decreased with increasing values of d/t. Collings also
reported that the effect of d/t on the ultimate bearing strength can be reduced through application of high lateral
clamping load around the hole.

The bearing stress versus hole deformation is significantly different for pin-loaded and clamped laminates as shown in
Fig. 9. The initial slope of the curve for the clamped laminate is dictated by the friction between the washers and the
laminate. When the friction is overcome, the deformation behaviour follows that of the pin-loaded laminate. The
clamped laminate is shown to withstand higher bearing stress and larger hole deformation in comparison to the pin-
loaded laminate. Above 50% of the failure load, a continuous reduction in stiffness is evident as damage accumulates
within the laminate. Failure of the clamped laminate is non-catastrophic with the hole deformation increasing steadily
without any increase in load. The bearing stress at 4% hole deformation, σb4%, is also illustrated in the figure.

In order to investigate the micromechanical failure modes, which contribute to the bearing failure of the laminates, and
the effects of bolt-hole clearance, a series of specimens loaded to failure were sectioned along the bearing plane and
polished to allow inspection under a microscope. Inspection of the bearing plane of the laminates revealed the
micromechanical failure modes and the extent of damage within each specimen. Earlier investigations of failure modes
and damage development in pin-loaded laminates by Wang et al. [25] and Camanho et al. [21] have found the primary
failure mode in pin-loaded laminates to be shear cracking comprising of matrix compression, fibre kinking and fibre-
matrix shearing. The previous investigations were, however, limited to laminates made from pre-impregnated material
which has a different microstructure compared to laminates made from non-crimp fabric.

The damage in the bearing plane of [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates is illustrated in Fig. 10(a)–(c). Inspection of the laminates
revealed the dominant micromechanical failure modes as matrix compression, interlaminar and intralaminar matrix
shear cracking, fibre microbuckling and fibre shear fracture. Fibre microbuckling in the restrained 0° oriented plies
located within the laminate (plies 8 and 9) resulted in eventual fibre compressive fracture as illustrated in Fig. 11(a)
and (b).

The damage in the bearing plane was found to be more extensive for laminates with larger bolt-hole clearance. The
higher stress levels in the bearing plane resulted in a large network of shear cracks propagating from the hole edge.
Delamination was noted to be more pronounced towards the outside of the laminate through the resin rich interface
between the 45 and 90° ply bundles. Fibre failure in the 0° oriented plies located within the laminate (plies 8 and 9)
extended almost 1 mm from the hole edge for the λ3.05% laminate. The greater extent of damage in the bearing plane
correlated with the increased hole deformation found in specimens with larger clearances for a given load level.

Inspection of damage in the bearing plane of the thinner [0/45/90/−45]s laminates revealed the primary failure modes
as matrix compression and shear failure (see Fig. 12(a) and (b)). Fibre splitting was present in the 0° oriented outer
plies together with a limited degree of fibre microbuckling. At ultimate failure, shear cracks from the hole edge
propagated and merged with delaminations between the 0 and 45° plies.

The increase in the ultimate strength of the [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates may occur as a result of the increased load
carried by the restrained 0° oriented plies at the centre of the laminate. The outer 0° oriented plies are unconstrained
at one side allowing for a ‘brooming’ type deformation at failure which results in interlaminar shear failure (see Fig.
11(c)) or fibre splitting.
The effect of bolt-hole clearance on the static bearing strength of pin-loaded CFRP laminates at 4% hole deformation
(σb4%) and at ultimate load (σbu) is illustrated in Fig. 13.

The bearing strength at 4% hole deformation of the [0/45/90/−45]s laminate was shown to decrease by 7 and 19% for
bolt-hole clearances of λ1.55% and λ3.05%, respectively. The corresponding ultimate bearing strength (σbu) was found to
be similar for clearances of λ0 and λ1.55% with a reduction of 12% being noted for the clearance of λ3.05%.

The corresponding decrease in bearing strength at 4% hole deformation for the [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminate was 1.3 and
6% for bolt-hole clearances of λ1.55% and λ305%, respectively. The ultimate bearing strength levels remained almost
constant and independent of the clearance between the bolt and the hole.

The σb4% values for the neat fit joints in both the [0/45/90/−45]s and [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates were found to be
similar. However, as the clearance increased, a significant reduction in strength was noted in the [0/45/90/−45]s
laminate in comparison to the [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminate. This result has important implications regarding the
determination of design bearing strength values for mechanically fastened joints in laminates made from similar
materials. Design bearing strengths must be determined for both a given bolt-hole clearance and laminate thickness.

The variation in strength was found to be slightly larger for the [0/45/90/−45]s laminates in comparison to the
[0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates. This may be attributed to the thinner laminates having a smaller contact area and being
more sensitive to misalignment. The larger variation in strength of the clearance fit laminates may be due to the
contact conditions and friction between the bolt and the hole surface.

The effect of the bolt-hole clearance on the bearing strength of clamped joints is illustrated in Fig. 14. The lateral
clamping load was found to increase the σb4% values of the laminates by approximately 20% in comparison to pin-
loaded laminates. However, the most significant increase in strength was evident in the σbu values which increased by
approximately 110%. The variation in strength due to clearance was found to be smaller than for the pin-loaded
laminates. The ultimate bearing strength was shown to be independent of the bolt-hole clearance for both the
[0/45/90/−45]s and [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminates. With the application of a lateral clamping load, the [0/45/90/−45]s
laminates were found to have slightly higher bearing strengths at 4% hole deformation than the [0/45/90/−45]s2
laminates. In a similar manner to the pin-loaded laminates, the bearing strength at 4% hole deformation for the
clamped [0/45/90/−45]s laminates was found to decrease with bolt-hole clearance, with reductions in the bearing
strength of 4 and 12% for clearance levels of λ1.55% and λ3.05%, respectively. The corresponding reduction in the σb4%
strength of [0/45/90/−45]s2 laminate was 10 and 22%, respectively.

While the effect of the clearance on the stress field around the hole can be determined analytically [26] or numerically
[16], [17], [18], [19], the influence on the bearing strength is complex given the progressive nature of damage
development during bearing failure. In Section 5, the finite element method is used to investigate the multi-axial stress
state which exists around the hole, and the effect of clearance on the stress magnitudes.

Section snippets

Finite element modelling

The finite element method was used to determine the stress field around a hole in a pin-loaded laminate. The stress
field around a hole in a laminate when subject to pin or bolt loading has been shown to be three-dimensional [21], [22]
and thus a three-dimensional finite element model is necessary to compute the multi-axial stress state which exists at
the hole and the surrounding area. This is particularly important for laminates exhibiting bearing failure where the
through-thickness stress is …

Conclusions

The bearing strength of mechanically fastened joints in carbon fibre reinforced plastic laminates made from non-crimp
fabric was investigated both experimentally and numerically. The effect of the geometrical parameters such as width to
hole diameter ratio (w/d), edge distance to hole diameter ratio (e/d) and the thickness to hole diameter ratio (t/d) on
the ultimate bearing strength were determined. The effect of lateral clamping load on the bearing strength was also
determined. Bearing…

Acknowledgements
Dr Ingvar Eriksson and Mr Mats Jonsson at Novator AB are gratefully acknowledged for their cooperation and
assistance with hole machining. This work has been financially supported by the Commission of the European Union
through Growth Project GR3D-CT-2000-00102 (Technologies for Carbon Fibre Reinforced Modular Automotive Body
Structures) and by the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research through the national Swedish research program
‘Integral Vehicle Structures’. The TECABS partners who have…

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