Professional Documents
Culture Documents
fields and has presented papers at national and international conferences. She is a referee for several
accredited journals and is a programme evaluator for the Council on Higher Education (CHE).
www.juta.co.za
EFFECTIVE BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
IN ORGANISATIONS
Preparing messages that communicate
4th edition
Michael Fielding
Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval
system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms and
conditions in the case of electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with a copy of
this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private study. See Section 12(1)(a)
of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978.
The author and the publisher believe on the strength of due diligence exercised that this work does not contain
any material that is the subject of copyright held by another person. In the alternative, they believe that any
protected pre-existing material that may be comprised in it has been used with appropriate authority or has been
used in circumstances that make such use permissible under the law.
CONTENTS
What is an organisation?............................................................................................ 80
Organisational structure............................................................................................. 82
Communication in an organisation.......................................................................... 87
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 102
CHAPTER 6: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION........................................ 103
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 103
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 104
Important definitions in intercultural communication.......................................... 104
Culture and climate in organisations.......................................................................107
Intercultural communication....................................................................................110
Understanding intercultural communication..........................................................113
How can organisations improve intercultural communication?............................114
Intercultural sensitivity..............................................................................................117
Conclusion ................................................................................................................118
CHAPTER 7: THE INTERVIEW.......................................................................... 119
Introduction...............................................................................................................119
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 120
The special nature of interviews............................................................................... 120
Types of interviews in an organisation.................................................................... 121
The role of questions in interviews.......................................................................... 127
Interview preparation............................................................................................... 128
Phases of a job interview.......................................................................................... 129
The job application................................................................................................... 130
The information-seeking interview.......................................................................... 135
The performance-appraisal interview...................................................................... 136
The exit interview...................................................................................................... 136
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 137
CHAPTER 8: FORMAL MEETINGS.................................................................... 138
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 138
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 139
Differences between formal and small policy-making meetings........................... 139
Aspects of formal meetings....................................................................................... 140
Guidelines for the conduct of meetings.................................................................. 148
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 150
CHAPTER 9: GRAMMAR, STYLE AND TONE IN THE ORGANISATIONAL
CONTEXT..................................................................................................... 151
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 151
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 151
Parts of speech – a quick revision............................................................................ 152
Words and meanings................................................................................................ 154
Functions of words.................................................................................................... 156
Choosing vocabulary for professional messages..................................................... 159
Style, tone and jargon............................................................................................... 162
iv
vi
Proposals................................................................................................................... 331
Writing an academic proposal.................................................................................. 336
Checklists for proposals............................................................................................ 340
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 341
CHAPTER 19: REPORTS.................................................................................... 342
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 342
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 342
Purposes of business reports.................................................................................... 342
Types of business reports.......................................................................................... 343
Characteristics of business reports........................................................................... 343
The audience for reports........................................................................................... 344
Traditional elements of reports................................................................................ 344
Letter or memorandum of transmittal..................................................................... 359
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 362
CHAPTER 20: INSTRUCTIONAL GRAPHICS.................................................... 363
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 363
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 363
What are instructional graphics?.............................................................................. 364
The purpose and function of instructional graphics............................................... 364
Types of instructional graphics................................................................................. 365
Integration of graphics into a written message....................................................... 381
Designing graphics.................................................................................................... 382
Bias in instructional graphics................................................................................... 383
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 383
CHAPTER 21: ORAL MESSAGES........................................................................ 384
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 384
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 384
Formats for a presentation and an oral report........................................................ 385
Preparing a presentation or oral report................................................................... 388
Preparing a persuasive presentation......................................................................... 389
The speaker’s credibility............................................................................................ 392
Using audio-visual aids............................................................................................ 393
Audience response and questions............................................................................ 398
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 400
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 401
INDEX............................................................................................................... 405
vii
Marla Koonin: Marla began her career working in both the Journalism
and Public Relations industries. For the last 10 years she has worked as an
academic in both public and private higher education institutions. She
has managed, lectured, written and developed various qualifications and
material in the fields of communication, journalism, public relations and
event management. Marla is a referee for academic journals, is an external
moderator and examiner for public and private higher education institutions,
acts as a programme evaluator for the Council of Higher Education (CHE),
and has published articles for mainstream media, public relations projects,
academic journals and online platforms. She is also the managing editor of The
Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning. Marla is a registered Chartered
Public Relations Practitioner (CPRP) and holds a BA Communication degree,
an Honours majoring in Journalism and Communication and a Masters
degree in Journalism, receiving both her Honours and Masters cum laude. She
also won the Beeld prize for the top Journalism student at the Rand Afrikaans
University (currently the University of Johannesburg) both at undergraduate
and postgraduate levels, earned membership of the Golden Key Honours
Society and received the Dean’s award for her Masters. She is currently
busy with her Doctorate in Organisational Communication through the
University of South Africa (UNISA). Marla holds the position of Senior Head
of Programme for the Faculty of Applied Humanities at the IIE.
ix
Although English is a key business language, many students who use this
book are second-language speakers. Keeping this in mind, Effective Business
Communication in Organisations 4th edition has been written in a clear, highly
readable style. In addition, by means of a range of examples, students
are shown how to create well-planned, readable messages in the latest
internationally recognised business formats.
With its combination of theory and practice, this book will help students to
bridge the gap between the educational and professional environments in
which they live. While the fourth edition of Effective Business Communication
in Organisations maintains the essential core that has made this book popular
over the past twenty years, it also embraces the challenges that effective
communicators face in this technological and rapidly changing business
environment.
A new feature that has been introduced into this fourth edition is the
interactive support material that is available online, instead of in a static
format at the back of the book, as in previous editions. The combination of
This dynamic textbook with its up-to-date content and format will prepare
students for successful careers in any and all business environments on the
world stage.
Michael Fielding
Consulting editor
November 2013
xii
1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Developing good communication skills is the key to personal and business
success. Organisations can only function effectively if people are able to
share their knowledge and ideas, which means that organisations can only
reach their goals through effective communication. Possessing effective
communication skills is therefore an essential aspect of being successful in a
work context.
As human beings we spend the majority of our lives within and as part of
an organisation. Effective communication is vital for an organisation to survive
because everything that happens within an organisation involves some form
of communication. From the informal exchange between colleagues in the
canteen right up to the interaction with customers and major advertising and
public relations campaigns, we will always be engaged in some form of business
communication. It is this communication that enables an organisation to
coordinate its activities and reach its business goals.
Whether we are average, good or brilliant communicators, we all have a need
to communicate. And we have this need because we all instinctively know that
communication is the binding force that holds together every relationship we
have. Our relationship with our family, friends, colleagues, partner, lecturers
or anybody else can only function because we are able to communicate with
these people. In the same way that our personal relationships are formed
and maintained through communication, so businesses are also formed and
maintained through communication. Communication consequently forms
the foundation of all business.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the focus of the book
• read a range of texts with comprehension
• explain various academic reading skills.
Reading skills
In order to master the objectives set out in this book, as well as engage in
effective business communication, you will need to practise various types of
reading, depending on which aspects of academic or business communication
you are engaged in.
To deepen your knowledge on a particular subject, you often have to read
texts that other people have written. This is especially true in an academic or
business environment. In order to become an effective communicator, you
need to be familiar with the different types of reading that you might need in
your career and studies. As a guideline we will discuss the four main types of
These four types of reading all have a specific purpose. Before you start reading
a particular text, it is important to know why you would want or need to read
it. This will help you choose the best method for reading the text. It is also
very important to practise these types of reading skills as often as possible so
that you become good at them.
The four different types of reading are outlined in the tables that follow.
Understanding why cultures differ, what makes a culture unique and why it
is important to be sensitive to cultural differences within the South African
context are important aspects that will be covered next. South Africa itself is a
multicultural nation and as a result South African organisations are characterised
by diversity. Globalisation and international business are also a reality and a
thorough understanding of intercultural communication is therefore essential
to survive in today’s complex multicultural business environment.
We will look at the importance of conducting effective interviews within
the workplace and focus on how to conduct effective meetings.
Then we will cover written communication. The quality of a company’s
written communication has a significant impact on how that company
is perceived by the public and other stakeholders. Sloppy, badly written
communication always creates a poor impression. It is therefore essential to
pay attention to grammar, spelling and syntax and to understand the style
and tone of writing within an organisational context.
We go on to essay writing and the importance of appropriate referencing,
since these skills are needed for successful academic endeavours. We also
explore the elements of readability.
The section on case studies not only helps with answering exam questions
based on case studies, but also with analysing case studies in specific
industry contexts.
The next area on which we focus is the identity of the organisation. Every
message that leaves an organisation reflects negatively or positively on the
organisation. The perception of these messages usually becomes linked to
the organisation’s identity and in this way the image of the organisation is
created. We will discuss these important concepts and how they contribute
to the reputation of an organisation and can affect the success or failure
of a company.
The image of a company is also often enhanced or maintained through
proper customer relations. Without customers or clients, no organisation can
exist and it is essential to maintain good relationships in today’s competitive
economy. Employees therefore need to learn professional telephone and
email etiquette and how to engage with customers in a helpful, supportive
and friendly way. The way in which customers are treated will have an
enormous impact on how they feel about the organisation and will determine
whether they will continue to support that organisation. Customer service
consequently is essential to effective business communication.
Another important form of business communication is mass
communication, such as traditional and new media. Mass communication
2
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Introduction
Communication is the lifeblood of organisations because, without it, no
organisation can exist or survive. Nearly everything a company does involves
some form of communication and so businesses are involved in a wide range
of communication activities. Communication is one of the key elements that
determine the success or failure of a company because it enables its members
to coordinate their activities and reach the organisation’s business goals.
People can only coordinate their actions if they follow a set of negotiated
rules. In time people will follow the rules without thinking. When people
deviate from the rules or what is seen as socially acceptable behaviour, it often
leads to conflict. If people are unable to communicate successfully to resolve
these types of problems, it will lead to more conflict and misunderstandings.
As a result, communication and any barriers to effective communication
deserve the attention of, and need to be understood and managed by,
all organisations.
If you want to better understand communication and the crucial role
it plays in the functioning of organisations, a good place to start is with a
definition of communication.
Communication can be defined as a transaction, a process of exchange or
simply giving and taking. So we can define communication as transactional
in nature. When we then say that communication is a transactional process, it
means that people work together to create meaning and to share this meaning.
They do this by exchanging symbols. The symbols that people use, in order to
exchange meaning take many forms. They may be words, non-verbal symbols
or even graphic representations. The problem with symbols is that people
often assign different meanings to the same symbols, which complicates
the communication process since communication is ultimately about the
sharing of meaning. When people do not assign the same meaning to the
same symbol, misunderstandings are often the result.
In this chapter, we will look at two communication models: a linear and
a convergence model of communication. These models will assist you in
understanding the complex process of communication. The linear model will
help you to identify and understand the major components or elements of
the communication process. The convergence model on the other hand will
provide you with the necessary insight to appreciate how important it is to
work together to reach an understanding. You will see that feedback is needed
to create a sharing of meaning and so, in this chapter, the differences between
one- and two-way communication will also be discussed.
Another aspect of communication that you will need to understand is that
communication in organisations occurs in dyads (or one-to-one groups),
small groups (between three and 12 people) and large groups (usually more
than 10 people). All of these vary in the demands they place on people,
especially in terms of communication. Moreover, communication within
the organisation flows in upward, downward and horizontal channels, each
with a different function and set of challenges. To complicate matters even
further, organisations also have to communicate with customers, suppliers,
government, the media and the general public. Organisations consequently
have to manage both internal and external communication. In this chapter,
then, you will be introduced to some of the basic principles of communication
and how they apply to an organisational setting.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• define communication
• describe the different aspects that make up communication
• explain what is meant by the ‘creation and sharing of meaning’
• describe the differences between a linear and a convergence model
of communication
• describe the components of the communication process
• describe major barriers to communication in organisations
• describe the differences between one-way and two-way communication
• describe the major contexts of communication in organisations
• explain what is meant by ‘downward’, ‘horizontal’ and ‘upward’ channels
of communication.
Defining communication
Communication is very complex. Indeed, communication experts have
difficulty agreeing on a single definition that covers all of the components of
communication in a satisfactory manner. For the purposes of this book we
will define communication as follows:
Definition
Communication is a functional, dynamic and transactional process where participants strive to
create and share meaning through the exchange of symbols.
Communication is functional
When we say that communication is functional, we simply mean that it
serves several functions. Some of these functions in organisations are to
motivate and unify employees, to coordinate their activities, to ensure that
the organisation’s objectives are reached and to ensure that the organisation
delivers high-quality products and services. We further use communication to
gather information because information allows us to reduce uncertainty and
because accurate and thorough information plays an important part in good
decision-making. It is also used to generate new ideas and to help staff adapt
to change. But communication can also be used to control employees and
manipulate customers or clients through persuasion.
Communication is dynamic
When we say communication is dynamic, it means that communication is
always in a state of flux or change. That is, there are so many variables that
influence communication that it changes all the time. Think for example how
your mood can change the way in which you communicate. A person’s mood
is only one of many factors that influence communication behaviour.
10
Communication is a transaction
A transaction involves two or more people exchanging something. When
you buy something you are involved in a transaction because you exchange
money for the product you want. Communication is transactional because
we exchange symbols and messages in order to create meaning.
11
Communication models
In the definition of communication, communication was described as a
transaction, which implies that people have to work together through the
exchange of messages to create a sharing of meaning. But one person does not
hand over meaning to another as though it were a present to be unwrapped.
Instead, communication is an unending and ever-changing process, in which
meaning is negotiated between participants. This complex process is hard
to analyse. Communication researchers have subsequently devised models
to help them analyse and understand some of the major elements in the
communication process. Two models of communication are discussed in this
chapter: linear and convergence.
Please keep in mind, however, that models simplify what is a very complex
process. Models cannot show all the complexities of a real situation. They
are nevertheless helpful in the study of communication. Think of models as
12
maps. A map tells you where you can find what and where to go but it does
not look anything like the places or roads it represents. However, it is still
very useful in helping you to get to an unknown destination. These models
serve a similar purpose. They oversimplify the communication process and
the components involved in this process, yet they help us to unpack and
understand the process better.
The linear model of communication helps us to analyse the major
components in the communication process. The convergence model on the
other hand, stresses that communication is a transaction in which meaning
is created and negotiated by both sender and receiver working together. This
model also stresses the idea of the meeting of minds, meaning that people
need to share the same meanings of words, concepts and ideas if they are to
communicate successfully.
Figure 2.2 The linear model of communication with its different components
13
Encode
RECEIVER
Decode
Encode Encode
SENDER Sender Receiver SENDER
Decode Decode
Understanding
Encode
RECEIVER
Decode
Based on these two models, we can identify the following nine elements or
components of the communication process:
1. participant as sender
2. participant as receiver
3. message
4. medium
5. channel
6. feedback
7. noise
8. context
9. result.
14
RESULT
MESSAGE
• medium
Participant • channel Participant
as sender • feedback as receiver
• noise
• context
• result
Figure 2.4 above illustrates the nine components, with the sender initiating
a message. The sender has to decide on the purpose of the message, for
example to inform, persuade or instruct. The message then has to be encoded
in a form that the receiver can understand. It then has to be sent in a specific
format via a channel to the receiver, who will encode the message and send
feedback to the sender.
Participant as sender
The sender is usually the initiator of the communication and is responsible
for encoding the message. The core word in encode is code. Thus, when we
encode a message, we are making use of a code to communicate a message.
Language is a system of codes made up of signs and symbols that can be used
to construct a message. We use this coding system to transform our ideas
and thoughts into a message that can be understood by others. However,
even though people understand certain messages, they do not always believe
them and the credibility of the sender is therefore essential, especially
within the workplace. A sender will usually be regarded as credible if he or
she is knowledgeable, behaves and communicates in ethical ways and has
high status. Importantly, a sender’s credibility will also be influenced by the
context. For example the financial manager could be regarded as a highly
credible source when it comes to financial matters, but may not be seen as a
credible source when it comes to human resource management.
Participant as receiver
The receiver decodes the message according to his or her knowledge of the
subject, ability to use and interpret language, past experience, background
and needs. It is important to understand what is meant by encoding and
decoding. As mentioned before, encoding is when the sender makes use of
codes (such as language) and puts them together in a meaningful way to
15
convey an idea or message. When the receiver receives this coded message, he
or she then needs to unravel the codes in order to make sense of the message.
This process is known as decoding. Decoding secret messages has been used
by the military throughout the ages and it is often the topic of novels, for
example Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code. As children many of us developed
our own secret codes to communicate messages to friends that others, usually
a teacher, would not be able to figure out if they did not know the meaning of
the codes. The receiver will interpret the coded messages and will then decide
how to react to the message. The receiver then changes roles and encodes his
or her own message to send back as feedback to the sender who now becomes
the receiver again.
Message
Communication is not a random affair. Most of our communication is
conscious, purposeful, intentional and likely to be directed at a specific
receiver with a specific purpose in mind. As mentioned before, we use codes
to encode or construct our messages. The sender has a range of codes to
choose from to get his or her message across, for example words, non-verbal
codes, graphics and various other symbols. However in a business context
particular attention needs to be paid to the encoding of messages, because
the right message has to be communicated in the right way, to the right
people, at the right time! Poorly encoded messages will lead to confusion and
misunderstanding, which could ultimately result in resentment and conflict.
Moreover communication managers must also ensure that employees are not
overloaded with too many messages at the same time. People stop paying
attention to important messages if they feel overwhelmed by the large number
of messages being sent to them.
16
Medium
A range of media may be used to send messages. In the past humans
used smoke signals and drum beats to communicate over long distances.
Nowadays, the sender can, for example, send a written message in an email
via a computer or in a text message via a cellphone. As a sender you can use
sound waves as a medium to speak to another person or you can use light
waves as a medium to communicate non-verbally. A lighthouse for example
uses light waves as a medium to communicate messages to ships at sea.
Channel
Communication usually flows within a channel, in the same way that water
flows through a waterway or a water canal. The most common channels
found within an organisation are upward, downward and horizontal
(sideways or lateral) and they are linked to the structure of the organisation.
An organisation’s structure is typically represented by a diagram known as
an organogram or organisational chart.
Argyris (2011) explains that an organogram is like an X-ray of a person’s
skeleton – it shows you the skeleton of the organisation and how the different
parts are connected to one another (see Figure 2.6 on the next page). The lines
in the organogram are lines of authority and tell us who is reporting to whom.
These lines are commonly known as communication channels. The more
open the communication channels are and the more freely communication
can flow in all directions, the more effective the communication and, by
implication, the organisation, tend to be. However there is also a point where
too much communication can become counter-productive, such as when
people get overloaded with information or when employees end up spending
too much time in meetings debating issues and not actually getting any work
done or plans implemented. Finding a perfect balance is actually very difficult
to achieve. You will learn more about channels in organisations in Chapter 5.
17
HR Consultant
Feedback
In this chapter we have stressed the need for two-way communication as
opposed to one-way communication. Two-way communication stresses the
importance of feedback and constant interaction during communication
because, as mentioned previously, the negotiation of meaning is essential.
People involved in interpersonal and small group communication are in the
best position to give and receive feedback. One-way communication on the
other hand, is often characterised by lack of feedback, difficulty in obtaining
feedback or delayed feedback. This is why advertisers spend a great deal of
money on market research to establish their audience’s needs and reactions.
Feedback is difficult to obtain in public communication, particularly with
large audiences.
Others
F e e d b a ck
Result
Figure 2.7 The nature of feedback includes two-way communication and constant interaction
18
Noise
Noise is classified as one of the nine elements or components of the
communication process because it is a barrier to effective communication.
While it is a barrier to effective communication, it also interferes with
the sharing of meaning. Noise can be divided into three basic categories,
namely external (or physical noise), internal (or psychological) noise and
semantic noise.
19
There are various forms of external noise. During a presentation, for example,
the noise created by machines nearby might drown out certain parts of the
message. The audience itself might be so noisy that the presentation cannot
be heard properly. However noise does not always have to take on the form
of sound. If the lighting or the air-conditioning is faulty, it will also interfere
with people’s ability to concentrate on the message and this would then also
be classified as a form of physical noise. In the case of a written message,
the reproduction of a faxed or scanned document could be so poor that the
message cannot be read. All these are examples of physical barriers to effective
communication, known as external noise.
Internal noise is a barrier that people themselves create. It is often the
result of our own prejudices, attitudes, values and beliefs. The receiver
might not like the message being sent because it carries information that
he or she disagrees with. He or she will then become defensive and not pay
attention to the message. This is an example of a psychological barrier. The
sender and receiver may come from different cultural backgrounds that may
cause a psychological barrier to effective communication because each one
does not understand the other’s values. For example, as a sign of respect
most people from Western cultures make strong eye contact, while most
people from African backgrounds will avoid strong eye contact. If people
are not aware of these differences, they will interpret the eye behaviour of
the other incorrectly.
Finally, semantic noise occurs when the words a sender uses are not
understood by the receiver, even though they speak the same language.
There are many examples of semantic noise. Semantic noise can occur when
people give different meanings to the same word. For example, ‘weed’ can
be understood as a slang word for marijuana or it can be understood as an
undesirable garden plant. People often experience semantic noise when
the speaker uses jargon. Jargon is language or vocabulary that is used by a
specific profession or select group and is too technical for anyone outside
that profession or group to understand. Semantic noise is also commonly
experienced when reading or listening to an academic discourse or debate.
A sentence such as ‘Smokers are likely to experience cognitive dissonance
and therefore attempt to vindicate their insalubrious practices’ is not likely
to be understood by the average person. We therefore need to be mindful of
any semantic noise that could carry into our conversations because it tends
to alienate the listener. Remember, the ultimate aim of communication is
20
21
Perceptions
Perceptions refer to the way in which we see and interpret the world around us
and give meaning to the things that happen to us. However, our perceptions
are influenced by many factors, such as past experiences, education, language,
culture and so on. People with diverse backgrounds and experiences can
consequently have different perceptions about the same thing. Both sender
and receiver will therefore see the world, the workplace and specific tasks
differently and this can create a major communication barrier. In the
workplace we need to be sensitive to the perceptions of others to ensure that
effective communication takes place.
There are two important things you need to understand about perception.
The first is that our perception is subjective and the second is that our
perceptions can be wrong. Read the three common phrases below. What did
you (or rather didn’t you) notice about these three phrases? What does that
teach you about your perceptions?
Read
I can eat a Speak of the
between the
a horse the devil
the lines
Also, use the Internet to search for and then read the Indian folk story about
the five blind men describing an elephant. What does this story teach us
about perceptions? In order to make sure that communication is effective,
we need to learn to withhold judgement until we are sure that we know all
the facts and that we are interpreting a message or situation in the same way.
Moreover it is important to ask questions if you suspect that you and one of
your co-workers are perceiving things differently.
Pressures
Both sender and receiver could be working under different pressures. One
person might for example be a member of a union and be put under pressure
22
Result
V
VVV
VVVVVVVVV
VVVVVVVVVV
VVV
Figure 2.8 How barriers stop effective communication from taking place
Context in organisations
Communication always takes place within a particular context and the
context influences the way in which we communicate. For example, your
communication style will change depending on whether you are having a
formal meeting with a client in the boardroom or having an informal discussion
with a colleague in the canteen. In an organisation, the word ‘context’ is also
used to refer to the size of the group in which the communication is taking
place. Within an organisation, communication is likely to take place in dyads,
small groups and large groups.
Dyadic context
The word di means two, so a dyad refers to two people communicating with
each other. In organisations a great deal of the communication takes place in
a dyadic context, that is, between two people.
23
of meetings. However although meetings are necessary, not all meetings are
productive and they can actually waste a lot of time if they are not conducted
in an efficient and effective way. Nonetheless small groups are a great source
of solving problems because different individuals have different ideas and
skills and therefore bring a variety of strengths to the table; something that
is essential for effective problem-solving. In the best groups, every member
is encouraged to communicate to his or her full potential and a positive
atmosphere or climate is established so that people work well together.
What is important to note, though, is that the size of the group significantly
influences the quality of communication within that group. The bigger the
group, the less rewarding communication becomes and the longer it takes to
reach a decision. However, one way in which to ensure a group uses its time
wisely is to make use of an agenda for meetings.
Public context
The external environment of an organisation is the public context. It consists
of, for example, customers, suppliers, the general public, government
departments and so on. Companies often undertake advertising or public
relations campaigns to communicate in a public context.
The result
In Figure 2.9 on the next page, the result is shown as two shapes that partially
overlap. The reason why they overlap only partially is because a perfect match
between the message sent and the message received is hardly ever possible. The
perfect sharing of meaning is extremely difficult to achieve. In other words, the
message sent is most likely not going to be identical to the message received. If
the shapes did not touch at all, this would show that no communication took
place, even though a message had been sent. This could happen, for example,
when two people do not speak the same language and therefore do not
understand each other. Therefore because they do not share a coding system
(language), they cannot decode each other’s messages in a meaningful way.
24
Result
NEEDS NEEDS
GOALS GOALS
pressures
cultural cultural
and work and work
background background
Figure 2.9 Perfect congruence is seldom achieved from the original message
Conclusion
The models of communication and the brief descriptions of the levels of
communication presented in this chapter stress the following:
• Communication is a transaction in which people strive to create and share
meaning through the exchange of messages. People therefore have to work
together to create meaning.
• Meanings are created by people.
• Misunderstandings are very common because of people’s differences.
• Communication takes place in different contexts.
• People need to be aware of the barriers to effective communication.
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3
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
The emphasis of this chapter is on person-to-person (or interpersonal)
communication in the organisation. Interpersonal communication skills are
one of the most important aspects of all communication and your credibility
as a communication expert will depend heavily on your interpersonal skills.
However effective communication in the workplace is not the responsibility
of only a few communication experts. Everybody in the organisation has
a responsibility to ensure that communication is as effective as possible
because without effective communication the organisation and the people
working for the organisation will never be able to achieve their full potential.
All interpersonal communication is informed by intrapersonal
communication. Intrapersonal communication refers to the conversations we
have with ourselves and in this way it is also related to our self-image. Because
communication is a process, as explained in Chapter 2, a positive self-image
significantly influences the effectiveness of interpersonal communication.
Therefore before we can understand communication with others, we first
have to understand communication within ourselves and how these internal
dialogues influence the way in which we interact with others.
Intrapersonal communication is also informed by our perceptions. We
perceive or make sense of reality through our senses. Unfortunately our
senses sometimes deceive us and our perception of reality is not always
accurate. Moreover, not everybody perceives reality in the same way because
our needs, expectations and experiences are vastly different. Because of this,
we take notice of different things and we interpret the world around us and
the messages we receive in different ways. This in itself is not a problem,
but different interpretations become problematic when we use our own
27
to believe the non-verbal cues than the verbal ones. What is problematic,
however, is that non-verbal communication is difficult to interpret because
it is likely to be ambiguous. It is therefore always essential to consider the
context in which the non-verbal communication takes place and to depend
on a cluster of non-verbal signals to interpret the meaning of a message,
rather than on one, singular signal in isolation.
There are many more interpersonal communication skills that could be
mastered and learning and improving communication skills should actually
be a lifelong process. In this chapter we will briefly cover only a few of these
skills. The aim of the section on non-verbal communication is to make you
aware of the range of non-verbal signals that exist and how these signals work
in interactions.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain the process of interpersonal communication
• describe three implications for communication brought about by our
interpersonal communication
• explain how organisations can improve the perceptions of staff
• explain the value of the Johari Window in understanding ourselves as well
as others
• explain some of the roles and rules that apply to dyads
• explain the terms ‘levelling’ and ‘assertiveness’ as they are used in
interpersonal communication
• describe the difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’
• describe what is meant by ‘active listening’
• describe the techniques that can be used to become an effective active listener
• list some of the barriers to effective listening
• discuss some of the poor listening habits
• describe the characteristics of effective listening in organisations
• explain ways in which a listener can ensure that he or she is listened to
• provide reasons why you should be sensitive to non-verbal cues
• compare and contrast non-verbal and verbal communication
• describe the different types of non-verbal communication and demonstrate
an understanding of their significance in the communication process
• differentiate between non-verbal communication deal makers and breakers
• explain how non-verbal communication can be used to detect deception.
28
29
dislike you. Because of the negative non-verbal messages you are sending,
they might then form a poor impression of you and not want to do business
with you. This will then confirm your belief that you are not good at sales and
your self-fulfilling prophecy will have come true.
A positive self-image is important if you want to become an effective
communicator because, as mentioned before, you will be more willing and
able to engage with other individuals and to form positive perceptions about
them. However some scholars, such as Lane (2010) and Baumeister (2005),
are of the opinion that the overemphasis on the self in modern society is
problematic because it lacks accountability. Therefore although a positive self-
image, self-approval, self-acceptance, self-realisation, self-expression, etc, are
important, self-discipline, self-control and self-denial are equally important
to truly benefit ourselves and society. In some instances, we need to constrain
ourselves to benefit others.
30
the perceptions of others. Our perception does not simply register ‘reality’. We
select what we pay attention to according to our:
• personality
• past experiences
• emotions
• needs
• interests
• attitudes and beliefs
• hopes and fears
• culture
• knowledge.
31
• Be aware of the fact that your self-image and self-esteem will have an
impact on your communication and will influence the way in which you
interpret the messages of others.
32
Interpersonal communication
In organisations, effective interpersonal communication is vital and is closely
linked to employees’ well-being and satisfaction within the organisation.
Many people change their jobs because of poor interpersonal communication
and a high staff turnover is very costly for companies. Management and staff
therefore need to understand what is involved in effective person-to-person
communication.
A great deal of interpersonal communication in organisations takes place
in dyads. As mentioned before, a dyad refers to two people communicating. In
order to work together effectively, both participants in the dyad must take equal
responsibility for the effectiveness of the transaction. Each has to ensure that he
or she constructs or encodes messages in a clear way and pays careful attention
to feedback through effective active listening and by considering non-verbal
cues. The two participants therefore have to construct meaning together.
33
Once you have clarity about your own and the other person’s role and how
these roles relate to one another, you will develop and engage in patterns of
behaviour that are appropriate to these roles and the expectations that go
34
with these roles. Moreover, as we build our working relationships with our
colleagues, we negotiate a set of rules that will be used to govern behaviour.
These rules then become prescriptive in terms of acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour or conduct. Although these rules are rarely written down they are
understood by all. Some examples of these rules include:
• not interrupting fellow colleagues before they have finished their thoughts
• not arriving late for meetings
• not using offensive and inappropriate language
• respecting everyone’s cultural and religious beliefs
• not lying about mistakes.
35
others. People easily lose respect for them and in some instances will even
refuse to cooperate with them, undermining them whenever they can.
In order to share meaning, it is very important that people in a dyad check the
accuracy of their perceptions and share how they feel about the facts of the
situation. All people have a need to feel understood, which is only possible
through active listening. In order to be an effective communicator, you also
need to monitor the strength of people’s feelings in a particular situation and
to acknowledge those feelings.
36
Known to others
Open Blind
Not known to others
Hidden Unknown
The open self represents everything we know about ourselves and that we are
willing to openly share with others. The more we share with others about our
hopes, fears and expectations, the easier it will be for them to communicate
with us. Moreover, as already mentioned, it is only through sharing our
thoughts and feelings with others that our relationships with them can grow
and develop.
The blind self represents everything other people know about us, but that
we are not aware of. These may, for example, be mannerisms that others find
irritating. The only way in which the blind self can be known is if others share
this information with us so that we can become aware of it.
The hidden self represents things we know about ourselves that we are not
willing to share with other people. All of us are aware of certain things about
ourselves that we choose not to reveal to others. These could for example be
hopes and fears that we do not wish to reveal to others.
The unknown self represents things that neither we nor others know about us.
37
Open-receptive communication
In our one-to-one communication we should strive to have the open area
as large as possible. The hidden area should be as small as possible and we
should strive to reduce our blind area as much as we can.
Active listening
Effective active listening is vital in interpersonal communication. We spend
a great deal of our time listening, but unfortunately most people are poor
listeners and poor listening skills lead to most misunderstandings.
Figure 3.2 below suggests that we are likely to spend far more time listening
than any other activity, such as speaking, reading and writing.
Speaking
Listening 44%
Listening 27%
Speaking 27%
44%
Reading 18%
Reading
Writing 11%
Writing 18%
11%
Figure 3.2 The percentage of time we spend listening, speaking, reading and writing
Fig. 3.2- pie chart
We therefore need to understand:
• what prevents us from listening effectively
• what techniques can be used to improve our listening.
38
The words ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ are often used interchangeably as though
they are synonyms with the same meaning. This is definitely not the case and
in this section we will distinguish between the two. Hearing is a passive process
in which we receive and interpret sound waves. For example if someone
speaks to you in a foreign language, you will hear that person speaking but
you will not be able to attach meaning to his or her words. Active listening on
the other hand is a process where we are deeply engaged with the speaker and
pay close attention not only to the facts and opinions expressed but also the
speaker’s feelings. We remain alert and offer helpful feedback. This feedback
takes the form of:
• summaries and paraphrases of what is being said
• statements about what you think the speaker feels
• questions to clarify what is being said
• non-verbal signs that you are listening, such as nodding your head.
In addition to the above, the following poor listening habits can be detrimental
to interaction:
• jumping to conclusions based on your own points of view before the
speaker has finished his or her thoughts
• pseudo-listening where you pretend that you are paying attention while
your mind is actually wandering
• trying to listen to all the facts, rather than concentrating on the key issues
• ignoring the speaker’s attitudes and feelings
39
Listening Listening
behaviours behaviours
General that affirm
that confirm listening
the message the speaker
competence (supportive
(accurate
listening) listening)
The overlapping circles show that your listening must be appropriate and
effective. Appropriate listening means that you have understood the content
of the message. In addition, you have not broken the rules and norms of
conversation and you have satisfied the needs and intentions of the other
participant. Effective listening is essential within an organisational context
and it can contribute to your professional success.
40
The following specific techniques should help you to become an active listener:
• Know exactly why you are listening. You might, for example, be listening to:
• get the main ideas
• draw proper inferences from the material
• understand difficult information
• evaluate and apply new information
• check whether the speaker is making a logical point
• analyse the persuasive techniques used by the speaker
• decide how the speaker feels about his or her ideas
• follow directions or instructions.
41
42
check your cellphone and watch all the time and occasionally stare out of
the window when your boss is taking too long to make a point. Your boss
is likely to interpret such behaviour in a negative way and will consequently
form negative perceptions about you and therefore be reluctant to promote
you. Conversely, people who listen actively in meetings and who are positive
and enthusiastic appear charismatic. This creates a good impression and they
will be more likely to get promoted.
43
44
Silence
Silence during interpersonal communication is important. When silence is
well used it helps people to engage in genuine two-way communication.
Silence encourages effective turn-taking and can be an indication that
someone is listening.
Silence in the form of pauses is also important in public speaking. It
allows the audience time to absorb what people are saying particularly if the
information is foreign. Effective public speakers also use silence to get the
audience’s attention before they make an important point. Unfortunately
people, especially those from Western cultures, often misinterpret silence.
So when someone is silent it is important to stop yourself from jumping to
conclusions. Instead ask the person who is silent why he or she is being silent
before communicating with them on the basis of an incorrect judgement.
People often mistake shyness for rudeness, fear or boredom. A shy person or a
person attempting to show respect through silence might also be misjudged as
angry. All these mistakes could lead to serious breakdowns in communication.
A good rule in communication is that participants should take equal turns
when speaking and listening. If you find that you are doing all the talking
and the other participant is particularly quiet, do not talk more to hide your
discomfort; rather make an effort to find out why the other person is silent. In
this way, you can communicate with each other with understanding.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to voice qualities. A common mistake that people make
is to equate paralanguage with verbal communication. Paralanguage refers
to vocal (not verbal) communication. Vocal communication is separate from
actual language (verbal communication). Paralanguage does not refer to
45
what is being said, but how it is being said. It therefore describes the ways
in which we speak, rather than what we say. The tone of your voice and the
emphasis you place on certain words can change the meaning of a sentence.
For example, if you say the sentence ‘Go home now’ and place emphasis on
different words, the meaning changes. If you emphasise ‘home’, it means go
home as opposed to anywhere else. But if you emphasise ‘now’ it means leave
immediately and not a minute later. Answer the following questions aloud
with ‘Yes’ as if they were real questions asked by a friend. Listen to how your
tone of voice changes.
• May I borrow a pen from you?
• May I borrow your cellphone to make a call?
• May I borrow your car to go to the shops?
• May I move in with you for a few months?
The way in which you say ‘Yes’ if someone asks if they may borrow your pen
will probably differ from the way you say ‘Yes’ when someone asks if they
may borrow your car. We often use our tone of voice to convey approval
or enthusiasm. Conversely, we can also use our tone of voice to convey
disapproval.
Paralanguage also includes aspects such as clearing our throat, coughing and
even laughing or crying. As we listen to paralanguage we form ideas about
another person’s:
• age
• emotions
• feelings about themselves and the topic under discussion
• attitudes towards us
• level of intelligence
• level of sophistication.
These judgements could be quite wrong, but people nonetheless use vocal
cues to form opinions of others. We should therefore take great care to
cultivate lively voices that help listeners to accurately judge how we feel
46
All these body movements and positions affect the ways in which we
communicate. They also affect how people interpret our messages and how
their perceptions of us are formed. You might for example walk slowly into
a meeting room with slumped shoulders and your head and eyes down,
looking at the ground. People could then possibly assume that you are either
depressed or lazy or that you are not excited and enthusiastic about working
with them. On the other hand, if you walk boldly into a room and look and
smile at people, they are more likely to form positive perceptions of you and
communicate positively with you. (See Figure 3.4 below.)
47
When you stand to deliver a speech, it is very important that you do not:
• fold your arms
• turn your back on the audience
• cross your arms and legs.
48
All these could be taken as signs that you are setting up barriers, or that you
are uneasy or defensive about what you are saying.
Our hand movements during conversation are very important for regulating
turn-taking. Effective hand movements with open palms also help us to keep
the attention of our audience and it makes us seem genuine and trustworthy.
Uncrossed arms in an open body position can make you appear more sincere.
When we sit, we can look tense, bored or relaxed. Our posture when we
sit during a conversation shows people how we feel about them and the
conversation. Sitting upright, leaning forward slightly and making appropriate
eye contact will indicate that you are interested in them and the conversation.
However if you are slumping in your chair, leaning away, fidgeting and not
making appropriate eye contact, people will think that you are not interested
and would prefer to withdraw from the conversation.
We tend to be more relaxed in the company of an equal or someone with
lower status. Conversely, we take on a more tense body posture when we
communicate with people of higher status, such as our boss or the CEO of
the company. All these postures will affect the way in which we communicate
with others.
and show no distress when they can see their mother’s eyes, even if the rest
of her face is covered. It is important to realise, though, is that eye behaviour
differs dramatically from culture to culture and you have to be very careful
not to misinterpret the eye behaviour of people from cultures other than your
own. Most Westerners for example tend to make strong eye contact and they
are distrustful of people who make weak eye contact. Weak eye contact in most
Western cultures is interpreted as a sign of a lack of confidence or avoidance
behaviour. However the opposite is true for most African cultures where strong
eye contact is regarded as a sign of disrespect.
Eye behaviour is also related to personality. Extroverts are more likely
to make stronger eye contact than introverts. Moreover people show by the
amount of eye contact they make whether they are dominant or submissive.
Nonetheless, we use eye contact to open communication channels and to
regulate conversations. Effective eye contact signals that the communication
channels are open. When you make appropriate eye contact in the workplace,
people will think that you are interested in your work and can be trusted to
follow instructions. If you do not, you will be judged as being immature,
disrespectful and not interested in your work.
Looking, staring and blinking can also be important non-verbal behaviours.
When people encounter people or things that they like, they tend to look
at them more often and for longer periods of time, their rate of blinking
increases and their pupils dilate. However people also start to blink faster
when they are nervous or lying.
During presentations speakers should also maintain good eye contact with
their audience, even if it is a large one. They should try to look at individuals
in the audience, rather than sweeping their eyes over the entire audience.
Haptics (touch)
Touch plays a very important role in our lives and is connected to our
health and well-being. It is particularly important during infancy and early
childhood development where a deprivation of touch during these phases
of development can impede normal development dramatically. Touch is the
first of our senses to develop and as human beings we are highly dependent
on touch. Touch usually indicates positive feelings because most people are
unlikely to touch someone they dislike. In the workplace, however, people
need to guard against inappropriate touching behaviour as it could be
interpreted as harassment. The exceptions would be for example shaking
hands or if your profession requires it as in the case of the medical or sporting
professions. Again, what is considered appropriate and inappropriate forms
50
of touching vary greatly from culture to culture and people need to be aware
of this. In some cultures touching is a taboo, especially cross-gender touching,
even in the form of a handshake. In other cultures, touching is highly valued
and is often used to get someone’s attention or to interrupt.
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The study of proxemics involves people’s use of space and how they react
to the space around them. It also covers people’s territoriality or desire to
‘possess’ their own space. Most Westerners have a big interpersonal space
and therefore like to keep a distance of at least one-and-a-half metres when
interacting with strangers. They also use this distance when they conduct
business at an interpersonal level. People from African cultures are more
likely to have a smaller personal space and could feel uncomfortable with or
even offended by such a big space. These opposite desires could cause tension
and adjustments would then have to be made on both sides.
When people have no choice but to invade each other’s personal space, as
in a lift or train, they cope with this tension by silence, eyes turned away and
a rigid seating or standing position that avoids contact if possible. They will
also rearrange themselves so that everyone can have more space each time
someone gets out of the lift or train.
People in organisations therefore need to be aware of each other’s spatial
needs and respect them in interpersonal communication. (See Figure 3.7 below.)
Territoriality
Similar to animals, human beings are territorial and our territories are very
important to us. If you listen carefully you will hear people claiming certain
territories, such as ‘my office’, ‘my desk’, ‘my chair’, or ‘my parking space’. We
‘mark’ our territories through ‘markers’, such as personal items, including
mugs, pot plants, photos, ornaments, books and other personal objects to
52
Seating
Seating arrangements affect the ways in which people communicate. A round
table at a staff seminar would be more effective because it encourages eye
contact and equality. However, boardroom tables are often rectangular and
the boss or person chairing the meeting usually sits at the head of the table.
Rectangular tables create a defensive and unequal relationship between people,
which makes people very aware of superior–subordinate relationships. Figure
3.8 below illustrates what could happen.
C D E
A B
People who sit at A or B are given the status of leaders. People seated at D are
likely to be very involved withFigure 3.8 However, people seated at C and
the meeting.
Table
E run the risk of being seating
ignored, arrangement
particularly by those at the opposite ends of
the table. People at C and E need to ensure that they are given a chance to
53
participate. In addition, people at the ends of the table need to ensure that
they pay attention to the people on their immediate left and right.
A desk between people can also be a serious communication barrier.
However if two people have no choice but to work together at a desk, they
should consider talking across the corner of the desk. This will reduce the
distance between them and the corner of the desk is less of a barrier than the
entire surface of the desk with the two participants facing each other directly.
If they are working on a task where they need desk space, they should consider
working side-by-side or across the width of the desk.
54
Figure 3.9 A tilted head and relaxed posture indicate active listening behaviour
Chronemics (time)
Chronemics refers to the way in which we perceive time, structure our time
and react to time. Time perceptions can be expressed through punctuality,
willingness to wait, speed of speech and even the amount of time people are
willing to listen to or spend with someone. People from diverse cultures view
time differently. In Western culture there is a tendency in the business world
to view time as a commodity. A common catch-phrase is ‘time is money’
and therefore starting a meeting on time is expected and valued. However,
in some Eastern cultures it is considered impolite to initiate business
negotiations immediately. Other cultures view time as circular or renewable
and therefore business would be conducted in a different way.
People in organisations should be sensitive to different views about time
and should be prepared to discuss these views. In the end, organisations will
have to decide on their time values because different views of time could be
impossible to accommodate and result in tension or conflict. However even
when organisations decide to adopt their own time policy, they could still
run into difficulties when conducting international business or when they are
competing with others who have different time values.
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Detecting deception
Non-verbal communication is useful in helping to determine whether people
are being deceptive. People do not always have negative intentions when they
lie. They mostly lie to protect themselves or to save face and therefore they
manage their image and the way they would like people to see them. Most
people lie within the first ten minutes of a conversation with strangers, often
without even realising it. Even animals deceive and in children it is seen as a
sign of healthy cognitive development. On the positive side deception helps
us to avoid conflict, but on the negative side it can be used to manipulate,
mislead and control others.
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Conclusion
Are you projecting the image you desire through your interpersonal
communication behaviour? Your success in the workplace can be greatly
influenced by the effectiveness of your interpersonal communication skills.
Effective interpersonal communication skills will also help you to reach
your personal goals. The most important of these skills is to be an active
listener. There is no better way of communicating to others that you respect
them than by really listening to them. Another very important interpersonal
communication skill is the ability to read the non-verbal communication of
other people. However, be cautious in your interpretation of these behaviours
and always consider the context.
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4
SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Organisations mostly consist of teams and employees are frequently required
to work together in groups. These groups can vary in size, from small task
teams to large departments. No matter how big or small a group in an
organisation is, each group has a specific task to perform or goal to achieve and
it is important that the members of the team can coordinate their actions and
work together. This can only be achieved through effective communication.
Communication should therefore be used to get individuals to function well
in groups. At their best, groups benefit an organisation because they allow
people to work together to achieve the organisation’s goals. It is therefore
important for us to understand the dynamics of groups better.
Small group communication is a reality in every organisation and the
better you can communicate in a small group, the better your chances are of
achieving career success. Small groups in an organisation, often referred to as
teams, differ from a regular group of people in the sense that the members
of a small group are interdependent, share a common goal (or purpose) and
can influence each other. There are several reasons why groups form and why
people have a need to be part of a small group. One of the most important
reasons is that small groups are often more capable of reaching organisational
goals than individuals are on their own and it is therefore not uncommon for
groups in an organisation to be working on a collective task.
When a new group is formed it always goes through certain stages, namely
forming, storming, norming and performing. A fifth stage can be added
to this, namely adjourning. However, since groups can be relatively stable,
adjourning is only relevant in situations where a group has been formed only
to perform a specific task or where the organisation goes through a process
of restructuring.
Similar to the organisation, groups also have structures and there are always
certain group dynamics at work that influence the behaviour and performance
of group members. For example, over time, groups negotiate and establish
certain norms (or rules) that regulate group behaviour. When certain group
members then do not conform to these norms, it can lead to conflict and these
non-conforming members can sometimes even get sanctioned or punished
for violating the group norms. The downside of too much conformation,
however, is a phenomenon called groupthink, which can be a major obstacle
for innovation, progress and growth.
In organisations there are formal and informal groups and these can
take on many forms and perform lots of different functions, such as policy-
making or decision-making. Leadership plays a vital role in the functioning
and performance of a group, especially within formal groups. There are
basically four different leadership styles, namely autocratic, bureaucratic,
democratic and laissez-faire. It is important to note that a leadership style that
works in one group may not work in another. The effectiveness of the type of
leadership style is therefore dependent on the situation and context. However,
transformational leaders are excellent communicators. They have the ability to
bring about positive change and get people to work together and support each
other to reach a common goal. Yet the ability to get people to work together
and support each other does not mean that there will never be any conflict
in groups. Conflict is inevitable because people will never always agree on
everything. In fact, as mentioned before, people thinking in the same way
could be an obstacle for growth and development. Conflict per se is therefore
not negative, as long as it is dealt with in a constructive, as opposed to a
destructive, way. Let us now explore some of these concepts in greater depth.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the nature and characteristics of a small group
• explain why people want to join or form a group
• describe the stages of group development
• describe group structures and group dynamics that influence group members
• explain the different types of groups found in organisations
• describe the four different styles of leadership
• summarise the four broad perspectives of leadership
• describe different types of conflict.
• describe different approaches to conflict
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The definition above stresses that a small group usually has a purpose and
that its group members know and interact with each other to reach a decision
or a common goal. If, for example, everyone in the company comes together
for an Annual General Meeting that is run according to a set of procedural
rules, this would not be considered a small group.
Styles of communication will also vary a great deal according to the size of
the group. In a small group of five, for example, there will be a great deal more
interaction than in a large meeting where 20 or more people are in attendance.
Members’ satisfaction with communication also decreases significantly as the
size of the group increases. In other words, the smaller the group, the more
satisfied people are with both the quality and quantity of communication.
In organisations, small groups, such as departments, often come together in
meetings in order to make decisions and plan for the future. Meetings will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
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• Status: people will sometimes join a group in order to attain the status that
being part of that group can provide them.
• Self-image: to belong to a group makes people feel important, which in
turn improves their self-image.
• Affiliation needs: the most important reason for people joining groups is
because of their need to be affiliated to other people or to be in social
contact with other people.
• Power: people receive some form of influence and authority over others by
joining certain groups. Groups also have more power than an individual.
• Collective goals: certain goals can only be achieved by a group of people
because individuals will not be able to complete the task on their own.
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1. FORMING 5. ADJOURNING
TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
2. STORMING
BETTER TOGETHER
1. FORMING 5. ADJOURNING
1. FORMING 5. ADJOURNING
2. STORMING
1. FORMING STAGE 2. STORMING STAGE
3. NORMING
2. STORMING aw 2
2. STORMING 3. NORMING
aw 2
3. NORMING 4. PERFORMING
3. NORMING STAGE 4. PERFORMING STAGE
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
BETTER TOGETHER aw 2.4 - Tuckman’s stages of Group Development
3. NORMING
???????
???????
4. PERFORMING
???????
1. FORMING 5. ADJOURNING
5. ADJOURNING STAGE aw 2.4 - Tuckman’s stages of Group Development ?????????
4. PERFORMING
Figure 4.1 Tuckman’s five-stage model of group development
regulate behaviour and reduce conflict. The members start to work together,
forming close relationships with one another. A sense of camaraderie or
mutual trust and friendship exists in the group, with a high involvement in
the task.
3. NORMING Because of the high involvement in accomplishing group goals and
completing the task, the group starts to perform. This stage is called the
performing stage (the task-performance stage) where the group works together
to get the job done.
When the group has completed the task or reached its collective goal,
the group sometimes dissolves. During the adjourning stage (the dissolution
stage) the group breaks up, either due to the nature of the task or because
the members were unable to resolve conflict and establish norms that could
4. PERFORMING
assist them in cooperating with each other. Failure to complete a task can
also result in a group being dismantled. Please note that not all groups are
adjourned. Some groups in organisations hardly ever adjourn because the
task(s) they need to perform is an on-going one. The group members may
change over time as people resign or retire, but the team essentially keeps on
working together to perform the same function.
Communication patterns
Communication is part of interaction and, in any group, specific
communication patterns are formed over time. Some group members, either
because of their position or certain personality traits, will become more
central than others. What is most important is that the more effective the
communication among group members, the more successful the group
will be. Also keep in mind that the bigger the group gets, the less satisfying
communication will be for all the members.
Decision-making patterns
In any group certain patterns develop according to which decisions are made.
Making decisions in a group is more complicated than individual decision
making. Groups often make more extreme decisions because the responsibility
for the outcome of the decision is shifted to several people as opposed to
one individual. Group decisions tend to be better than individual decisions.
However, if a group becomes too cohesive it could lead to a phenomenon
called groupthink. Groupthink occurs when a group is so concerned with
maintaining harmony in the group that they fail to consider all the options
and to evaluate the effectiveness of their decisions. Groupthink then becomes
an obstacle in the growth and development of the group and the group is likely
to struggle with providing creative and innovative ideas to solve problems.
Authority distribution
Authority of individuals in the group to influence decisions varies and
therefore specific authority patterns will develop. Whether or not a person
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has authority over others is influenced by many factors. A person could have
authority because of his or her position, such as a line manager. But some
people have authority because of their personality, attitude or knowledge.
When a person has authority, others will obey that person and he or she will
have more power in the decision-making process.
Role differentiation
Members in the group will each perform different functions in order to
achieve the group’s goals. This leads to role differentiation. Group members
can have one or multiple roles. Leadership roles help the group to accomplish
tasks while other roles, such as maintenance and support roles, help to keep
the group together. Members can also have other roles, such as initiator,
information seeker, energiser, coordinator, gatekeeper and many others.
Leadership
The first role that usually develops in a group is that of leadership. This is
because the decision-making process is such an important aspect in working
towards achieving goals and the main function of the leader is to assist the
group in reaching its goals.
Group cohesion
One of the characteristics of a small group is that the members must be aware
that they are a group. The extent to which the members are attracted to the group
is known as group cohesion. Building cohesion and trust in a group is very
important, especially in diverse groups. Cohesion is established, maintained
and even enhanced through communication. Cohesiveness increases as the
group stabilises because of established norms and roles. The more successful
groups are, the higher their cohesiveness tends to be. Again, too much cohesion
can lead to groupthink, which can stand in the way of progress.
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Conflict management
Different individual needs and personalities within the group make conflict
inevitable. The most important function or skill in a group is to manage
conflict. If conflict is not managed in a constructive way in the group, the
results can be disastrous. Yet conflict is needed for a group to develop and
grow and it should not be viewed in a negative light unless it becomes
personal and destructive.
Types of groups
In organisations there are two broad categories of groups, namely informal
and formal groups, under which seven types of sub-groups may be found:
1. Informal groups
• social groups where people engage in small talk
• tension-releasing groups.
2. Formal groups
• task/project groups
• training/learning groups
• policy-making groups
• problem-solving groups
• decision-making groups.
Informal groups
Social groups
People often befriend each other in the workplace and they then form social
or casual groups. People simply get together for an informal chat and engage in
small talk. They gather informally, for example, in a tea room or staff canteen.
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Tension-releasing groups
These groups are also informal. They gather together from time-to-time
because of some event in the company that has caused tension. These groups
are important because they help people to voice their frustrations and
consequently help to relieve tension. In this way they serve as an outlet for
tensions that could cause great problems if allowed to continue. They are
also important because people learn to understand each other better and
to interact more efficiently. Tension-releasing groups work well in a company
which, for example, has had to retrench staff or which has staff from diverse
cultures or generational gaps. In this case, informal meetings with the Human
Resources manager can help staff to voice their frustrations and find solutions.
Tension-releasing groups are also crucial for people who work in crisis
management, such as police officers or those counselling victims of abuse, as
it helps them to let off steam and feel they are not alone.
Formal groups
Formal groups are formed as part of the formal organisation with the aim of
performing certain tasks in order to reach organisational goals.
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Policy-making groups
These are formal groups that work together to decide on organisational policy,
create rules for the organisation and plan for the future.
They will normally have an appointed leader and are likely to follow a set
agenda. Members of such groups have to communicate responsibly. They have
to be sensitive to each other’s views and have to be highly skilled at evaluating
information. Such groups need to cultivate a supportive climate if they are to
work well together and to work in the best interests of the organisation.
Problem-solving groups
These groups are set up to solve problems. They will normally have a leader
who needs to direct the thinking of the group members to approach a
problem from different angles in order to analyse the problem effectively
and find creative solutions that demonstrate adequate consideration of the
practicality and social consequences of the solution (Bagraim, Cunningham,
Pieterse-Landman, Potgieter and Viedge, 2011:71–72).
Decision-making groups
In order to make complex decisions in organisations, it is better to select
a group of experts to contribute and affect the decision outcomes. Making
decisions in groups can be very challenging and therefore requires a strong
leader to guide the decision-making process of the selected group. These
groups could be working under great pressure. Decisions made by certain
groups may also not always be popular. Decision-making groups tend to focus
strongly on the task and will have long and serious discussions. They will have
to make sure that they have the most relevant and up-to-date information for
making the decisions and they have to consider the pros and cons of each
decision carefully. A decision-making group may, for example, in times of
recession have to decide on whom to make redundant in the organisation in
order to ensure the overall survival of the organisation.
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Leadership in groups
Leadership plays an important role in group settings, especially in relation to
formal groups.
Some groups may function without a leader. But even if a formal leader is
not appointed or selected a leader may emerge. This type of leader is called an
emergent leader. The group confers leadership status on this person based on for
example the person’s charisma, confidence and knowledge. Someone who is
a leader in one situation may not however be the leader in the next, especially
not if the new situation demands a special set of skills. In organisations, there
are often appointed leaders who are known as designated leaders. Regardless
of whether the leader emerged or was appointed, each leader will adopt a
different leadership style or use a different approach to lead the group. These
leadership styles and approaches have implications for the effectiveness of
communication within the group. It is therefore important to understand
leadership styles and the four broad perspectives to leadership.
Styles of leadership
Leaders do not act in the same way. They have a range of different styles, all of
which will affect the ways in which they communicate and how the rest of the
team will function. The major styles of leadership may be described as follows:
• autocratic
• bureaucratic
• democratic
• laissez-faire (from the French, meaning ‘allow to do’, or in other words, not
interfering).
The autocratic leader tends to give orders without considering the opinions
of the other group members. Such leaders tend to be task-oriented and
have strong views on how the task should be accomplished and completed.
Conflict may arise in such groups if the members do not respect the leader.
In general autocratic leaders are not well liked because they disregard the
knowledge and opinions of others. However, in a crisis-situation, this type of
leadership style works very well.
The bureaucratic leader leads according to the rule-book and everything
is done by the rule. This approach is successful for most routine tasks, but
if the task becomes complex it can stifle or suppress innovative ideas and
solutions. This style might be adopted by an incompetent leader or someone
who lacks confidence.
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Theories of leadership
Researchers and academics have been researching leadership for many years
in order to try and explain what makes a good leader. Over time, four broad
perspectives of leadership theories have emerged, including trait, behavioural,
situational and more contemporary perspectives. In this section, these four
broad leadership perspectives are summarised.
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Initiating structure is the ability of a leader to structure the group in such a way
that the role each individual plays assists the group in attaining its collective
goal. Such a leader provides guidance, organises work in an effective way,
manages relationships and sets specific goals and deadlines. A leader high
in initiating structure is someone who assigns specific tasks to specific group
members, sets definite standards of performance, expects group members to
maintain these standards and makes sure that deadlines are met (Robbins &
Judge, 2011:414).
Consideration is the ability of the leader to build trusting work relationships
where employees’ ideas and opinions are respected and sought and where
the leader considers the feelings of others. A highly considerate leader is
supportive and approachable, treats employees with respect and expresses
appreciation (Robbins & Judge, 2011:414).
Leadership grid
HIGH
9
1;9 9;9
8
6
Concern for people
5 Middle-of-the-road leader
5;5
4
3
Impoverished leader Authoritarian leader
2
1 1;1 9;1
LOW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
LOW Concern for production results HIGH
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Concern for people is the extent to which the leader emphasises the needs and
expectations of employees, and fosters and develops employee satisfaction.
This is represented on the vertical axis of the grid.
The impoverished leader (1;1) has a laissez-faire approach to managing the team.
This person shows little concern for production and little concern for people
(both at scale point 1). The 1;1 leader does the absolute minimum required
in both the job and interpersonal relationships to stay on as a member of
the company. The impoverished leader avoids commitment to decisions.
This style is often associated with managers who are close to retirement or
managers who have emotionally withdrawn from the company. There is little
communication with group members and no direction is provided.
The task master or authoritarian (9;1) shows maximum concern for
production (scale point 9) and minimum concern for people (scale point 1).
Production is achieved by means of formal authority and subordinates are
controlled by enforcing submissiveness. Decisions are made unilaterally and
communication is mainly one-way.
The country club leader (1;9) is a democratic leader who will show minimum
concern for production (scale point 1) and maximum concern for people (scale
point 9). Cultivating and maintaining sound interpersonal relationships with
colleagues and subordinates will therefore be most important to such a leader.
This leader maintains that the job will be done automatically if interpersonal
relationships are sound. Communication is aimed at maintaining a pleasant
working atmosphere and conflict is avoided at all costs.
The middle-of-the-road leader (5;5) tries to maintain a balance between
production and interpersonal relationships. Blake and Mouton (1978:12)
describe this style as the ‘go-along-to-get-along’ style which is adopted in
conformity to the status quo. Such leaders try half-heartedly to integrate the
needs of employees with organisational goals.
The team leader (9;9) integrates concern for production and concern for
people at a high level (both at scale point 9). This style emphasises teamwork,
is goal-orientated and strives for excellent results through participative
management, involvement with people and conflict management. According
to this leadership model, the 9;9 rating provides the ideal that leaders should
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Style of leader
(HIGH)
and relationship
T I NG
I NG
low task
CIPA
I
PART
Relationship behaviour
S3 S2
S4 S1
TELL
TING
ING
Low
EGA
D
low task relationship
Task behaviour refers to the degree to which leaders are likely to organise and
dictate the tasks of group members by indicating who should do what, when,
where and how. Task behaviour is also characterised by a leader instituting
well-defined organisational patterns, channels of communication and
procedures for the execution of tasks.
Relationship behaviour refers to the degree to which leaders are likely
to maintain interpersonal relationships between themselves and group
members by providing open channels of communication, socio-emotional
support, psychological stroking and facilitating subordinate’s behaviour.
The maturity levels of employees can be organised into four categories.
Before the leader decides which leadership style to adopt, he or she must first
determine the maturity level of the employees which he or she needs to manage:
1. M1 (low maturity) refers to subordinates who are unsure about how to
execute a task and do not have the necessary ability to do it. It can also
refer to employees who are unwilling to perform the task.
2. M2 (low to average maturity) refers to subordinates who do not have the
ability to execute a task, although they are willing and confident enough
to do it.
3. M3 (average to high maturity) refers to subordinates who have the ability
to execute a task, but are unwilling or unsure how to do it.
4. M4 (high maturity) refers to subordinates who have the ability and
confidence to execute the task and are willing to do it.
The leadership styles the leader can adopt to match the maturity or
readiness level of the subordinate is derived from the combination of task
and relationship behaviour. Based on the maturity levels of the employees,
leadership styles can also be placed into four categories:
1. S1 (telling) involves high task behaviour combined with low relationship
behaviour. This type of leader explains by means of task behaviour to
his or her subordinates what to do and how, where and when to do it.
Such a leader describes the tasks thoroughly, without explaining to them
why a task should be done or why certain procedures are to be followed.
Communication is mainly one-way.
2. S2 (selling) involves high task behaviour with high relationship behaviour.
The leader provides guidance to subordinates and tries to persuade his or
her subordinates to accept decisions.
3. S3 (participating) is characterised by high relationship behaviour with
low task behaviour, meaning that the leader and the subordinates take
decisions together by means of two-way communication. Subordinates
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Transformational leaders:
• are extremely good at communicating the vision to their followers in a
way that is motivating
• are capable of generating enthusiasm and momentum among their
followers to achieve the desired organisational goals
• share some of the characteristics of charismatic leaders in that their
personal power and energy are directed at getting commitment from
their followers
• ‘walk the walk’ instead of only ‘talking the talk’
• are approachable, reasonable, non-discriminatory and trustworthy
• invite criticism and feedback.
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Conflict in groups
Differences in leadership styles, power, diverse values, attitudes, needs and
different opinions or ideas inevitably lead to disagreement, opposition or
animosity between members in a group. For example, people may have strong
views on how a project should be managed and these views will not always
be the same. It is important to know, however, that conflict is not necessarily
negative and could actually be advantageous. What makes conflict negative
is the way in which it is dealt with. Conflict in an organisation or group can
therefore be functional or dysfunctional, depending on how it is handled.
Functional conflict includes open discussions in order to better understand
the differences in opinion, which will lead to more innovative solutions and
greater commitment from all group members. The conflict’s focus is on an
objective or a task and group members are motivated in reaching a common
goal although they may disagree on the method of attaining the common
goal. Group members will typically sit down and calmly discuss and refine
ideas without insulting each other or becoming personal or aggressive.
Dysfunctional conflict usually focuses more on emotions than on the
objective or task. The conflict’s focus is on each other and is therefore also
referred to as interpersonal conflict. This type of conflict is destructive and
has a negative effect on the group. ‘It is disruptive because it hinders progress,
creates indecisiveness, reduces cohesiveness and disengages people’ (Bagraim
et al, 2011:10).
It is therefore important for leaders of a group and group members to
understand the types of conflict and how to manage these conflict situations
effectively as each type of conflict has implications for the way in which it
should be resolved.
Types of conflict
People in organisations need to recognise that there are different types of
conflict. According to Bagraim et al (2011:289) the types of conflict that can
occur in an organisation include, among others:
• intrapersonal conflict
• interpersonal conflict
• team conflict
• intergroup conflict.
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Team conflict occurs when members of a team disagree about how to achieve
team goals or objectives. This type of conflict is aggravated by poor listening
skills and personality clashes. The team leader plays an important role in
resolving this type of conflict. Unfortunately the team leader is sometimes
directly involved in the conflict situation. In situations like these it is best to
get in the services of an arbitrator or facilitator.
Intergroup conflict occurs when two groups or two teams are in conflict
with each other. As organisations become larger and more complex, conflict
caused by people’s different roles and functions cannot be avoided. People
become cut off from others and find it difficult to see things from others’
point of view.
Avoiding conflict
People tend to avoid conflict because they feel that they cannot handle it in a
constructive way. They smooth over the differences and hope that the conflict
will go away. Some people may also try to postpone resolution of the conflict
until their anger has disappeared. This approach may help in a small way but
it does not allow people to settle the most important issues. The only time
conflict should be avoided is when people need time to cool off but even
then the conflict should be addressed once all parties have calmed down and
are ready to have a calm, rational discussion.
Confronting conflict
If people decide to confront the problem there are three major approaches
they could take. They could:
1. try to win, without considering the other side (win-lose)
2. attempt a compromise solution (lose-lose)
3. approach the conflict with the view that both sides can win (win-win).
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The win-lose approach is based on power. One side or person uses authority to
defeat the other side. This approach is only short term and can cause a great
deal of anger.
The lose-lose approach is sometimes called a compromise approach.
Each side makes some concessions but nobody is completely satisfied.
This approach is useful in the short term but can lead to a great deal of
dissatisfaction in the long run.
The win-win approach stresses that all parties can win if the conflict is
handled carefully. The ideal approach here is for all parties to work towards a
common goal that will satisfy everybody rather than proving who is right or
wrong. An atmosphere of trust is then created.
Conclusion
A small group has certain characteristics that differentiate it from other
groups. People usually join a specific group because of a particular reason and
all groups will go through various stages as the group develops. The group
structure and the type of group will have an influence on the communication
between members and could require a leader to emerge or to be appointed in
order to manage or facilitate the communication and task to be accomplished.
Leaders will have different leadership styles and approach the leading of the
group differently. Group members will also have different ideas about how to
complete certain tasks or how to achieve certain goals. This could sometimes
lead to conflict, which, if not managed correctly, could be destructive and
have a negative effect on the group.
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5
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Effective communication is central to all organisations. It is the way in
which managers and other members of staff communicate to influence and
instruct one another in order to achieve the organisation’s goals. Yet in order
to understand the role of communication in organisations, one must first
understand what is meant by an organisation.
One of the characteristics of organisations is that they have certain structures.
The flow of its communication is highly dependent on the organisational
design and structure and is often referred to as lines of communication.
Organisations as social systems require the effective coordination of individual
efforts into collective performance and therefore most organisations adopt
certain communication systems and policies to ensure this coordination.
Successful organisations create an environment where individuals enjoy
the freedom to express their creativity, contribute to decision-making and use
their talents to the benefit of the organisation. Harnessing these contributions
requires systems that promote information sharing and collective learning.
Effective interpersonal communication forms the foundation to these
systems. Because an organisation’s existence and success is so dependent on
effective communication, it is essential to be aware of and eliminate barriers
to effective communication as much as possible.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain what an organisation is
• describe and illustrate different types of organisational structures
• describe the different types of channels that can be used in organisational
communication
What is an organisation?
An organisation is a structured working environment where work-related
activities are performed, organised and managed by groups of people in
order to reach certain organisational goals. These goals cannot be reached by
individuals working on their own, so the efforts of all these individuals need
to be coordinated.
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that the structure of the organisation does not become a barrier to effective
communication. Communication systems also need to be set up to ensure
that common goals can be reached. Moreover a climate of trust has to be
established to ensure that communication is open and free-flowing and that
the best possible communication can take place. Ultimately, if organisations
want to succeed and establish effective communication in the company,
employees need to be trained in the preparation and delivery of messages.
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Organisational structure
Woods and West (2010:586) describe organisational structure as ‘[t]he formal
system of task design and management reporting relationships that controls,
coordinates and motivates staff so that they work together effectively to achieve
the organisation’s goals’. What is important to understand is that the design
and structure of the organisation shapes behaviour in the organisation.
Managers have to consider very carefully how they structure the organisation
as it will impact on the behaviour and communication of the employees
(individuals and teams or groups). Organisational structure can be likened
to the structure of a building that has various rooms, doors and windows.
When walking from one room to another, the structures guide you to exit and
enter through the doors and not the windows. Similarly, the structure of an
organisation will impact on its employees’ behaviour and communication.
There are basically six elements organisations’ managers need to address
when designing the structure of the organisation. These include:
1. Work specialisation or the degree to which activities are subdivided into
separate tasks.
2. Departmentalisation or the basis on which jobs are grouped together.
3. Chain of command or the reporting lines in the organisation.
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Based on the six elements described above, a manager or business owner can
decide on the most suitable organisational structure to serve the needs of
the organisation. It is important to grasp the importance of organisational
structure since it has a significant influence on organisational communication.
Most organisations make use of organograms to depict the structure of the
organisation visually. As mentioned in Chapter 2 (see Figure 2.6 on page 18),
an organogram is a visual representation of the formal framework of working
relationships. It indicates the different positions in the organisation, how
these positions are grouped together and arranged into departments and
how these positions and/or departments are interrelated or linked within
the organisation. In most instances the visual presentation of organisational
structures also illustrates the lines of authority and lines of communication
within the organisation.
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General
manager
Financial Product
manager manager
1 x Stock
1 x Accounting 5 x Till 4 x Floor
and inventory 6 x Packers 4 x Cleaners
assistant operators assistants
assistant
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Leader
There KEY:
is usually expert
The solid lines showstaff
the lineinmanager’
special departments,
s authority. The arrowed such as the
lines show human resources,
staff authority.
Note that these experts may each report directly to the leader if necessary.
finance, information technology and research and development. All these
special departments help the managers and line managers to achieve the
goals of the organisation.
This division between managers, line managers and staff experts frequently
leads to conflict. People in expert staff departments often feel they are treated
as inferior. On the other hand, managers and line managers often feel
threatened by expert staff’s advice. They also sometimes get offended by the
excessive use of technical terms and jargon by these experts.
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financial management function has authority over the budgets of all other
departments and can therefore instruct other departments to draw up and
present their annual budgets for approval. Functional authority is illustrated
by the dotted lines in Figure 5.3 below.
Chief operating
officer
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Manager Manager
research planning
and and
development design
Communication
KEY: Solid singlein anshoworganisation
lines the normal management and communication networks for the company.
Solid double lines show how each project team is managed. A leader could, for example, select one
Organisations need to pay attention to five
member fromkey
eachareas
group. of communication:
1. Information should flow freely throughout organigram
Broken single or double lines show that the is incomplete. so that
the organisation
everybody has easy access to the information they need to do their
jobs well.
2. There are different types of messages used within the organisational context.
3. Information and message overload should be prevented.
4. Information and message underload should be avoided.
5. The lines of communication and the directions in which that
communication flows need to be scrutinised.
These five key areas are discussed in greater depth in the sections that follow.
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Types of messages
In organisations, there are four types of messages, namely messages that:
• build and maintain good relationships
• contain information
• provide instructions
• concern the values, philosophy and ethics of the organisation.
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randomly. They are prepared with specific purposes in mind, have specific
audiences, specific content and flow via certain networks and channels.
Networks
CENTRALISED NETWORKS
Networks refer to the way in which communication circulates among the
employees in a company. They are the interconnecting lines of communication
used to pass information from one person (or one section) to another.
Networks may be classified as centralised or decentralised.
Centralised networks generally depend on one person at the centre who
is responsible for controlling the flow of messages. They are successful
for simple tasks, but they become less effective for more complicated and
Wheel Circle
multifaceted tasks.
Decentralised systems, on the other hand, do not depend on one person at
the centre to regulate the flow of messages. Everybody communicates freely
with everyone else without having to go through a central person. These
networks are more successful when complex problems have to beChainsolved.
Figure 5.5
Communication networks
Chain
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As seen in Figure 5.5 on the previous page, there are various types of centralised
networks. For example, the wheel network allows messages to be sent from the
centre to each person on the outside. Each person communicates with the
centre, but is unable to communicate with the other people in the network.
The chain is similar to the wheel except that the people at the ends can
communicate with only one other person.
The circle allows messages to be sent to the left or right but not to other
members of the circle. There is also no one at the centre of the network.
The all-channel network is a decentralised network that allows all members
to send messages to, and receive messages from, all other members. The flow
of messages is therefore not restricted and the group does not have a leader.
Although the free flow of communication in this type of network has major
advantages, a major disadvantage is that the risk for information overload is
very big.
The type of network chosen will determine the flow of messages and type
of interaction.
Roles in networks
In networks, individuals often perform specific tasks and have particular responsibilities. Some
of the common roles in networks are as follows:
◗ isolates
◗ liaisons
◗ gatekeepers
◗ stars
◗ cosmopolites or outside links.
Isolates are individuals who work on their own. These individuals may have been given a task
to do that separates them from the rest of the group. Isolates need to ensure that they are not
starved of information or contact with the rest of the network. They run the risk of not being able
to work properly because they are so isolated.
Liaisons are people who form links between various work groups in an organisation. They
are essential for the effective working of an organisation. In their jobs, liaisons receive more
feedback and have more opportunities to deal with others than people who do not fulfil this
function. Although liaisons link different groups, they are not members of any of these groups.
Gatekeepers regulate the flow of information and access to resources or key individuals.
For example, a CEO’s personal assistant can regulate who gets access to the CEO and who
does not because he or she will be responsible for booking appointments with the CEO. Some
of these personal assistants also screen the CEO’s mail and pass on only selected messages.
Some gatekeepers are able to decide what information will be sent on to other members of the
network. Gatekeeping has positive and negative effects in an organisation. On the positive side, a
gatekeeper can prevent information overload by filtering and screening messages. On the negative
side, a gatekeeper can screen out important messages and restrict the flow of communication.
The gatekeeper’s power lies in the control of access to messages, resources and people.
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Stars are the focus of most of the communication within the group. They have many
relationships with other members of the organisation. In an organisation, stars tend to have a
great deal of on-the-job influence with most group members. Sometimes their role is labelled as
opinion leader. Opinion leaders are powerful, respected and followed without having any formal
leadership role.
Cosmopolites or outside links have a high degree of communication with the group’s and the
organisation’s environment. They give information to surrounding groups or to other businesses.
They also bring information back into the group. By reporting outside information to the network
they keep it going. Through contacts outside the system they bring vital information into the
network about the activities of the environment within which the organisation works. Examples of
cosmopolites are public relations practitioners, sales people and customer support staff.
It is important to understand that roles are not necessarily permanent. Anyone can
become an opinion leader or star and everyone in the organisation has the power to become a
gatekeeper by deciding to withhold certain information.
Downward communication
Downward communication refers to any communication where a superior
communicates with a subordinate. This type of communication can take
place on several levels, as the hierarchy in Figure 5.6 indicates. You will see
that at every level there is a level below it, which means the communication
will flow downward. However, people at the bottom of the hierarchy do not
tend to make use of downward communication because there is no one in
the company who reports to them.
CEO
Top
management
Directors
Senior mana
Management
Middle mana
Superviso
Workers
Employee
The following types of messages, among others, are mainly used in downward
communication:
• oral and written instructions
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• policy manuals
• memoranda
• reports
• notices
• in-house magazines or newspapers
• job specifications.
• Information sent downward is not always relevant to staff and can lead to
information overload.
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Upward communication
Upward communication is the opposite of downward communication as it
flows from subordinates to superiors. When you look at the organisational
hierarchy in Figure 5.7 you will see that it indicates communication with
someone at a higher level of the hierarchy. Upward communication is often
used to gain feedback from employees. It is important that managers listen to
their staff and provide them with an opportunity to express their concerns or
to make suggestions for improvement. Upward communication is enhanced
by an open-door policy and a supportive climate.
Effective upward communication therefore places heavy demands on
managers and subordinates alike. Managers have to be prepared to listen to
criticism or to new ideas that might seem threatening. They have to foster
an atmosphere of openness and trust and should strive to be as objective as
possible. Subordinates in turn have to be prepared to suggest new ideas and
criticise present practices. They also have to be as honest and open as possible
if upward communication is to succeed. Hiding mistakes from a manager,
for example, can have disastrous results. Managers also need to encourage a
two-way flow of information so that they can judge how well their messages
have been received.
CEO
Directors
Senior managers
Middle managers
Supervisors
Employees
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aw’s 5.6 & 5.7-Hierarchy
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The grapevine has three specific attributes that make it important and useful:
1. It is fast.
2. It is accurate, with 75–90% accuracy for non-controversial information.
3. It carries a great deal of information. For example, it allows people to
send messages that do not fit into the formal channels of communication.
It also carries messages that develop relationships and create a sense of
belonging.
Managers can therefore tell a great deal about the mood of their employees
if they pay attention to the grapevine. At its best the grapevine allows people
to blow off steam. It can also boost morale by uniting staff. The grapevine is
especially important when staff are interested in new policies or procedures.
However at its worst the grapevine can spread rumours. Rumours often
convey prejudices, emotions and half-truths. Rumours are based on unverified
information with very little supporting evidence. The problem is that they
can threaten an organisation if they are taken as true and acted upon (for
example resignations). The greater the stress in an organisation, the greater
the likelihood of rumours will be. Organisations can, however, do some of
the following to minimise the effects of the grapevine:
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Outward communication
Business organisations have to serve customers to survive. In addition
they have to communicate with other stakeholders, the general public and
suppliers. All these activities could be termed outward communication.
Organisations have to ensure that they analyse the needs of their audience. In
particular, their style of communication should stress the great importance of
customers. Members of organisations involved in face-to-face work, meetings
or telephone calls also need to cultivate effective speech and non-verbal
behaviour. Letters should stress service to the customer and should be written
in a friendly or neutral tone.
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However, even when people communicate with the best intentions, messages
can be distorted because of ambiguity, a lack of understanding or because a
sharing of meaning did not take place.
The following are some of the major barriers to effective communication and
message flow in organisations:
• The number of stages through which a message has to go.
• The time allowed for messages to move through the organisation.
• Lack of understanding of what the message means.
• Shortening of messages because people cannot be bothered to share full
information with others.
• Filtering of messages at each stage. (Each person in the communication
chain makes a judgement call in terms of what the next person should or
should not receive.)
• Deliberate distortion. (People send only what they want others to receive
and leave out information that they perceive as damaging to themselves.)
• Too much information is received (information overload).
• Not enough information is received (information underload).
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Conclusion
An organisation is a structured working environment where tasks are
completed, organised and managed by groups of people in order to reach the
organisation’s goals. How the work environment is structured and organised
will therefore affect the flow of communication in the organisation and
therefore depends on the organisational design and structure. Communication
channels, then, can either promote or impede the flow of communication in
organisations and should be utilised and managed in such a way that they do
not become barriers to effective communication.
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6
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
With a population of more than 50 million people, South Africa is considered
an exciting environment that is made up of numerous co-existing cultures.
The benefit of these numerous cultures is that, combined, they create a vibrant
environment for arts and culture, which makes South Africa a popular tourist
destination the world over. However the many cultural differences we experience
on a daily basis make for some interesting challenges in the workplace.
Furthermore, globalisation has brought about international cultural
challenges in the workplace. It is quite possible that during the course of a
single work day you will get to work with colleagues from Africa, America,
Europe, Asia and/or Australia. Within each of these regions are numerous
other cultures, all with their own unique beliefs, norms and expectations.
In addition, companies are increasingly involved in international trade,
which underscores the need for effective intercultural communication.
Communicating effectively can become quite complicated when dealing
with all these different languages, behaviours and histories.
Intercultural communication has never been easy. Culture is a complex and
difficult concept to define and grasp and it can certainly not be equated to a
few traditions of certain ethnic groups. Still, it is very important to understand
the role culture plays in people’s lives because a person’s cultural background
strongly influences his or her attitudes and conduct and will certainly influence
his or her communication style.
Communicating with people from different cultural backgrounds can
create uncertainty. Intercultural communication is not something that comes
naturally to people and there are very few models from history to guide
organisations in this respect. Any education and training for today’s challenging
intercultural situation therefore needs to guide people into appreciating, rather
than fearing or opposing, these differences. We have to move away from our
traditional ethnocentrism (see the definition on page 111) and try to work out
new relationships across the cultural divide.
Cultural differences can often be a source of conflict in organisations.
Cultural sensitivity is therefore required, especially in a country with such
great diversity as South Africa. It is the responsibility of the organisation
and its management to help people overcome some of the barriers to
effective communication in an intercultural environment and to teach all
their employees ways to improve intercultural communication. Any form of
prejudice is self-destructive and as far as a business is concerned will certainly
not lead to good business or a profitable organisation.
Organisations also have their own cultures and new people joining
the organisation will need to go through a process of acculturation, which
is to learn to adapt to the new values and culture of the organisation. An
organisation will further benefit from creating a supportive climate where
trust is created and where all staff from all cultures feel supported, respected,
valued and appreciated.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand cultural uniqueness
• determine the relevance of intercultural communication
• define culture
• explain the importance of effective intercultural communication
• discuss how cultures differ
• discuss how the differences between cultures influence the communication
process in the workplace
• recognise and discuss the areas where intercultural sensitivity is required
in the South African context
• explain the barriers to intercultural communication
• describe how to strengthen communication and relationships between
cultures.
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Culture
Broadly speaking, the term culture refers to a shared system of values, attitudes,
beliefs, assumptions, expectations and symbols that a particular group of
people share. This system acts as a set of rules or norms that keep a group
of people together, govern their behaviour, influence what they regard as
important in life and has an impact on what they consider appropriate and
inappropriate behaviour. These people are likely to share a view of themselves
and of the world and they will consequently think and behave in similar
ways. They will use a shared symbolic code system such as a language that
facilitates easy communication between them (Thill & Bovée, 2007:74). In
short, different cultures have different worldviews that affect the way in which
they interact and communicate.
Worldview
A worldview is central to any culture. The term refers to any culture’s
philosophical views of life, deities, humanity, nature and the universe. This
worldview is mostly taken for granted in any culture and hardly ever questioned
or scrutinised. It runs through all aspects of cultural life and is accepted as the
norm, or what qualifies as ‘normal’ and socially acceptable behaviour.
The problem is that most cultures do not have the same worldviews and
these differences often lead to intercultural conflict. For example, the African,
Asian and European worldviews differ significantly from one another. The
African worldview, for example, values the concept of Ubuntu. This concept
refers to the achievement of personhood through participation in the
community and can be roughly translated as ‘humanity towards others’
(SouthAfrica.info, 2012), or ‘I am because you are’. Ubuntu is the belief that
we are all connected by a universal bond of sharing. This view stresses that an
individual has no value unless he or she has strong connections with other
people. This is also known as a collectivist worldview.
The Western or European worldview, on the other hand, values individual
enterprise. We are expected to take the initiative and make our own way in
life. Individual accountability is stressed and individuals are under constant
pressure to perform and achieve. This is also known as an individualistic
worldview, where emphasis is on the individual as opposed to the group.
The idea that there are fundamental differences in cultural world views
may be very threatening to people. If good intercultural communication
is to be achieved, however, then the worldview of each culture needs to be
acknowledged, accepted and respected, which is very challenging when certain
cultural ideologies (dominant ideas) are in direct contrast with one another.
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Cultural mores
This term describes the customs and habits that cultural groups accept as
right. These customs and habits will vary from culture to culture. For example,
in some cultures the colour black is considered an appropriate dress code to
be worn at a funeral. In other cultures the colour white is appropriate during
times of mourning.
Affirmative action
Affirmative action is the process whereby organisations take special steps
to assist, train, develop and employ people of a specific cultural group or
cultural groups that may have been seriously disadvantaged in the past
because, among other things, they were:
• discriminated against because of race, disability or gender
• not allowed access to good education
• prevented from occupying certain positions or having certain jobs
• denied access to post-school tertiary training and education because of a
lack of financial resources.
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Climate in an organisation
An organisation’s culture develops slowly and is hard to describe. On the other
hand, the climate of an organisation describes the day-to-day atmosphere in
an organisation and, like the weather, it can change relatively quickly as the
environment changes. It refers to the ways in which people behave towards
one another and may therefore change fairly rapidly.
The climate in an organisation is determined by the ways in which employees
work together in their formal and informal encounters. An organisation with
a climate of fear will have employees who are always worried that they are not
working hard enough or long enough to meet the job requirements. These
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employees may always be afraid of losing their jobs if they are perceived to
not be achieving the desired results.
The climate will be created according to who speaks to whom and by
people’s perceptions of these interactions. The climate will be affected by
perceived differences in power between people. These perceived differences in
power are especially important in intercultural communication. If people of
one culture perceive themselves to be in an inferior position, they are likely to
become defensive. Good intercultural communication has a far greater chance
of success between people who perceive themselves to be of equal status.
Different parts of an organisation may also have different climates because
people in an organisation may work under different conditions.
The climate in a group may change fairly rapidly from a supportive and
positive one to a defensive and negative one. Managers and staff therefore
need to be constantly sensitive to the climate in the group or department.
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Intercultural communication
This is a special type of communication in which people from different
cultural backgrounds have to communicate with one another. This type of
communication can make people very anxious and tense because people
from different cultural backgrounds tend to have different worldviews. People
find it very difficult to understand other people’s worldviews and this leads to
uncertainty, which, in turn, make people nervous.
Intercultural communication involves a high risk and it can only be successful
if the parties involved are relatively open-minded and accommodating. The
reason intercultural communication is regarded a risk is because it frequently
entails questioning and even giving up strongly held beliefs and ideas. It
may also require us to change attitudes that we regard as very important.
However, when confronted with intercultural communication it is essential
to keep in mind that the individual with whom you are communicating may
think differently to you and you therefore need to find ways to make yourself
understood despite these differences.
People involved in intercultural communication may also be using
different verbal and non-verbal codes. In fact, even if they use the same codes,
they may attach different meanings to them. For example, in some countries
a symbol that everything is okay is the thumbs up sign (the fingers forming
a fist with the thumb pointing up). In other countries this same symbol may
be considered offensive and profane.
We therefore have to negotiate meanings much more carefully in
intercultural situations and keep in mind that the sharing of meaning will
be a lot more challenging in these situations. Therefore the results of any
communication are less predictable and people may also find it more difficult
to plan accurately for other people’s responses.
Even though intercultural communication is challenging and we trust and
feel more comfortable around others with whom we share certain values,
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111
you may use a word or phrase that the other person is not familiar with,
which will make the sharing of meaning confusing and difficult. Moreover,
non-verbal communication also differs from culture to culture, which
further complicates the sharing of meaning.
• Differences in directness: As previously mentioned, some cultures are high
context cultures where communication is indirect and people are expected
to read between the lines. Other cultures are low context cultures where a
high value is placed on being direct and getting to the point.
• Different attitudes, values and beliefs: People do not always see the world
in the same way and differences in attitudes, values and beliefs can easily
lead to conflict.
• Prejudice: You are being prejudiced when you have certain preconceived
ideas or opinions that are not based on reason, experience or evidence. You
may, for example, have an adverse opinion about people from a particular
cultural group, even though you may have no proof to support this opinion.
Prejudice comes in many forms, including racism and cultural relativity:
• Racism refers to the belief in the biological superiority of one group over
another. A cultural group having racist views may even regard other
cultures associated with other races as inferior. Racism can be implicit
or explicit. Racism is explicit when people make use of racist language
or when they clearly express their feelings of superiority to members
of other racial groups. Someone who is racist is likely to emphasise
differences between cultures.
• Cultural relativity refers to people’s classification of other cultures in
terms of the way in which they view their own culture. Such people
are unable to understand the true nature of other cultures because they
have a fixed way of describing another culture that can be completely
inaccurate. They judge other cultures as good or bad from the point of
view of their own culture.
• Assumptions: An assumption is something that we accept as true or certain,
again without any proof that this is indeed the case. People assume that
certain things are true, even though they may not be. In intercultural
communication people may make assumptions about people from other
cultures that may not necessarily be true.
• Different ways of thinking: People from different cultures may think
differently. One culture may, for example, value facts as proof that
something is true or real. Another culture may value intuition more as a
way of arriving at a solution. People holding different worldviews will also
find it difficult to communicate.
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113
114
115
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20. Organisations should make staff aware of different negotiating styles. These
examples should help staff become more sensitive to cultural variations:
a. One best way versus specific nature: Some cultures consider that there is
one best way of doing things and assume that there is one unchanging
set of rules that applies to any business situation. Other cultures stress
the specific nature of a particular negotiation. Each business situation
is likely to be different in their eyes. They may, as a result, seem to
be saying irrelevant things and not keeping to the issues, but they are
simply trying to understand the specific situation. They do not apply
the same set of rules to every situation.
b. Individual compared to group decisions: One cultural approach in
negotiations may be to seek a quick decision by making a sudden offer
without referring to the Head Office for confirmation. This approach
will make negotiators reluctant to change their minds. Another group,
in contrast, seeks consensus. They may agree only tentatively and then
withdraw an offer after consulting with their Head Office.
c. One or many things at a time: Some business people like to do one thing
at a time, whereas others like to do many things at once.
d. Different approaches to status: Some cultures respect those who have
achieved status through hard work and brilliance. In contrast, other
cultures value status that is based on family and seniority.
21. Organisations should strive to have a fair language policy. If possible, staff
should be encouraged to learn other people’s languages. In practice, this is
not always possible because of the wide variety of languages spoken; this
is particularly true in South Africa where we have 11 official languages. An
international trend is to use English as the language of communication.
Some companies are using what is called ‘controlled English’. This is
normal English, but with a carefully selected vocabulary of about 2 000
words. In addition, the grammar is normal English grammar, but only
simple sentence constructions are used. Everyone in the organisation
would be expected to know and use this controlled English in writing and
speaking. It is easy to understand and learn because one word has only
one meaning.
Intercultural sensitivity
It is essential in organisations that people go through the process of
acculturation, which refers to a person’s ability to adapt to another culture or,
in an organisation, to adapt to a new corporate culture. However, in terms of
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Conclusion
The more you can accept cultural differences, acquire the ability to know and
understand that most behaviour is cultural and not universal, and function
comfortably in relationships with diverse others, the more tools you have to
solve problems and the better you will become at intercultural communication.
In order to do this, it is important to recognise that people from different
cultural backgrounds will find it more difficult to negotiate and share meaning
because they use different verbal and non-verbal symbols to communicate.
And even if they use the same symbols, the meaning of these symbols is often
different, which causes confusion and communication difficulties. However,
the more you learn about and understand cultural dimensions, such as
collectivism versus individuals, femininity versus masculinity, high context
versus low context cultures and how they impact on communication, the
more you will begin to communicate more effectively in intercultural contexts
and you will be able to really make a difference in intercultural encounters.
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7
THE INTERVIEW
Introduction
An interview is a special form of interpersonal communication. An interview
situation is specially created in order to provide interviewers with an
opportunity to discover facts about an interviewee or his or her attitudes or
opinions towards certain things. When an interview is conducted, there may
be a single interviewer or an interview panel consisting of several members.
Interviews are most commonly conducted face-to-face, however they may
be conducted through the use of a communications technology, such as
video- or teleconferencing.
The interviewer (or the interview panel leader) guides the course of an
interview in order to ensure that the goals of the interview are achieved. Prior
to commencing an interview, a well-prepared interviewer will devise a series
of questions intended to reveal the interviewee’s response as efficiently and
accurately as possible.
Interviews should be purposeful, meaningful and directed conversations,
rather than an informal chat. It is also in both party’s interests to prepare
adequately for an interview in order to get the best out of it.
In most peoples’ experience, an interview is a component of a recruitment
selection process, although they are often also encountered at termination of
an employment engagement, when applying for a bank loan or visa or as a
survey tool as part of a research exercise.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the special nature of interviews
• describe four major types of interviews in an organisation
• describe the factors relevant to the job interview
• explain the difference between a one-on-one job interview and a panel
job interview
• describe the importance of preparing for a job interview
• describe the phases of a typical job interview
• describe the characteristics of a good job interview
• provide the major advantages and disadvantages of open and closed
questions used in a job interview
• design your own ‘candidate scoring grid’
• write a letter of application for a job
• develop your own curriculum vitae.
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For these reasons, job interviews may be seen as transactions. The interviewer
and interviewee interact to determine whether the interviewee is the
most suitable candidate for the job. In the case of interviews conducted
by a recruiting agency, the interviewer may be attempting to find the best
employment ‘fit’ for the candidate from among many possibilities.
Purposes
Nature of
Memory the job
Personal Level of
attitudes preparation
Personal Perceptions
bias INTERVIEW SETTING of both
parties
INTERVIEWER
Ability to
receive INTERVIEWEE Types of
feedback questions
asked
Sensitivity to Motivation
non-verbal of both
communication parties
Language Listening
ability skills
Thinking
patterns
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◗ Interview setting: The interviewer should ensure that the interview setting is not
confrontational. Formal settings (conducted from either side of a formal work desk) may
prevent applicants from expressing themselves naturally and are often dispensed in favour
of more informal settings.
◗ Interview panel: The panel should be very well prepared with a clear set of purposes, a good
overall plan and well thought out questions.
◗ Interview candidates: Ideally the candidate should be familiar with the core business of
an organisation which is obtainable through basic background research. The candidate
should be able to prepare for likely questions based on this information and the information
provided on the position itself. The candidate should be able to link the intention of each
question back to the organisation’s core business and to the position itself.
◗ Purpose: To be successful, the interview should be organised around a clear set of purposes.
The interviewer(s) should determine precisely what they wish to gain from the interview.
They should make these purposes known to the interviewee, who should also approach the
interview with a similarly clear set of purposes.
◗ Nature of the position: The interviewer must have a clear and detailed description of the
duties required of a successful applicant. This description should inform the types of
questions asked at the interview.
◗ Level of preparation: Interviewing needs special skills and careful preparation. Interviewers
need to understand and be able to:
◗ determine an appropriate set of selection criteria for the position
◗ plan an interview
◗ prepare a set of effective and relevant questions
◗ interpret candidates’ responses and react to these (for example effectively ask
appropriate follow-up questions).
◗ Perceptions: Both parties will arrive at the interview with different sets of perceptions. They
should strive to understand these perceptions through the use of carefully constructed
questions and thoughtful answers.
◗ Types of questions: A good interview should be conducted by means of carefully planned
and prepared questions in specific relevant areas. These questions should be designed
to enable an interviewee to talk openly and freely. Closed questions demanding exact
answers should only be used to fill in details. In this case, open questions naturally lead to
a more in-depth discussion, while closed questions may be answered with a simple yes/no
response. Open and closed questions will be discussed in more detail later.
◗ Motivation of both parties: The parties must be appropriately motivated in order to perform
well in an interview. A lack of motivation from either party will become apparent quickly and
could result in the interview lacking drive and direction. Interviews lacking in motivation from
either party are unlikely to result in the appointment of the candidate.
◗ Listening skills: Both parties must employ active listening techniques. They must listen
carefully to the questions being asked and the answers being given in order to fully
understand them both as well as the motivations behind them. The interviewee should make
sure that he or she has heard and understood the question being asked and respond to that
specific question. The interviewer should make sure he or she listens to the answer being
given. Both parties should resist jumping to conclusions.
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◗ Thinking patterns: The interviewer and interviewee should both attempt to understand the
thinking patterns of the other party. Understanding the other party’s intentions will likely lead
to a successful interview.
◗ Language ability: The ability to use language carefully and correctly is extremely important
as it avoids misperceptions and misunderstandings between parties. This is particularly
important if the correct use of technical or other terms specifically related to the position
need to be used. If an interviewer is uncertain about the language, then it is advisable to
write out the questions beforehand. The interviewee should practise answering anticipated
questions beforehand and prepare a stock of words and phrases for the interview. Both
parties should give the same meanings to words.
◗ Sensitivity to non-verbal communication: Each party should strive to be sensitive to the
other party’s non-verbal communication. Interviewers should analyse their own non-verbal
biases and stereotypes. This analysis should help them to judge people more fairly. Each
party should also show that they are listening actively and should regulate their turn-taking.
◗ Ability to receive feedback: Interviewees should be mindful of responses from interviewers
in order to adjust their responses.
◗ Personal bias and attitudes: Both parties should be aware of their own biases and attitudes.
Such general awareness improves their sensitivities both to the types of questions being
asked and to the replies given.
◗ Memory: Both parties should strive to remember exactly what the other party has said.
Accurate memory will help the interviewer to guide the course of the interview and to return to
key points as required. The interviewee should attempt to remember difficult or multifaceted
questions. Interviewees should also remember what they have said in order to strengthen
points they made earlier in the interview.
Panel interviews
Panel interviews are generally conducted to provide breadth of opinion and
to eliminate favouritism from the recruitment selection. In a panel interview,
a panel Chair will generally discuss the division of responsibility between the
panel members.
As an example, a panel member might be the manager that the applicant
would be reporting to if appointed. The manager might ask questions relating to
the applicant’s ability to perform certain technical tasks related to the position.
Another representative, for example from the Human Resources department,
might ask questions relating to the applicant’s ability to work extended hours
or his or her access to personal transport.
The panel will decide which applicant to appoint based on many factors,
including his or her performance in the interview. For senior appointments,
the panel may consist of board members and for the sake of transparency an
external Chair may be used.
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Selection committee
The job interview is part of a recruitment selection process performed by a
selection committee. The Chair of the selection committee often chairs the
interview itself but this is not always the case.
Once these processes have been completed, the selection committee will
appoint an interview panel Chair who ensures that all members are properly
briefed on the position being filled, the required duties of the position and
the selection criteria.
The interview Chair not only ensures the timely progression of the interview
through the stages and questions, but also ensures that each panel member:
• understands which questions he or she will be asking the candidates
and the intention behind asking those questions in order to follow up
appropriately if needed
• has appropriate knowledge and skills to enable him or her to assess the
responses given by candidates
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• understands any other duties that may be assigned to him or her, for
example the preamble discussion on the purpose of the position may
be assigned to a particular panel member rather than being only the
Chair’s responsibility.
Interview panels have their own dynamics, which should be taken into
account by the panel Chair in order to ensure that the appropriate information
is obtained from the candidates, rather than the interview becoming a
discussion between the panel members themselves.
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likely to meet all the requirements of the organisation can then be selected to
supply a specific set of products or services to the organisation or to act as a
distribution or sales channel for the organisation’s products or services.
Open questions
Some examples of open questions:
• What is your reaction to the recent changes in tax laws?
• In what ways do you think you could increase sales?
• How can you contribute to the success of the company?
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Closed questions
Some examples of closed questions:
• Do you believe that changes to tax laws were needed?
• Can sales be increased?
• Is it important to evaluate the success of a new expanse claims policy?
Interview preparation
Interviewers should prepare a range of open and closed questions, in order
to address these areas:
• motivation to join or to change roles within the organisation
• work history and previous relevant experience
• education and training
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• career plan
• initiative and motivation
• leadership and management skills
• ability to work in team situations
• independence
• communication skills, both verbal and written
• ability to work at the designated workplace, which may be different to the
interview location
• ability to work at the designated hours, for example shift work or organising
weekend promotional events may be involved
• any other issues that may have an impact on the candidates’ employment,
for example a restriction of trade.
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Some informal discussion may then occur but, at this point, the interview is
considered closed and ends on a friendly note.
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Example
This is not intended to be a template to be followed, however, it shows the points
that should be covered in a job application covering letter. Since different positions
may place different emphases on the applicant’s skills, this should only be
considered as a guideline to the approach and tone of the application letter.
A.J. MATTHEWS
Encl. Curriculum Vitae
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Example
The following example illustrates a possible curriculum vitae. Note that it has
been set out to be highly readable. A CV will normally be read in 20 seconds by
strangers. Therefore include headings that catch the eye of the reader. A one-page
summary may also be included. Remember that your CV is where you describe and
sell yourself.
AJ MATTHEWS
HONOURS IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT/QUALIFIED ASSESSOR
POST-GRADUATE CERTIFICATE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
7 Mont Blanc, 74 Cape Cherry Street, Cape Town
HOME: (021) 628 2434 CELL: 082 663 9622 EMAIL: matthewsaj@gmail .com
GENERAL MANAGER – STRONG EDUCATION/TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
AND HUMAN RESOURCES BACKGROUND
Professional profile
• Versatile manager with hands-on experience.
• Strategic professional who deploys participative management style in fast-
paced, diverse workforce.
• Proactive change agent who spends time in employee environment
encouraging learning and promoting the increased productivity that results in
value-added customer service.
• Excellent team builder and consultant on personnel issues and organisational
development and training.
• Motivated achiever with demonstrable ability to recommend enhancements to
business processes.
• Strong interpersonal, written and verbal communicator who can deliver effective
presentations, consult on projects and maintain collaborative relationships.
132
• Assessment practice
• Leadership and management
• Educational technology
• Research supervision
• BA Honours – Industrial Psychology, University of the North West
• Strategic Human Resource Management (BSKP 615)
• Vocational Psychology (BSKP 616)
• Organisational Development (BSKP 621)
• Human Capacity Development (BSKP 622)
• Psychometry (PSG 731)
• Psychological Evaluation (PSG 732)
• Practical Psychological Diagnostics (PSG 733)
• Research Methods (PSG 734)
• Clinical Aspects & Therapeutic Approaches (PSG 735)
• Psychopathology (PSG 738)
• Statistics (ST 732)
• Diploma in Business Management, Independent Institute of Education
Endorsed by the Chartered Institute of Business Management
• Management Accounting and Finance
• Marketing
• Human Resource Management
• Corporate Strategy
• Business Law
• Qualified Assessor with the ETDP Seta
• BA Degree, Potchefstroom University for CHE
Majors in Industrial Psychology and Business Sociology/Industrial relations
References
1. Woodcrest College
Mr G Botha (MD)
Contact Number: (021) 998 1977 / (021) 998 1728 (Last known number)
Cell: 084 788 9909
2. Frontline
Ms R Motsepe
General Project Manager
Contact Number: (021) 269 8755 or (021) 789 9222 (Last known number)
Cell: 087 555 4609
3. Adcorp
Ms K Perreira
Training and Development Specialist
Contact Number: (021) 267 4339 or (021) 384 4356 (Last known number)
Cell: 082 676 2225
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the parties, the interviewer should try to establish a pleasant and trusting
atmosphere. The interviewer should plan specific questions to encourage the
interviewee to give honest answers.
The interviewer should practise active listening and should use prompting
questions to encourage a free flow of information, opinions and feelings.
Conclusion
Organisations use interviews in various situations where information
gathering is required and/or face-to-face interaction and immediacy are
important. The most commonly experienced interview type is the job
interview. The interviewer must be able to determine if the interviewee is the
right fit for the organisation and for the position advertised. Job interviews
should allow a candidate to display him- or herself as a person, not simply a
list of skills. When applying for a vacant position it is important to ensure that
the curriculum vitae you submit sells you and catches the eye of the reader in
order to secure an invitation to an interview. If you are the one conducting the
interview, make sure you prepare interviews effectively to source the relevant
information in order to make the correct decisions, recruit the best candidate
for a position, appropriately appraise the work of others and determine why
employees decide to leave the organisation.
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8
FORMAL MEETINGS
Introduction
Meetings form an integral part of any organisation. The primary purpose of
meetings is to share information, discuss problems and their solutions and
make decisions. A well-run meeting encourages good business communication
and it provides people with an opportunity to make a personal contribution
and influence the functioning of the organisation. If meetings are not run
properly, they can lead to conflict and loss of productivity.
Organisations create hierarchies of structures intended to carry out various
aspects of the business of the organisation. These may start with a Board,
Executive Committees (‘EXCO’), Management Committees (‘MANCO’),
various operational groups, task teams, down to social committees. These
meetings and their associated management structures carry different ‘weights’
and may be assigned to various authorities. For example, organisations may
only allow financial commitments above a certain value to be made by its
Board. Decisions carrying certain legal implications, such as acquiring and
merging with another organisation, may also need to be performed by bodies
higher up in the structure. Committees hold meetings that are conducted in
line with their position within the organisation’s hierarchical structure. Those
committees higher up in the structure will conduct themselves formally, such
as making decisions through a formal voting process, while those lower down
may dispense with many formalities.
Formal meetings are called by means of a ‘Notice of Meeting’ and are often
held according to a schedule published well in advance, particularly in the case
of public bodies such as governmental structures, as well as publically listed
companies. These meetings follow a set agenda where different people have
different responsibilities and duties. Formal minutes are taken as a record of
the proceedings and may be distributed widely, for example extracts may be
published in the Government Gazette, distributed to shareholders and may
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the differences between formal meetings and small group
informal meetings
• describe and set out the duties of the Chair, Secretary, Treasurer and the
other officials
• prepare a Notice of Meeting, an agenda and a set of minutes, professionally.
Formal meetings:
• vary in size from seven people to an Annual General Meeting (AGM)
attended by hundreds of people
• are called by means of a Notice of Meeting
• have an agenda
• have their proceedings recorded in minutes
• are run by a designated Chair, a Secretary and, if required, a Treasurer
• are governed by a set of formal rules
• may have a formal constitution that governs, for example how often they
are convened.
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Example
The following example shows the format for a combined Notice of Meeting and
agenda. Please note that a section headed ‘Notes’ has been left open on the
right-hand-side. Those attending the meeting can make notes in this column.
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Example
If the meeting is less formal and is to be attended by a small number of people
from one department, then the Notice of Meeting and agenda could be set out as
shown below. Notice that the agenda is far more specific.
Minutes of meetings
Minutes are the official record of the proceedings of a meeting. They also
record the exact wording of:
• resolutions taken
• decisions on finances
• appointments to vacancies and terms of office
• instructions
• contracts.
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Example
The following example illustrates extracts from a set of minutes. Note particularly
the use of:
• headings
• a multiple decimal numbering system
• the ‘Action’ column for the initials of those who are to take action and also for
deadline dates of when the action should be completed.
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7. Election of directors
The following were elected for the period 8 August 20__ to
7 August 20__
• Mr K. Zulu (proposer …….., seconder ……….)
• Mrs A. Smith (proposer ……, seconder …..…)
8. Payment to auditors ACTION:
Mr Wentzel, seconded by Mr S. Stander, proposed as follows: Mr K. Zulu
That the auditors, Messrs J.K Pelle and Partners, be paid for S.S.
the year 1 July 20__ to 30 June 20__ 2 Sept 20__
The meeting so resolved.
9. Other business
No items of other business were raised.
10. Closure
The meeting closed at 11h30 with a vote of thanks to the
Board of Directors.
Signed: (Chair)
Date:
Attached: List of all those who attended.
Distribution list
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• Uses a casting vote when votes for or against a motion are equal.
• Accepts amendments to motions provided that they have been seconded.
• Gives rulings on points of order.
• Calls for a vote if any of these rulings are challenged.
Proposing of motions
Meetings should adhere to the following guidelines on motions:
• Motions must be proposed and seconded.
• A motion may be added to with the consent of the proposer.
• The proposer and seconder have a right to speak first on a motion.
• If not amended, motions are put to the vote.
• A motion is ‘carried’ if a quorum votes in favour of the motion.
• The number of members required to achieve a quorum will depend on the
constitution of the meeting.
• If motions are carried they become ‘resolutions’ and are minuted as such.
• Motions may be amended by changing, removing or adding words.
• An amendment needs a proposer and seconder.
• The amendment is voted on. If the amendment is approved by the meeting,
the amended motion called the substantive motion is put to the meeting.
• Two amendments cannot be accepted together.
• Each amendment needs to be voted on separately.
• A motion cannot be withdrawn unless the meeting, as well as the proposer
and seconder, agree.
• A motion is recorded as ‘carried unanimously’ if everyone votes for it. If
nobody votes against it, it can be recorded as nem.con. (no one against).
This could apply if some people abstain.
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Types of motions
The following are a selection of motions used to regulate meetings:
• If someone feels that the discussion about a motion has gone on long
enough, he or she may propose that ‘the question now be put’ through
the Chair. If this is accepted, the meeting then has to vote immediately
on the motion.
• Someone may wish the meeting to move on to the next motion on the
agenda. He or she may then propose a motion ‘to proceed to the next
business’. If this is carried, the meeting leaves the motion under discussion
without voting and moves on to the next motion.
• If a confidential matter is discussed, it may move into committee
(a sub‑group of meeting attendees move into another closed room to
discuss the matter at hand). A motion ‘to move into committee of the
whole’ is then put. If this is carried, everyone has to stay in the room until
the meeting moves out of committee. Once the meeting moves out of
committee, the matter may not be discussed. However the committee’s
determination may be reported to the larger meeting.
• If a member needs more time to consider a proposal, he or she may
propose a motion ‘to postpone’ debate to a new date.
• A member who wishes the meeting to reconsider a resolution made at the
meeting may propose a motion ‘to reconsider’ the resolution.
• A member who feels uneasy about a resolution taken at a previous
meeting may propose a motion at the next meeting ‘to review and rescind’
a motion.
Conclusion
The main purpose of a meeting is to share information, to make decisions
or to solve problems. To ensure that a meeting is run properly, it has to be
run in accordance with a set agenda where different people have different
responsibilities and duties. The meeting proceedings are then recorded and
these assist organisations to keep a record of the decisions that were made.
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9
GRAMMAR, STYLE AND TONE
IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
Introduction
Before we are able to write or present messages or ideas, it is important that
we learn the basic English language skills necessary to achieve successful
communication. Mastering these skills is critical, especially in a country
where most people speak and read English as a second or even third language
and the likelihood of miscommunication is high. In this chapter we will look
at the following grammatical and stylistic elements of preparing effective
messages:
• parts of speech
• effective vocabulary for workplace documents
• use of jargon in the workplace
• correct use of sentence structure and punctuation in workplace documents.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify and work with the main parts of speech in the English language
• explain and illustrate the terms ‘denotation’ and ‘connotation’ as they
apply to words
• describe four functions of words
• explain the difference between fact and opinion
• explain how to choose a vocabulary for professional messages
• explain and illustrate the terms ‘concrete’, ‘relative’ and ‘abstract’ words
• explain what is meant by words that pre-judge a situation
• explain the difference between formal and informal words
• write and communicate grammatically correct messages
• use the rules of number to avoid grammatical errors in numbers
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People’s overall use of words could be greatly improved if they were to correct
two commonly made mistakes:
1. They assume that the word is the object it describes. The word ‘company’
for example is not the actual group of people that it refers to – it is simply
an identifying label.
2. They assume that one word can refer to all the others of that object.
The word ‘organisation’ is general and does not describe every kind of
organisation. Further definition would be necessary and so you would
have to specify for example between an NGO and a for-profit organisation.
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This failure to distinguish between ‘all’, ‘one’ or ‘some’ leads to poor thinking
and potentially damaging communication. It also leads to dangerous
generalisations such as ‘all organisations are corrupt and out to make a quick
buck’. This is clearly not the case as there are many ethical organisations
that operate for sustainable profit and value and also myriad non-profit
organisations that do not ‘make a quick buck’ at all. ‘Some’ or ‘one’ may be
dishonest or out to make a quick buck, but not ‘all’ and it is dangerous and
simplistic to generalise in this way.
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The following examples show how connotations can convey different kinds
of messages:
• Your range is too gaudy for our superior clientele. (negative and condescending)
• Select from our colourful and mood-enhancing range of materials. (positive)
• I found your behaviour at the last meeting to be childish. (negative)
• These paintings show a childlike simplicity. (neutral to positive)
• It has been drawn to the attention of the undersigned that you continue to
materialise late for work. (negative, stiff and condescending)
• I noticed that you have arrived at 08h30 for work twice this week. (neutral
and factual)
Synonyms
A synonym is a word with the same or similar meaning to another word.
However, because of the wide range of denotations and connotations that
each word may carry, it is often dangerous to simply interchange one word
for another.
People need to be very sensitive to shades of meaning when they choose
words. The important point about working with closely related words such
as ‘big’ and ‘large’ is to know how they differ. For example, are ‘small’, ‘tiny’
and ‘minute’ the same? How do ‘large’, ‘enormous’ and ‘huge’ differ? Do they
differ only in degree? Are ‘enough’ and ‘sufficient’ synonyms? Is ‘sufficient’ a
more formal word than ‘enough’?
Functions of words
Words perform a range of functions in messages. Their major functions are to:
• convey facts
• convey opinions
• persuade
• help people communicate in social settings.
Conveying facts
As the sender of a message, if you intend to convey facts, then you should use
words with strong denotations and make use of checkable facts.
The following example from a report illustrates factual language. This is
also called referential language.
Example
The building contains 15 columns of reinforced concrete. Each column is 5 m high
and measures 30 cm x 30 cm. These columns have been placed 10 m apart.
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Conveying emotions
Words that carry emotions have a range of connotations. These connotations
suggest opinions rather than facts. The following example shows a mixture
of opinion and fact, with the opinion clearly dominant. Words that are used
to express opinions and encourage an emotional response are also called
emotive. It is best to avoid emotive language in academic and business writing
unless it is used in marketing material or to sell an idea.
Example
This is the finest building of its kind. The soaring and graceful columns support a
brilliantly designed upper storey that houses a suite of elegant offices.
The words ‘finest’, ‘soaring’, ‘graceful’, ‘brilliantly’ and ‘elegant’ convey the
positive opinion of the writer. When this type of language is used, people are
likely to become distrustful and may even feel manipulated.
Example
The following example illustrates an attempt to persuade by means of facts. The
writer has avoided strong connotations.
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Example
This example tries to persuade people by emotive means.
Buy the innovative Bio-valve Pump. Highly reliable and completely portable, it can pump far
more sludge than previous-generation pumps. You simply won’t find a better one on the market.
Most of the language above is pure opinion. The only real fact given is its
portability and the hint that it is more efficient than other pumps, but no real
comparison is made and no evidence is given to substantiate these claims.
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Many people are tempted to choose difficult technical words because they appear
impressive. However, messages crowded with these terms do not communicate
effectively and may even alienate your audience. You are strongly advised to
keep your messages simple. Remember, effective communication is all about
the sharing of meaning.
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Concrete words
Words are not of course concrete but this category is useful for words that
describe objects we can experience through our senses or refer to things we
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can see, touch, smell, taste or hear. Such words do not require any abstraction.
Examples are ‘office desk’, ‘iPad’ or ‘envelope’.
Relative words
These words are generally classified as adjectives or adverbs. They mean different
things to different people and usually reflect the user’s opinion. Words such as
‘huge’, ‘excellent’, ‘rich’, ‘poor’ and ‘very’ are relative words. They should be
avoided in messages such as reports where the emphasis is on facts.
Abstract words
Abstract words refer to general concepts and have no specific referents against
which they can be checked. Words such as ‘organisation’, ‘management’,
‘labour’ and ‘cost’ are difficult to define and so examples to illustrate abstract
words are essential if people are to understand their exact meaning. You
should therefore be very careful when you use abstract words. Always give
examples so that your audience knows how you are using the abstract word
and so that the meaning is shared.
Informal words such as ‘nice’ and ‘terribly’ do not have precise meanings.
Compare the following examples:
Informal Formal
fantastic enjoyable
guy man
quote (noun) quotation
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Style in messages
A style may be defined in terms of whether it is:
• formal or informal
• personal or impersonal
• active or passive
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• concise or wordy
• clear or ambiguous
• concrete or abstract.
In this section each of these styles is described and examples of each are
provided to demonstrate the concepts clearly.
Levels of formality
A written or spoken style may be described as formal or informal in terms of
five different levels of formality. Figure 9.2 illustrates these five levels, each of
which is explained in more detail below.
INTIMATE Spoken
The subject matter is often complex. Very little attention is paid to the
relationship between the writer and the reader. Look at the following example.
Example
As a result of this experiment on durability, it can be hypothesised that the original
substance was of a dense nature, of great durability and longevity, with the ability to
withstand sustained high degrees of pressure.
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Note the very formal vocabulary and long sentence. The next example is an
extract from a memorandum.
Example
It has been noted by the Personnel Department that the need for a course in
telephone techniques should be regarded as a high priority by our organisation in
the immediate future. This belief has been strengthened by an in-depth investigation
of a large number of telephone conversations undertaken by a team of investigators
under the supervision of this Department.
Note the use of the impersonal ‘it’ and the passive forms such as ‘has been
noted’ and ‘should be regarded’. Organisations should avoid using this style
even if it does look very official. It is hard to read, off-putting and very difficult
to listen to.
A formal style is less formal than the high formal style and is effective for all
types of oral and written messages. Let us examine the changes from the high
formal style to this simpler, formal style in the following example.
Example
The Personnel Department has noted the need for a course in telephone techniques.
We should consider this course a high priority. A team of investigators strengthened
this belief after they examined a large number of telephone conversations.
Note the active style, the short sentences and the short paragraphs. A formal
style should have:
• formal and complete sentences
• short sentences
• short paragraphs
• a simple but formal vocabulary
• no slang
• no short forms such as ‘you’re’ and ‘I’m’, but first person is permissible in
most formal writing.
A consultative style is a degree less formal than the formal style and is suitable
for both spoken and selected written messages in organisations. In particular,
it is suitable for memoranda and talks or oral reports within a company. The
example on the next page illustrates a consultative style.
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Example
We, in the Personnel Department, feel that there’s a great need for a course in
telephone techniques. We’ve become even more sure of this need now that we’ve
gone through a report from some investigators, who analysed a large number of
telephone conversations and came up with some surprising answers.
This style is used when writers or speakers wish to establish and maintain a
close relationship with their readers or listeners.
A casual style is more suited to speaking than writing. The language is
conversational and the sentences may be incomplete. Abbreviations are used.
The following memorandum was written in a casual style.
Example
My Department feels that we’re in need of some training in telephone work. We’ve
had some experts in. They’ve been analysing what’s been going on telephone wise.
What a shock! Our staff hasn’t got a clue on how to speak on the phone!
Note the short forms and casual vocabulary such as ‘hasn’t got a clue’. Note
also that the sentences are short.
An intimate style is used among people who know each other very well. It
uses short forms, informal words and incomplete sentences. The following
example illustrates this style.
Example
Hi there! We dropped in to see you. Alas! No one in. See you Saturday. Cheers!
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Example
Dear Mr Langa
POINT OF SALES SOFTWARE ORDER
I am pleased to let you know that your business’s new point of sales software has
been completed. We will test it over the next two days and once we are happy with it
we will deliver and install it at your offices as requested.
Example
The writer was instructed to report on the major problems in the distribution of XYZ
products. It has been found that delivery routes have been poorly planned and that
the company’s agents have not been planning properly.
The impersonal style is suitable for reports where the stress is on the content
rather than on the writer. It is also useful for tactfully indicating blame
without actually pinpointing a ‘culprit’. Note the use of:
• ‘the writer’
• the passive forms
• the impersonal ‘it’.
The active form is called ‘actor–action order’. This is a more vigorous style
and where possible writers and speakers should use it since it speaks directly
to the audience. A passive style makes writing less direct and can lead to
long-windedness if writers are not careful.
Example
Taking all these factors into consideration at this point in time, it can be safely
assumed that the accident was not of a serious nature and that we need to take
cognisance of the warnings issued in the recent past.
All these factors suggest that the accident was not serious. However, we should
note the recently issued warnings.
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Concise messages are those in which every word counts. However there is no
need to reduce every sentence so that it becomes meaningless.
For example, someone might say, ‘If your baby has trouble digesting cow’s
milk, boil it.’ Does the ‘it’ refer to the baby or the milk? That person should
rather say, ‘If your baby has trouble digesting cow’s milk, boil the milk.’
Tone in messages
Tone, which indicates the attitude of a sender to a receiver, is very important
in both spoken and written messages. In spoken messages tone is conveyed
by your voice, facial expressions, the way you stand and the words you use.
Tone in written messages is conveyed by the words and the ways in which
they combine.
Where possible, the tone of a speech should be friendly or neutral rather than
aggressive. Reports should be neutral while business letters should be friendly
or neutral depending on the purpose and audience.
Example
Compare the tone of the following:
Receipt of your letter is acknowledged. Please be advised that your interest will
be deposited by the undersigned in the designated account forthwith.
Thank you for your letter dated 20 January. I am pleased to let you know that I
will be depositing the interest into your account shortly.
Jargon
The term ‘jargon’ describes the terminology or language that is specific to a
particular group of professionals or events. In the business world, jargon can
become so entrenched that the people writing messages fail to understand
the inaccessibility of it to outside readers. The banking, legal and insurance
industries for example have long been accused of using their own forms of
jargon to confuse the public and a new trend is for them to speak in plainer,
simpler language. There are however many industries, professions and sports
that still use jargon. The key to its use is to ensure that the intended audience
will understand the message. Therefore keep your audience in mind when
you need to use jargon.
In addition to the above characteristics, business letters may contain stock
phrases or sentences that are classified as business jargon. Some examples are:
• Please find enclosed …
• We are in receipt of …
• Your letter of 29 January refers …
• We are pleased to advise that …
Writers should try to replace these phrases and sentences with clear, simple
writing where possible.
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Example
The following example illustrates some of the elements of jargon:
Your letter of the 25th inst. refers. Please be advised that the undersigned has
taken cognisance of your complaint about the company’s negligence in the matter
of the above named contract and we undertake to endeavour to investigate every
avenue to ensure that all problems are rectified by us.
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a little more complex than it really is, but a simple example will illustrate
the general principle. If someone says, ‘He are writing his business report
yesterday’, most of us will easily identify that this sentence is incorrect.
We just will not necessarily know why. For first-language English speakers
who hear English spoken more often, understanding concord may come
naturally. Second- or third-language English speakers however often do not
have this advantage and may require a little more explanation. In the case of
the example above:
• The first problem is the use of the verb ‘are’ (writing). ‘Are’ is used for
plural nouns. In this case, the verb should be in the singular since the
subject is ‘he’ singular.
• The second problem is that ‘are writing’ is written in the present and the
sentence indicates that the business report was written ‘yesterday’. Thus
‘are writing’ should be changed into the past tense.
• To be correct, the sentence needs to read, ‘He was writing his business
report yesterday’ or ‘He wrote his business report yesterday.’ The verb now
agrees with the subject in both number (singular) and tense (past).
The following rules should help you to avoid common errors in number.
1. Singular subject, singular verb:
The speaker is talking.
2. Plural subject, plural verb:
The speakers are talking.
3. Two or more subjects joined by the coordinating conjunction ‘and’ will need a
plural verb:
The boy and the man are talking. (double subject); The boy, the girl and
the man are talking. (multiple subjects)
4. When the two subjects form a single thought or have a very closely related
meaning, a singular verb may be used:
My teacher and friend was at the awards ceremony. (one person, not two)
5. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning require a singular verb:
Physics is the study of heat, light, sound, mechanics and electricity;
Mathematics is compulsory; The team was at the meeting.
6. Subjects that are plural in form, which indicate a quantity or number, require a
singular verb when the subject is regarded as a unit:
Ten kilometers is too far to walk; Five years is a long time to wait for any girl.
7. Two or more plural subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ will require a plural verb:
Either the spreadsheets or the timecards are wrong. (alternative subjects);
Neither the workers nor the managers were at the meeting.
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8. Two or more singular subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ will require a singular verb:
Either Mark or Ranek is certain to be there; Neither Helen nor Buhle was
able to go.
9. If the subjects differ in number or person, the verb agrees with the nearer (if
possible, however, avoid this type of sentence):
Neither Jack nor the other boys know; Either they or I am at fault.
10. When the subject and the complement of the verb ‘to be’ are of different numbers,
the verb must follow the number of the subject:
The stars were our only guide; Our only guide was the stars; Were the stars
our only guide?; Was our only guide the stars?; The best part of the meal is
the coffee and cigars; The coffee and cigars are the best part of the meal.
11. Always use a singular verb after the pronoun ‘it’:
It is the girls who must decide.
12. After ‘there’, the verb is singular or plural according to the number of the subject
that follows:
In the meadow there stands a mighty oak; There exist no forces that can
help us.
13. Singular pronouns require singular verbs. These pronouns are singular: ‘each ‘,
‘every one’, ‘everybody’, ‘any one’, ‘anybody’, ‘someone’, ‘somebody’, ‘no one’,
‘nobody’, ‘one’, ‘many a one’, ‘another’, ‘anything’, ‘either’, ‘neither’:
Each has to go alone; Someone is speaking now; Everybody has made this
kind of mistake.
14. ‘None’ (literally ‘no one’) is followed by a singular verb:
None of the sugar has been spilt.
15. A verb should not agree with a noun or pronoun that intervenes between it and
the subject. Red herrings cause the mistakes in the following sentences:
a. Each of us are going. (‘are’ should be ‘is’)
b. I think almost every one of the Judges of the High Court are represented
here. (‘are’ should be ‘is’)
c. An immense amount of confusion and indifference prevail throughout
the world. (‘prevail’ should be ‘prevails’)
d. The cause of the requests and demands were not apparent. (‘were’
should be ‘was’).
16. A pronoun must agree in number, person and gender with the noun or pronoun
to which it refers:
Everybody is expected to contribute his or her share; Anyone who wishes
to may bring his or her own camera.
17. Always use the correct pronoun:
One does not forget one’s own name. (The possessive of the indefinite
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pronoun is ‘one’s’, not ‘his’.); One of the children has dropped his or her
handkerchief. (Here ‘one’ is a numeral pronoun.); If an individual is guilty
of fraud, he or she should be punished. (An individual is singular, so it
cannot be ‘they should be punished’.)
18. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the group is regarded as a unit, but
a plural verb when the individuals of the group are regarded separately:
The staff has asked him to appear at the meeting; The staff are arriving in
a few hours.
19. If a collective noun is used with a singular verb, any pronoun that refers to that
noun must be singular too; if a collective noun is used with a plural verb any
pronoun that refers to that noun must be plural too. Either: ‘The committee adds
these words to its report.’ or ‘The committee add these words to their report’.
In this section we deal with pronouns because their forms change. Nouns
do not change their form as shown in these examples: He (subjective case)
chased the dog; The dog chased him (objective case).
Prepositions
Pronouns governed by prepositions are in the objective case. Note the
following examples: The dog was chased by him; Between you and me, I think
that he is wrong.
Who/whom
Note the use of who (subjective case) and whom (objective case): Who are those
people over there? (subjective); To whom do you want to speak? (objective).
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The most common error you may encounter is the use of misrelated
participles. In this case, the subject of the action is not clearly identified and
there is ambiguity as to who is doing the action. For example: Hanging on
the curtains, the mother told her children to behave. Can you see that we should
have more clearly identified that it was the children who were hanging on the
curtains and not the mother?
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The above use stresses only what will happen in the future. There is no
suggestion of determination, willpower or threat. If however ‘shall’ and ‘will’
change places, then they are being used to express a future scenario that
requires determination or willpower or that holds a threat.
These two examples illustrate the plain future: I shall leave at five o’clock; They
will drive to campus. These two examples illustrate the involved future: I will
leave at five o’clock whether you are ready or not; They shall drive to campus
despite threats to stop them.
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grammatical structures for each joined item should also be the same and the
rules of concord considered.
Compare: At the end of the year, the company’s trade in this country had
not only increased far beyond the target, but also its overseas trade. (Here the
section after ‘but also’ is incomplete.)
With: At the end of the year, the company’s trade not only in this country
but also overseas had increased beyond their targets. (This version stresses
that trade in this country and overseas has increased.)
Types of sentences
In this section we describe four major types of sentences that are useful in
writing: the simple, the compound, the complex and the compound-complex
sentence. A basic understanding of these types of sentences should help you
to improve your writing.
When you plan your business messages, try to vary the types of sentences that
you use. However remember to limit your use of the more complex sentence
types, because simple, compound or compound-complex are generally easier
to follow.
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for his chance to arrive. He lost his nerve. (wrong); While waiting for his
chance to arrive, he lost his nerve. (right).
2. Omission of a full-stop where one is needed, for example: The people
searched the forest, they could not find the thief. (wrong); The people
searched the forest. They could not find the thief. (right).
Internal punctuation
The colon
The colon is used in the following ways:
1. to introduce the members of a set, for example, ‘I like the following
vegetables: carrots, onions, cabbage and leeks’. Remember that you should
only use a colon after a complete statement.
2. to introduce examples, quotations and explanatory material, for example,
‘The manager resigned from the company: she was frustrated at the lack
of opportunity.’
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The semi-colon
In general, semi-colons separate elements that are too dense or full to be
separated by a comma, yet are not necessarily full sentences. The main uses
of the semi-colon are:
1. to separate the main clauses of compound sentences that are not connected
by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. For example: Certain spices were
used as a medium of exchange; early traders were said to have … (This
could have been written as two separate sentences, but the semi-colon
clarifies the relationship between them.)
2. to separate main clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunction
such as ‘therefore’, ‘so’, ‘accordingly’, ‘hence’, ‘moreover’. For example: Poetry
is a more difficult art to master than prose; moreover, it is an older art.
3. to separate elements of a set or list if any of the elements contain commas.
For example: The building was filled with eager, nervous applicants;
harrassed, irritable officials; and hard-pressed interviewers.
The dash
With the general loosening of English prose style, the dash has come to
take over many of the jobs formerly reserved for the colon, semi-colon
and comma. The dash is more forceful than the comma; it can be used to
emphasise phrases that – when set off merely by commas – would not be so
noticeable. The dash may be used:
1. in place of the colon to introduce a list of explanatory remarks. For example:
The Browns brought their whole family – boys, girls, babies and dogs.
2. to set off parenthetical expressions. For example: Tom – the idiot – tried to
tell her what to do.
3. to set off phrases or words for the sake of emphasis. For example: Would
you believe it? They found her – asleep.
The comma
The use of commas is largely a matter of common sense. If they aid in the
understanding of a sentence, put them in; if they do not, leave them out. Read
the following sentence: These incidents, however, trivial in themselves, are
liable to lead to more serious demonstrations. Would you have used all of
these commas? Decide which ones, if any, are unnecessary.
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2. set off some word, phrase or clause that lies outside the main part of the
sentence (to show parenthesis). For example: Her father, whom she loved
dearly, died last year.
3. set off introductory dependent clauses preceding independent clauses. For
example: When you snore, I have trouble sleeping.
4. separate items in a list. For example: He bought peaches, grapes, apples
and plums.
5. indicate an important change in the normal word order. For example: Like
many of the romantics, he died young.
Avoid circumlocution
Circumlocution is an indirect or roundabout expression. It is a way of
writing and talking round a subject instead of talking about it in a simple,
straightforward way. Be brief and to the point.
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Do not use a verb and a noun when a verb alone will do:
He made the suggestion He suggested
He exercised his influence He influenced
I am under the necessity of I need to
Do not use a verb and a phrase when a verb and an adverb will do:
He behaved in a disagreeable way. He behaved disagreeably; He was
disagreeable.
Avoid roundabout expressions using abstract words such as nature, sort, extent,
condition, degree, character, quality, kind, description, manner:
His work was of inferior quality. His work was inferior.
His views were of an extraordinary kind. His views were extraordinary.
Avoid under-statements done in a half-apologetic way to impress:
It is not without interest It is interesting
not an inconsiderable amount much
possessing an influence by no means to influential
be despised
not infrequently often
not wholly unconnected with with
Avoid redundancy
Redundancy is the use of unnecessary words. Get rid of every word that has
no work to do, is not pulling its weight or whose omission would not mean
the loss of anything significant.
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Trite phrases
Avoid phrases used to bridge awkward gaps or to give a little more time for
thought, as well as trite phrases and catchwords calculated in some way to save
the writer trouble.
• If we examine the case carefully …
• If I may be so bold as to hazard a guess …
• When all is said and done …
• Let us consider …
• Let us pass on to the next point …
• You may take my word for it …
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Many of these have become clichés and you should try to find new, more
interesting combinations of nouns and adjectives.
Conclusion
In order to become an effective communicator in the business environment,
it is important that you learn how to write well. Your ability to write well
will have many advantages. One of the most important advantages of writing
well is that it will influence others’ perceptions of your competence and
intelligence. People who are incapable of expressing themselves clearly are
often seen as less competent. Writing well involves not only writing correctly
– following the rules of spelling, grammar and punctuation – but also writing
clearly and knowing how to share meaning with others. Having the skill of
communicating ideas and information effectively – and holding your reader’s
interest at the same time – will provide you with a competitive advantage in
both the business and academic worlds.
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10
WRITING SUMMARIES AND ESSAYS
Introduction
The ability to summarise messages and write effective essays is essential for
academic and business writing. Summaries and essays should convey an
informed, precise, accurate and professional image, so it is important to plan
and execute them carefully.
In this chapter we will provide you with an overview and practical look
at how to tackle summary and essay writing. You are encouraged to actively
practise the skills taught here with practical examples of your own – use articles
in the media or from your textbooks – to turn this theory into useful skills.
The following elements of summaries and essays are examined in this chapter:
• characteristics of a summary
• other types of summaries
• purposes of a summary
• requirements for writing a summary
• procedure for writing a summary
• characteristics and types of essays
• procedure for writing an essay.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the purposes and characteristics of various summaries
• identify the main differences between different kinds of summaries
• write a variety of well‑written summaries, according to purpose
• identify the purposes and characteristics of essays
• select an appropriate style of essay according to your purpose
• plan, write and edit an essay according to purpose.
What is a summary?
A summary is a reduced version of the original text. It does not have a fixed
length but should be long enough to reflect the main points of the original
document and should prepare readers for the original text if they decide to
read it.
Characteristics of a summary
A summary has the following characteristics. It:
• is placed at the beginning and not at the end of a text
• keeps the reader’s needs in mind
• has no fixed length – it is as long as is necessary
• includes key information
• may change the emphasis of the original document
• may change the proportion of the information
• may change the order of the information
• may have key summary diagrams and other figures
• uses your own words.
Many summaries are similar in length because most readers are prepared to
spend only a few minutes reading them. For example, a summary of only
three sentences will usually be too short and one that goes on to a second
page may annoy the reader because it takes too long to read. For these
reasons, most summaries are between a quarter and a full page in length.
Writers are strongly urged to find out what the readers’ needs are before they
begin summarising any texts.
The length of the summary will depend on what needs to be summarised.
For example, say you need to summarise the investigation of an accident
that has no single cause, but there are twelve minor contributing causes. In
your summary you should include all twelve contributing causes in a long
summary covering one page.
If you need to summarise a report with only one conclusion and one
recommendation, you should write a short summary giving the conclusion
and recommendation, briefly including the key findings. This summary
should be about half a page in length.
If the original report is only two pages long, then a summary is not
necessary. However it would be helpful to give two sentences at the beginning
to tell the reader what the report is about.
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Précis
A précis is a summary that keeps the information in the same order as the
original text. You may remember writing these as a school exercise with a
fixed length (usually one third of the original). A précis also keeps the original
document’s proportion. For example, if half the report gives the findings and
only a quarter gives the conclusions and recommendations, then the précis
will keep to the same proportions.
Keep in mind that a summary, as opposed to a précis, may change the
order and the proportions of the original text, depending on the reader’s
needs and time. A précis is sometimes needed, but summaries are used for
most documents in business.
Your strategies for selecting information for your executive summary will
be different each time. For example, if you are summarising an evaluative
report, devote most of your space to summarising your conclusions and
recommendations. If you are summarising an important interim report,
devote most of your space to summarising the main facts.
Abstract
An abstract is like a précis in that it is a compressed version of the original, but
in the same order and proportion. There are two kinds of abstracts:
1. informative abstract (a full-length summary)
2. descriptive abstract (two or three sentences only).
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The informative abstract gives all the main points from the original whereas
the descriptive abstract is written to give the reader a brief idea of what is in
the original. While descriptive abstracts are usually from different documents,
summaries and synopses are always part of the original document.
Writers should use the words ‘Summary’, ‘Executive Summary’ or ‘Synopsis’
for business writing.
Purposes of a summary
Readers need summaries for four main reasons.
1. They help readers decide whether or not they need to read the original text.
2. They help readers to get to the main points quickly and reliably.
3. They inform readers of the purpose of the original document.
4. They remind readers of the key points in the original, which then helps
them to read the original more easily.
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Example
Vague style
Tighter ABC specifications on retail grade Flexit 501 require operational changes to improve
our product. High temperature oxidation tests have been performed. They have shown
improved results. However the oxidation jacket has to be changed before even higher
temperature tests may be made.
Note the use of ‘high’ and ‘even higher’. These words are too vague.
Informative, specific style
ABC specifications for retail grade Flexit 501 now restrict impurities to 3.2 ppm instead of
7.0 ppm. Oxidation tests at 180 °C improved purity. However the oxidation jacket has to be
changed before we are able to test at over 210 °C.
Note the use of exact figures.
Use short, simple and active sentences. Keep to the most familiar words.
Use the range of techniques given in Chapter 13 on readability. Make sure
however, that you do not write in a telegram style. Write full, formal sentences.
The example on the next page illustrates the difference between a telegram
style and a simple but active style of writing.
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Example
Telegram style
Box mobility poor with ‘soft-air’. Air cushion should be used, but system cannot adapt to air
pressure changes. Also problems with …
Short, simple, active style
Boxes cannot be moved easily with the ‘soft-air’ system. The air cushion system should be
used. However, this system cannot adapt to changes in air pressure. There are also some
problems with …
Figure 10.1 on the next page summarises the above two sections, that is, the
procedure for writing a summary and the style for writing a summary.
The following examples will illustrate the suggested step‑by‑step procedure
for writing a summary. Firstly, there is a box containing the original text with
the key sentences already underlined. Then an example on page 192 shows
the stages of writing the summary, which highlights the theme of the passage,
the key ideas and the readers’ needs. This is followed by how to write the topic
outline. Finally, on page 193 there is an example of three actual summaries
of the same text, but each has been written to different lengths, namely one‑
third, ten per cent and five per cent of the original length.
Original text
THREE FACTORS THAT LEAD TO GOOD INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN COMPANIES
Good communication in companies starts with effective interpersonal communication.
Management can devise the finest set of networks and organisational patterns. However, if the
people do not work well together these networks will fail. This essay describes three aspects of
interpersonal communication that are vital for good communication in companies. The first is
good listening, the second is sensitivity to non-verbal behaviour and the third is effective use of
language. In this essay each of them are discussed in turn.
Good listening, or active listening as it is sometimes called, is a mental and physical
process. It places demands on the listener’s ability to concentrate on the full message. Good
listeners should listen both for the facts and the emotions behind those facts. They should be as
sensitive as possible to the speaker’s non-verbal behaviour. They should show by the position of
their body that they are listening.
A good understanding of non-verbal behaviour is essential for effective interpersonal
communication. People should be particularly sensitive to the listener’s signs that he or she
wishes to join in the conversation. People should show that they are listening. They should
ensure that they keep good eye contact and should be aware of people’s space-needs.
The other side of good listening is good speaking. The effective use of language is the third
topic of this essay. Speakers should always use language that is simple and geared to the
listener’s needs. They should not be tempted to use difficult words to impress. All that they will
do is confuse the listener and destroy communication.
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Are all important points in the right order, proportion and emphasis? No
Yes Reread
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Example
Theme
In the previous example, the main theme of the passage is about good
interpersonal communication in companies, with the stress on good listening,
sensitivity to non-verbal communication and effective use of language.
Key ideas
The key ideas of this passage, which will form the topic outline (shown below), are
taken from each paragraph.
• Paragraph one: Good communication in companies starts with effective
interpersonal communication.
• Paragraph two: Good listening, or active listening, is a physical and mental
process.
• Paragraph three: A good understanding of non-verbal behaviour is essential for
effective interpersonal communication.
• Paragraph four: Speakers should use language effectively.
Readers’ needs
Remember that the reader needs to know the three key points within a few seconds.
These three key points therefore need to be emphasised and so should be placed
first in your topic outline.
With all this information, you will now be able to write your topic outline as
illustrated below.
Example
1. Good communication in companies
1.2 Effective interpersonal communication
1.2.1 Active listening
1.2.2 Sensitivity to non-verbal behaviour
1.2.3 Effective use of language
2 Active listening
2.1 Mental process
2.2 Physical process
3. Sensitivity to non-verbal communication
3.1 Sensitivity to listener’s signs
3.2 Show that you are listening
3.3 Effective use of eye contact
3.4 Sensitivity to people’s space-needs
4. Effective use of language
4.1 Use simple language
4.2 Avoid difficult words
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Example
One-third length
The target number of words is 100 or one-third the length of the original. The word
count includes the title.
EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN COMPANIES
Effective interpersonal communication in companies depends on active listening,
sensitivity to non-verbal communication and the use of simple language.
Active listening is a mental and a physical process. The listener should concentrate
on the speaker’s emotions, as well as the facts. People should show that they are
listening.
People should be sensitive to non-verbal signs. They should allow each other to
speak and should maintain good eye contact. They should also be sensitive to each
other’s space.
Finally, people should use simple language. They should avoid difficult words that
are hard to understand.
(100 words)
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Despite the differences in these different types of essays, they all share a basic
structure, which can be represented diagrammatically, as shown in Figure 10.2
on the next page.
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Introduction
Thesis Statement
Outline of main ideas in the essay
Signposts
Body
Paragraph 1:
Controlling idea/Topic sentence
Supporting ideas/sentences, eg, examples,
statistics, quotes, explanations, illustrations, etc.
Body
Paragraph 2:
Topic sentence
Supporting sentences
Body
Paragraph 3:
Topic sentence
Supporting sentences
Followed by other paragraphs if necessary
Conclusion
Restates thesis statement
Sums up main points of essay
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The first thing to do is to identify the direction words from your instruction.
Direction words are verbs/words that tell you how to write your essay. Here are
some examples:
• discuss: give details and/or outline positive or negative points
• illustrate: give examples to prove your argument
• criticise: examine the positive and negative aspects
• argue: persuade the reader that something is true.
The next step is to look at the content words, which let you know what information
you need to include in your essay. For example, if you were asked to ‘discuss
communication’, then you would give details and positive and negative points
about communication in general, as that is your content. However if the topic
said ‘communication in the workplace’, then your content would change to a
specific focus on communication in the business environment only.
Once you have divided your words into content and direction words you
should see which direction word applies to which content so that you define
the appropriate concepts and illustrate the correct points. You should also be
able to make sure of the order that the information should follow and how
much information to include for each point.
Example
As an example, say your topic was: ‘Discuss communication barriers in the
workplace and suggest several solutions. Illustrate your points.’
You could divide this as follows:
This tells you that your main section will focus on the discussion of
communication barriers in the workplace, where you give details and
examples of these barriers. This section will go first. The next section, which
would be shorter, would offer various solutions to the problems discussed
above. You would also give examples throughout the essay, highlighting the
particular barriers and solutions.
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Gather information
Once you have decided what information you require, you need to gather the
appropriate information. While we will not go into detail on how to do this in
this chapter, it is important that you select the most appropriate resources to
back up any statements that you make in your essay. Journal articles are often
the most reliable, but the information required will determine the source that
you use. Remember that web-based resources are usually not as reliable as
printed material, so ensure that you check your sources carefully before using
them. It is important to use valid and reliable information in business and
academic essays.
The introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to introduce or present the topic to the
reader and in a way it is another type of summary. To fulfil its function of
presenting the topic to a reader, it should follow these guidelines:
• It must have a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a sentence (or two) that
states what the essay is about and familiarises the reader with the main
points covered in the essay.
• It must state the writer’s point of view or argument.
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Therefore the introduction gives direction to your writing so that the reader
knows exactly what to expect.
The body
The body of an essay is made up of different paragraphs and explains in more
depth the statements made in the introduction. Each paragraph discusses
one main idea and is made up of different types of sentences.
• Topic sentences: These are usually but not always the first sentence in a
paragraph. They state the main idea of the paragraph.
• Supporting sentences: These support the main idea of a paragraph and
provide evidence and examples.
Each paragraph should lead neatly and logically towards your conclusion,
ultimately either proving or disproving your argument, or providing the
necessary information, depending on the purpose of your essay.
The conclusion
The purpose of a conclusion is to conclude or finish off the essay. The
conclusion should:
• sum up or briefly state the main points covered in the essay
• restate the writer’s point of view or argument
• not introduce new facts or information that did not appear in the body.
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not sure of your strengths and weaknesses, ask a friend, lecturer or trusted
colleague to go over your work with you. It is often difficult to see your own
mistakes and it is then useful to get an objective opinion.
In the evaluation of your essay, you need to go through it and correct
problem areas in terms of your content. This stage helps you to work
specifically on your content or arguments. Many people do not examine their
content closely enough once the first draft is written. It is important to make
sure that you do have the right arguments and that they correspond with the
topic of your essay.
One way of finding problem areas is to ask questions. By using these
questions to assess your work, you should be able to evaluate and improve
your work. If your answer is ‘No’ to any of these questions, then you need
to work on that problem. You may use the checklist below to check your
content, including the structure, language, grammar and the referencing of
your work. (We will discuss referencing in detail in Chapter 12.)
Once you are ready to present you final essay, ensure that you produce it
on suitable, formal paper and in an appropriate format.
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Conclusion
It is important to know how paragraphs can be arranged within a document
to create a structure that communicates your main ideas and message in
a way that is easy to read, follow and understand. The precise structure of
a document will vary depending on its nature, but it is always essential to
ensure that your documents follow a clear and logical structure. Keep in mind
that poorly structured essays will frustrate your reader and will consequently
reflect negatively on you.
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11
HOW TO APPROACH A CASE STUDY
Introduction
Case studies describe situations or incidents in organisations. These cases are
used to analyse problems in organisations so that people can learn how to
solve them. It is also useful to look at case studies so that we can learn from
past mistakes. This chapter covers the following aspects of case studies:
• what is a case study?
• critical reading
• how to approach a general case study where one major question is asked.
• how to approach a specific case study that focuses on an aspect of
communication.
Once these approaches are covered, a case will be presented and analysed.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• analyse a case effectively
• describe the background to a case
• identify the problems in the case that need to be solved
• identify what the organisation should do to solve the problems (this
statement is the key objective; there may be more than one objective)
• determine the possible courses of action that the organisation should take
to meet the objectives
• evaluate each course of action against the objectives
• identify the course of action that best meets the objectives
• write out the complete case, stating what the organisation should do.
Problem-solving procedure
The following problem-solving procedure is recommended for this type of case.
1. Make sure that you understand the background to the case. Ask yourself the
following questions:
a. What are the characteristics of this type of organisation or company?
b. How do people work together in this organisation?
c. Why do they work in this way?
d. What effects do people’s relationships have on the organisation?
2. Decide on the problems that have to be solved. Problems that seem obvious
may not be the real problems. Sometimes they are only the symptoms
of a deeper problem. Careful analysis is therefore necessary to find out
what the real problems are. For example, say that the obvious problem
in company X is that the sales and product development departments do
not cooperate. The real problem however is that the managers of these
departments have not been trained in effective problem-solving skills.
3. Once you have established the real problems, state the objectives necessary
to solve these problems. Objectives answer the question, ‘What should the
organisation do to solve the problems?’
4. An example of an objective is: ‘The managing director, in order to meet
the lack of problem-solving skills, should ensure that the two managers
are properly trained in these skills and that a mentoring programme is
introduced to develop the specific skills needed for them to function at an
optimal level within the organisation.’
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Example of a case
Please read the following case and the questions that follow. The questions
will be answered to give you an idea of how to approach this type of case.
THE INTERVIEW
Nomsu Motsepe had been interviewing job applicants for the trainee manager position
since 8.30 am. It was now 4 pm and she was looking forward to a short break before
the final interview of the day. She checked her schedule – Gavin Stephens, 4.30
pm. She decided to have coffee sent in to her office as she didn’t have time to go to
the canteen. Unfortunately, Gavin, who had lost his way, was 20 minutes late. As a
result the interview began with Nomsu feeling irritable and Gavin flustered.
Nomsu: Good afternoon, Mr Stephens. Take a seat.
Gavin: Thanks Mrs er Ms Mots … er …
Nomsu: MOTSEPE. Right. Let’s get started straight away. What made you
apply for this particular job, Mr Stephens?
Gavin shuffled in his seat and Nomsu noticed that he kept adjusting his tie.
Gavin: Sorry, I’m a bit hot after running here. Phew! Um … well, I’ve done a
management course at Tech and I … this ad said it was for a trainee
manager.
Nomsu: I see. Do you know anything about ABC Ltd.?
Gavin: Ja, don’t you make toys and that sort of stuff?
Nomsu: You could put it that way. Mr Stephens, we’re looking for someone
who can think creatively – do you have any hobbies or activities that
are creative at all?
Gavin: Um, not really. I surf in the summer … But I enjoy working with
people.
Nomsu: Can you give me any examples?
Gavin: What d’you mean?
Nomsu: Well, have you worked in a team, or perhaps organised a surfing
competition?
Gavin looked around the room for a few seconds. His gaze settled on Nomsu’s cup
of coffee.
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Nomsu: Right. Mr Stephens, we are hoping to fill this position by the end of
October. Would you be available then?
Gavin: Yes. I can’t wait to stop delivering pizzas.
Nomsu: Hmm. Well, I think that’s it. Is there anything you’d like to ask me
about the firm or the position?
Gavin: Er … is there a bar on the premises? I wouldn’t mind something
cool to drink.
(Nomsu rose briskly and extended her hand, which Gavin shook firmly.)
Questions
1. Analyse the factors that led to a poor start to the interview.
2. Analyse Mrs Motsepe’s interview. Did she run the interview properly?
Support your answer with examples from the case.
3. Analyse Gavin Stephens’ behaviour during the interview. Was he properly
prepared? Pay special attention to his answers. How should Gavin have
prepared better?
4. Analyse the types of questions that were asked.
5. Analyse Gavin Stephens’ non-verbal behaviour during the interview. How
should he have behaved?
6. Write about 200 words on how to prepare and conduct a good interview.
Answers to questions
1. The interview started badly because Mrs Motsepe had been interviewing
people all day. It seems as though she had not had much of a break all
day, so it is likely that she was tired. The case states that she did not have
enough time to go to the canteen. She must have been tired and hungry.
Gavin Stephens then arrived twenty minutes late because he lost his way.
He was flustered and Mrs Motsepe was irritated at the delay. These factors
meant that the interview did not start well.
2. Mrs Motsepe should have started by giving Mr Stephens an idea of the
objectives of the interview. She should then have given him some idea of
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the types of questions she would be asking. The interview should have been
taken through a set of stages:
a. setting Gavin Stephens at ease and welcoming him to the interview
b. preliminary negotiation
c. detailed negotiation
d. closure.
Mrs Motsepe was not able to move through these stages very well because
of Gavin Stephens’ poor answers. She did, however, try to negotiate with
Gavin Stephens by asking him:
• why he had applied for the position
• whether he knew anything about ABC Ltd.
• whether he had any creative hobbies
• whether he had worked in a team.
However, she did not go into enough detail at each stage. The questions
seem disjointed. At the end of the interview she should have told Gavin
what would happen next and by when he could expect to hear from them.
The interview was not well conducted because both parties were ill at ease
and not well prepared.
3. Gavin Stephens behaved poorly during the interview. He should have
ensured that he was on time for the interview. He should have checked
the directions and he should have left early to make provision for any
unforeseen circumstances, such as getting lost.
He was not properly prepared for the interview. He was also ill
at ease and did not pay attention to his non-verbal behaviour. His
first answer was vague, which was a clear indication that he had not
prepared fully for the interview. He did no research on the company,
he had not studied the job description and seemed vague about why
he wanted the job. His other answers were also vague and unhelpful.
At the end his inappropriate attempt at humour left a bad impression.
He created the impression that he was not serious about the position.
Gavin should have prepared by:
a. researching the company and finding out as much as possible about it
b. studying the job description carefully and matching it with his own
skills and experiences
c. preparing answers to anticipated questions
d. making sure where the company was situated so that he could find it
and arrive on time.
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Gavin should have answered boldly and fluently. He should have used
good eye contact and sat comfortably in his chair without shuffling. He
should have avoided fiddling with his tie.
6. Conducting a good interview
An interview can only be effective if both parties are well prepared. The
interviewer should start with getting a clear idea of the job description and
what the company is looking for. He or she should then clarify his or her
objectives for the interview and should have a prepared interview plan.
Once the interview has been planned, he or she should prepare a set of
open and closed questions based on the topics to be discussed and in line
with the needs of the company and job description.
Once the interviewee arrives, he or she should be welcomed and made
to feel at ease. The interviewer should explain the purposes of the interview
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and give some idea of the range of topics to be covered. The interview can
also be started with a clear job description.
The detailed negotiations should then begin. The interviewer should
encourage the interviewee to answer freely and openly. Open questions
should be used so that the interviewer can form an impression of the
interviewee and his or her experience and views. The interviewer should
use closed questions to get specific answers and finer detail.
The interviewer should bring the interview to a close by asking the
interviewee if he or she has any questions. The interviewer should then
close the interview by telling the interviewee what will happen next and
by when he or she can expect an answer from the company. (238 words)
Conclusion
Being able to analyse a case is a very important and useful skill in organisational
contexts. Approaching a case study requires you to read the information
presented about the incident critically. By asking certain questions you can
focus your reading and analyse the situation in greater depth. Because actual
events and practices are used in a case study, they can be linked to action
plans and the insight gained from these can be used to contribute to changing
practices in order to make the organisation more effective and efficient.
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12
REFERENCING
Introduction
The academic world and by implication the advancement of knowledge
thrives on ideas, arguments and different perspectives. What makes the
academic world different is that these ideas, arguments and perspectives need
to be scrutinised rigorously for them to be accepted as credible and believable.
In an academic environment, we need to find evidence and support for our
ideas through the process of research. However the research process is fairly
involved and we do not always have the time to test our ideas in a scientific
manner. An option is to draw on the research findings and ideas of others.
Therefore, if you want to write reports, business or academic proposals,
business plans and academic essays or articles that you want other people
to find credible, you may want to use other people’s ideas to support your
arguments.
If you do use other people’s ideas to support your arguments, however,
you need to acknowledge them by providing the details of the books,
articles and other sources where you found their ideas or research findings.
Acknowledging the work of others or using their ideas or research findings as
evidence to support your own arguments is called referencing or citation.
Referencing is also about educating yourself because, by reading the works
of others, you deepen your insight and in the process you develop informed
opinions and more sophisticated ways of thinking. Through referencing, you
demonstrate that you are well read and informed and that you have put in
the effort to educate yourself about the topic and can therefore form credible
arguments and opinions. Moreover, proper referencing is testimony to your
academic integrity.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the need for referencing
• avoid plagiarism
• paraphrase
• know the difference between primary and secondary sources
• know when you do not need to reference
• know the difference between credible academic sources and sources that
are unreliable.
There are five key reasons why you have to use references:
1. References give your work credibility because it shows that you have based
your work on expert opinions and that your arguments are supported by
scientific evidence.
2. Referencing shows that you have covered your field thoroughly and that
you have read widely in order to form an informed opinion.
3. If your sources are recent it shows that your reading is up-to-date.
4. It presents others with an opportunity to advance their own knowledge
because through referencing they can go back to the original source to
examine the evidence for themselves.
5. You demonstrate academic integrity because referencing helps you to avoid
plagiarism.
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Avoid plagiarism
Neville (2007:4) describes plagiarism in the academic world as a deliberate
decision by someone to not acknowledge the work of others or to blatantly
ignore the requirement to do so. Plagiarism is copying other people’s work
and presenting it as your own. But what is wrong with that? There are several
reasons why plagiarism is unethical and wrong.
• If you plagiarise, you are robbing yourself of an opportunity to learn and
develop the skills you will need later to succeed in your career or studies
because assignments are designed to help you to learn.
• By plagiarising, you deny yourself the opportunity to improve your skills
through honest feedback.
• You are committing fraud because you are ‘stealing’ from others.
• You build a negative reputation for yourself because others will see you as
dishonest and lacking integrity.
• You disrespect your peers who have put in the necessary effort and have
worked diligently to complete their assignments and you also denigrate
their hard work.
• You deny others the recognition they deserve through not acknowledging
their work.
• You misrepresent your own abilities and thereby mislead others.
There are several excuses people use for plagiarising. None of these excuses
are acceptable or excusable. Some of these excuses are:
• I am not a first-language English speaker so I cannot express myself
adequately in English.
• The quality of my work is so poor that I will never pass if I don’t plagiarise.
• It is the only way I can get good marks.
• I didn’t realise I was plagiarising.
• I did not plan my time well and ran out of time to complete my assignment.
• No one will know.
• My friend did not mind that I copied his or her work.
• I lost some sources or couldn’t remember where I found the material, so I
did not reference them.
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you acknowledge all your sources. Do not make yourself guilty of plagiarism
by omitting some of your sources or by copying other people’s work without
referencing them. Moreover, remember that you still need to reference even if
you have paraphrased or even synthesised other people’s work. You synthesise
work when you take the ideas of several authors and come up with your own
view based on all of their views. You can then make use of source integration
where you provide the references for all of the authors you used to come up
with your own idea. The following is an example of source integration:
Example
It needs to be emphasised that each person’s experience of reality and how a
relationship is defined are largely matters of perception. People are constantly
assigning meaning to and making sense of their experiences, and the meaning
assigned to an event is often influenced by communication among participants
(Arriaga, Reed, Goodfriend & Agnew, 2006:1046; Curran, 2002:581; Littlejohn &
Foss, 2008:113).
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Remember that when you make use of a direct quote you always need to
include the page number, unless it is an electronic source that has no page
numbers. However when you make use of a direct quote, you need to make
sure that it does not disrupt the flow of the rest of your writing. In order to
integrate direct quotes into the rest of your writing, you can either make the
quote part of the sentence or you can make use of a reporting verb followed
by a colon. For example:
• According to Neville (2007:4), plagiarism in the academic world can be
defined as ‘a deliberate decision by someone to not acknowledge the work
of others or to blatantly ignore the requirement to do so’.
• Plagiarism can be defined as: ‘a deliberate decision by someone to not
acknowledge the work of others or to blatantly ignore the requirement to
do so’ (Neville, 2007:4).
As a rule, a direct quote entails the exact words of the source from which it
is quoted, but sometimes we want to omit certain sections of the quote or
we need to insert words to provide the reader with some context. When we
omit something from a direct quote we make use of an ellipsis (three dots).
For example, Gottman (2001:80) points out that finding an ‘academic home’
for relationship studies is problematic, and he argues that ‘… for the field of
psychology as a whole it seems that the relationship is too big a unit of study’.
When we need to alter a certain section of a quote to make the meaning
clear, we add the additional words in square brackets. For example, Glenn
(1991:269) states that: ‘… many women who made such commitments [to
marriage] 20 to 30 years ago are the impoverished “displaced homemakers”
of today.’
We also use square brackets when we want to start a direct quote mid-
sentence and we need to change the first letter of a word from upper case
to lower case. For example, Littlejohn (1996:207) explains that ‘[T]he
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Paraphrasing
As previously mentioned, referencing gives your arguments validity and it is
consequently vital to include it in any form of writing where you are trying to
convince your reader to accept your argument. However, when you make use
of the work and research of others, it is essential to paraphrase. You paraphrase
when you state the work, words and ideas of someone else in your own words.
Please note, however, that even when paraphrasing, you still have to reference
the author, since the idea is still his or hers and not your own.
Paraphrasing not only helps you to avoid plagiarism, it also allows you
to structure your own work in a more logical way because you can integrate
other authors’ thoughts more fully into the structure of your writing. Through
paraphrasing you are also able to present your unique interpretation of
another author’s ideas. Paraphrasing involves putting other people’s ideas in
your own words, while keeping the same meaning.
Paraphrasing can also take on the form of a summary, where you reduce
an author’s ideas by highlighting only the key points in a discussion and
leaving out unnecessary or irrelevant details and examples. Even in cases
where you have left out substantial pieces of information, you still have to
cite the original source of the ideas that you have used.
Many students find the following process useful for summarising and
paraphrasing information:
1. Read the text several times: academic material is often complicated and it
is necessary, every so often, to read the same text several times before you
can fully comprehend what the author(s) is trying to convey. If the text is
full of academic jargon or other complicated words, terms, concepts and
theories with which you are not familiar, you may need to look up their
meanings first. You can make use of a dictionary and the Internet to help
you understand them. It is important to understand what you have read,
otherwise paraphrasing will be impossible.
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2. Identify the main points the author is making: in order to capture the essence
of someone else’s argument you first need to identify the main ideas
he or she is trying to make. You can highlight these main points with a
highlighter or, if it is not your own material, write down the main ideas or
type them in a word-processing program.
3. Consider how these points support or contradict the argument you want to
make: remember that you use the ideas of others for a purpose, mainly to
substantiate your own arguments. Get clarity about the structure of your
own assignment and make sure that you know how you want to structure
your own argument and how this information can be used to validate
your argument.
4. Try to determine what the attitude of the author is towards the topic: an author
can be critical, supportive or neutral or have any other attitude towards a
certain topic. It is useful to then write down some reporting verbs that can
be used to describe this attitude. For example, you can use words such as
‘maintains’, ‘states’, ‘proposes’, ‘asserts’, ‘declares’ and others to report an
author’s attitude.
5. Try to phrase the main points in a way that means approximately the same as the
original idea: also keep in mind that if subject-specific academic jargon is
used, you do not have to change it and you can acknowledge it by making
use of inverted commas.
6. Without returning to the original text, write down the main ideas in your own
words and link it logically to your own argument: the only way in which you
will be able to maintain a logical flow in your essay or assignment is to
link all your ideas in a consistent and coherent manner – and you will
only be able to do this if you write everything in your own words.
7. Reread the original text to ensure that you have retained the intended meaning:
compare what you have written to the original text and make sure that you
did not distort the original meaning. Once you are satisfied that you have
interpreted the meaning correctly, remember to reference the source.
Using synonyms
To paraphrase a text you can use a variety of techniques, such as synonymous
words, synonymous word forms or synonymous phrases. In the example on
the next page, the student has used synonymous word forms (scanners –
scanner; use – using) in bold; synonymous words (convert – recreates) in bold
italics; and synonymous phrases (their ‘eyes’ – the scanner’s eyes) in italics.
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Example
Look at the following examples which show the use of synonyms to paraphrase.
Original source:
scanners convert analogue data into digital information... scanners use
small electronic components (called CCDs, PMTs, or CISs) as their ‘eyes’...
Student text:
A scanner recreates an image, such as a graphic, using small electronic
components referred to as the scanner’s eyes...
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Example
Original source:
Scanners convert analogue data into digital information.
Paraphrased sentence:
The conversion of an image, such as a graphic, by a scanner occurs.
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Journal articles
Record details of a journal article as follows:
• author(s) (initial(s) and then surname)
• title of article
• name of journal (underlined or in italics)
• volume and issue number of the journal
• date of the volume or issue
• page numbers of the relevant pages in the article
• page numbers of the first and last pages of the article.
Example
Electronic sources
Record details of electronic sources as follows:
• author(s) or editor(s) (initial(s) and then surname)
• title of page
• title of site
• copyright date or the date the page was last updated
• full Internet address of page(s)
• date you accessed the source
• any other relevant information pertaining to the page or website.
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Example
A reference in a document would be written as follows. Note the superscript
numbers 1 and 2 in the text.
Smith and Jones refer to the following communication problems in
organisations.1 However, Anderson describes the same problems in different
terms.2
These numbers must be referred to in two ways:
a. in a list of references (order of appearance)
b. in a bibliography (alphabetical order of surname).
List of References
1. Smith, J. and Jones, L. 1985. Communication in organizations. New York:
ABC Publishers. p.6.
2. Anderson, P. 1990. Classifying communication problems in organisations.
Journal of Business, 3(2). p.50.
Bibliography
Anderson, P. 1990. Classifying communication problems in organisations.
Journal of Business, 3(2): 48–56.
Smith, J. and Jones, L. 1985. Communication in organizations. New York:
ABC Publishers.
Note the different page references in the examples. Also note that the
bibliography provides the first and last pages of the article.
Referencing systems
Something that students often find confusing is that there are a great number
of referencing styles in usage and all of them have different yet consistent
rules. What is important is that, although the style may differ from system
to system, the referencing style needs to be used consistently throughout the
text. In other words, you cannot mix different referencing styles in the same
piece of work.
The Harvard referencing style is one of the most commonly used referencing
styles although even this system has considerable variations in it.
Harvard style
The Harvard style uses shortened references in brackets in the text. A list of
references is not necessary (as in the numbering example above). All the works
referred to are listed in a reference appendix or bibliography at the end. These
entries are in alphabetical order of surname. Please note that this method is
also called the ‘author–date’ method.
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Example
Smith and Jones refer to the following communication problems in organisations
(Smith & Jones, 1985, p.6). However, Anderson describes the same problems in
different terms (Anderson, 1990, p.50).
Reference list
Anderson, P. 1990. Classifying communication problems in organisations. Journal of
Business, 3(2): 48–56.
Smith, J. and Jones, L. 1985. Communication in organizations. New York: ABC
Publishers.
Please note: A reference list refers only to those works that you have referred to in
your message. If you have used other work, but not referred to it, then use the word
bibliography. Then list all the works that you have read.
Example
Citing a book with more than one author
Bok, JJ, Ehlers, K and Mpetha, L. 2003. New approaches to management. Durban:
S.J. Press.
A book produced by editors
Johannes, P. and Smit, B. (eds.). 2002. Transformational leadership. Cape Town:
ABC Press.
An edition of a book that is not the first edition
Molefe, JJ. 2002. Intercultural aspects of transformation. 3rd edition. Johannesburg:
Eagle Press.
A section or chapter in a book
Baker, A. 2002. Specifics of transformational leadership, in Leadership theory,
2nd edition, edited by J. Thomas. London: Triangle Press: pp.80–91.
Citing a conference paper published in proceedings
Moll, K. 2004. An investigation into non-verbal aspects of transformation:
preliminary findings, Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Transformation,
1–3 July. Durban, pp. 20–35.
Citing an unpublished thesis or an interview
Venter, J. 2003. A comparison of transactional and transformational leadership styles
in a simulated environment. University of Cape Town: Unpublished Ph.D thesis.
Poole, E. 2003. Working for transformation in the workplace. [Personal interview,
1 June], University of Cape Town: Unpublished.
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According to Du Toit (2013) one can ask the following questions to determine
whether an Internet source is a reputable source:
• Does the work appear to be well researched?
• Is the information linked to an original source?
• Is there a bibliography or are links given to other helpful sites?
• Is the information current? When was the last time it was updated?
• Does the site appear to be biased?
• Has the site been rated by any reputable groups?
• What are the goals of the site? To provide information or to advertise?
• Who is the target audience?
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You need to set out all of these so that your readers can go back to your original
sources. Using the concept of Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), you will be
able to give specific locations for your source materials.
Example
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223
224
Alphabetising references
All the sources that appear in either a bibliography or reference list must
always be in alphabetical order. Never number your references and do
not use any bullets in your reference list. We use the authors’ surnames to
arrange them in alphabetical order, not their names or initials. Surnames are
alphabetised as they are used, even the more complex surnames that include
articles or prepositions. For example, De la Ray, De Saussure, Du Plessis and
Van der Walt, not Plessis, Ray, Saussure and Walt.
If you made use of several works from the same author and some of them
have been published in the same year, you can distinguish them from each
other by adding lower case letters after the year.
Example
Johnson, JL. 1996a. Art and the student. 3rd edition. Oxford, Miller Publishing.
Johnson, JL. 1996b. Postmodern art. Oxford: Miller Publishing.
The in-text reference for these sources will look as follows: In a study by Johnson
(1996a, p.30), he states that…
Also, if you use different works from the same author but published in
different years, you list these sources in chronological order from the earliest
to the latest publication.
Example
Smith, T. 2009. The beauty of art. London: City Publishing House.
Smith, T. 2010. The beauty of art. 2nd edition. London: City Publishing House.
Also note that you cannot use ‘et al’ in a bibliography or reference list, you can
only use it in in-text referencing. Please note however that the first time you
use a source with more than two authors, you need to reference all the authors
and thereafter you can use the name of the first author followed by et al.
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Example
Due to the strong links between intimate relationship functioning and a wide range of
outcomes for adults and children, researchers and policy makers have increasingly
recognised that people’s desire for happy and satisfying relationships has important
public health consequences (Markman, Stanley & Kline, 2003:16). As a result,
there is an aspiration among policy makers across many nations to implement
programmes to help couples – especially those at high risk of marital problems –
achieve satisfying relationship and family stability (Markman et al, 2003:16).
In the bibliography or reference, however, you must again provide the details of all
the others:
Markman, HJ, Stanley, SM & Kline, GH. 2003. Why marriage education can work and
how government can be involved: illustrations from the PREP approach, in Vision
2003: contemporary family issues, edited by WD Allen & LL Eiklenborg. Minneapolis,
MN: National Council on Family Relations: 16–23.
Conclusion
In order to be successful in your academic studies, you need good reading,
thinking and writing skills. However, one of the most important skills you need
to acquire is how to avoid plagiarism. This can be done through paraphrasing
and good referencing skills. You may also make use of the electronic plagiarism
detection service Turnitin.com® to help you avoid plagiarism.
If you apply your referencing skills correctly it will contribute significantly
to your academic and business integrity. It will also enhance the quality of
your work and, if you are studying, it will help you to achieve higher marks
and deepen your knowledge of your particular field of study.
On the following page you will find some useful abbreviations and their
meanings, as well as a brief list of Latin and Greek forms of singular and
plural words that are commonly used in academic and business writing.
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SINGULAR PLURAL
analysis analyses
criterion criteria
datum data
medium media
phenomenon phenomena
hypothesis hypotheses
locus loci
spectrum spectra
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13
THE ELEMENTS OF READABILITY
Introduction
Readability refers to the ease with which readers are able to read and interpret
a written message. It includes all the elements in a text that help readers to
cope with that text. This chapter stresses that we are now in an extremely
visual and multicultural age. Written messages have to look visually attractive
to both gain and maintain people’s attention and they also need to be easily
understood by a variety of cultures. Because readers differ in their reading
abilities and interests, it is up to the writer to ensure that a message is presented
in the most appropriate and appealing manner.
Writers need to cater for these needs if they want their messages to be
successful. This chapter will deal with the following facets of readability:
• the needs of the reader and writer
• techniques for catering for readers
• readability indices
• calculating the Gunning Fog Index.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the needs of the reader and writer in written messages
• use a range of readability techniques to help you present effective messages
• list items effectively
• use your word-processing program to identify the readability statistics of
your messages
• calculate a Gunning Fog Index for your message
• write your message to specific readership levels so that they match the
reading levels of your readers.
Vocabulary techniques
• Choose a vocabulary suited to your audience.
• Explain difficult words by defining them in an appropriate spot on the page.
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Layout techniques
• Use correct punctuation to help your readers understand your message.
• Use headings as signposts.
• Print selected important points in bold where you want to attract attention.
• Put appropriate sections of your messages in frames to attract attention.
• Use a multiple decimal numbering system.
• Use short, bulleted lists where appropriate.
Other techniques
• Indent sub-sections to show different levels of importance.
• Choose fonts carefully. Serif fonts are often chosen for readability, which
refers to writing that is not only easy to read but also interesting and
pleasurable. Sans-serif fonts on the other hand are said to be suitable
for legibility, which refers to how easy it is to decipher the actual writing.
This is similar to deciphering people’s handwriting. It is easy to decipher
the handwriting of some people, while it is very difficult to decipher the
handwriting of other people. For these reasons, choose:
• appropriately sized serif fonts such as Garamond or Georgia (size 11)
for print
• appropriately sized sans-serif fonts such as Arial (size 12) or Verdana
(size 10) for online messages like emails.
• Use a high percentage of white space (uncovered space on your page) to
ensure visual variety on your pages.
• Reduce your readers’ eye-span by printing in double columns. (If you are
unable to print in columns, then set your margins to about 3cm wide on
each side.)
• Use colour to attract your reader’s attention.
• Choose paper of appropriate quality if you are writing for print. Plain,
high-quality paper of above 170gsm is considered professional, depending
on what you are printing. Do not use ‘pretty’ paper with busy watermarks
or pictures.
• For longer messages, such as reports, writers should ensure that:
• the cover is attractive
• the Title Page is well set out
• the Table of Contents is comprehensive and well set out
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• graphics are properly integrated into the report. They should be functional
and included in a report only when their content is being discussed;
never include a graphic or image just for the sake of including an image.
• when graphics are introduced, they should be analysed so that the
reader knows how to interpret them.
• key points in any graphic should be highlighted.
It should be clear from these techniques that writing is both a verbal and a
non-verbal activity. It relies on the manner of presentation as much as the
content of the message itself. We will now discuss the use of multiple decimal
numbering and the use of lists in your writing. When used effectively, both
methods will help to make your messages more readable.
Example
The following example illustrates a multiple decimal outline with bold headings.
Using lists
You will have noticed that this book uses bulleted lists to convey important
information in an abbreviated way. This is because lists are very effective and
generally easier to read and remember than prose, but writers should present
them carefully:
• all lists should be introduced
• list items should follow logically and grammatically from the introduction
• list items should all follow the same grammatical (parallel) structure
• long lists should be avoided, with six items being at the upper-limit
• sub-headings should be used to break up longer lists
• lists should not be overused – they highlight important points only, so
mix them with paragraphs that use full sentences and graphic formats
such as tables and graphics.
Example 1
The Personnel Department should ensure that all new staff are:
• given an induction course
• introduced to their colleagues in their departments.
Example 2
The following list is incorrect.
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Example 3
The following example illustrates the potential for a list.
All new staff should be inducted in three phases. In the first phase they are
introduced into the company. The second phase is the introduction to the
department. The third phase is specific training for their jobs.
Although there are a number of ways to write this, it could be rewritten as
follows:
All new staff should be inducted in three phases:
• Phase one: Introduction to the company.
• Phase two: Introduction to the Department.
• Phase three: Specific training for their jobs.
In the example above, the use of the list improves readability by reducing repetitious
phrases and neatly summarising similar ideas into a more manageable format.
We will now take a brief look at some readability indices, which are valuable
tools for determining how easy or difficult a message is to read.
Readability indices
Readability indices are used to calculate the ease of readability and the grade
level of messages. For example, a message that would be easy for most South
Africans to read might have a readability score of 75 and a grade level score
of 6. In other words, a person in South Africa who has completed Grade 6
should easily understand the piece of writing.
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Once your word-processing program has completed its spelling and grammar
check, it will pop up a box that displays information about the readability
level of your message. Examine the screenshot below and then note the
analysis that follows.
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The table below describes the various Flesch Reading Ease Score categories,
which you may use as a guide when planning and editing your messages for
the selected audiences. Examples have been provided to help you understand
the levels of writing.
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This process is not as difficult to master as it may sound. Let us use an example
to demonstrate.
236
Example
The Fog Index of the following passage is calculated as follows.
When you write messages, you should target your message to the lowest level
of potential readers. However, please do not rely on the index as the sole
guide to readability. Make sure that you understand your audience’s needs
and that you have used a range of readability techniques, as discussed earlier
in this chapter.
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If you have to write technical messages, then you may have to use more
technical words. These are often three syllables or more. In technical writing,
aim at:
• an average of 15 words per sentence
• no more than 15% long words.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we examined the concept of readability and provided some
valuable tools with which to plan, analyse and improve your business
messages for your intended audience. At this stage, you should feel
comfortable using computer software readability statistics and your own
Gunning Fog Index calculations in order to adapt your writing appropriately
to your target audience.
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14
PLANNING, ORGANISING AND CONSTRUCTING
MESSAGES FOR ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Messages are integral to the effective running of any business. On a daily basis
you will be communicating with other people via email, letter or memo. It is
important that the messages you create in your communications are planned
and formatted properly. This will make sure that you are understood and that
you get a valid and appropriate response to your communication. The way
in which these messages are created and the formats for the different types of
messages are discussed in this chapter. Emails, letters and memos are explained
and the appropriate format for each is given in detail so that all your future
written communication is professional. Before you can type a message, however,
you need to know what you are going to say; this chapter offers suggestions on
how to brainstorm, plan and then structure your ideas.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the importance of the structure of a message
• construct a well-planned message suitable for different audiences
and media
• explain the elements and structure of a business letter
• compile an effective:
• business letter
• memo
• email.
The audience
Every message that you ever produce will be aimed at a particular audience
that you are trying to reach. This is called a target audience. When you speak
to a friend your style, tone and message will be different to when you address
a Professor at a university or a manager in your work environment. You will
always need to adjust your messages according to your target audience. Just as
your personal messages will always be aimed at a specific target audience, so
too will your business messages. It may be an internal message, which would
be to people within the organisation or it could be external communication,
which is to people outside your organisation. However, people outside your
organisation will be segmented because they will all come from different
demographic backgrounds, such as age, race and income group, to name a
few. Communicating with different demographics means that your messages
will need to be targeted at different groups and so will need to differ in order
to align with the wants and needs of each target audience. Therefore it is
always important to know your audience before you even plan and organise
your message.
Brainstorming
One of the best-known techniques for stimulating creativity is brainstorming.
The purpose of brainstorming is to enhance creativity through group
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discussion. Certain rules are enforced to permit all group members to express
their ideas and to reduce critical evaluations that might inhibit creativity
(Arnold & Feldman, 1986:408).
Most of us are familiar with brainstorming from our schooling, when we
had to draw spider diagrams for comprehension. Brainstorming allows one
to think creatively or ‘out of the box’. It is used to generate fresh, innovative
ideas for events. Just remember that the idea has to be ‘do-able’. Once the
brainstorming session is over, ideas are sifted through and the ones that are
not in line with the event or organisation’s objectives are removed. Through
a process of elimination from least to most important, a final, useable idea
should emerge.
Generating ideas
Well-known advertising executive, Leo Burnett, defines creativity as ‘the art of
establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously unrelated
things […] which somehow present the product in a fresh, new light’ (Bendinger,
2009:136–137).
Life happens around us every day – so there is generally no shortage of
subject matter but the real task of the writer is to take these creative ideas
from your mind and to put them onto paper.
Planning information
Once you have gathered your ideas you will need to obtain information on
your selected idea and then you need to organise it.
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This approach will ensure that you use all your key ideas.
Figure 14.1 illustrates a creative pattern or mind map. Note that each idea
is connected. Continue this process until you have reflected the content of
your notes. Then check that each group of ideas fits together. Move ideas into
other groups.
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advertisement for a billboard, you would use a different style and tone to
that of writing a press release for a newspaper. The choice of medium is also
very important and depends on who the target audience is. If your target
audience for example is 70-year-old retired people, it would not be a good
medium selection to communicate via Twitter. All messages, regardless of
style, context and medium, should be clear in their messaging.
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This section therefore covers the following aspects of writing business letters:
• planning letters
• writing in an appropriate style
• achieving the right tone
• making letters readable
• formats for letters
• writing bad-news letters
• writing different kinds of letters.
Planning letters
Anyone writing a business letter should go through the following steps.
Purposes of letters
Letters are written to:
• give facts
• ask for information
• persuade
• complain
• get action
• generate goodwill.
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A business letter may have several different purposes. Writers therefore need
to be skilled in planning and writing to achieve these purposes.
Audience
Writers should analyse the needs of their readers very carefully. The letter
should not only cater for the reader’s emotional need to be treated in a friendly
way, but also the reader’s needs for information and to get action. The letter
should also be clearly written in language that the reader can understand.
Strategising letters
A letter should be so well planned that the reader is able to follow the letter
from beginning to end. The ideas should flow logically with good transitions
between paragraphs. Sentences should flow evenly from one into the next.
Letters should be unified, coherent and have the right emphasis. If a letter has
to contain a number of topics, then the reader should be prepared for these.
The example below shows how this could be done.
Note how the writer has used the subject-line, the opening paragraph and
separate headings to guide the reader.
Example
Note that this letter has been shortened.
Dear Ms Magaba
SALE OF CLOTHING – COLOURS, PATTERNS
AND SIZES
Thank you for your letter of 20 July. We are very
happy to sell the clothes that you offered us.
We would, however, like to negotiate on three
aspects of the sale:
• colours of dresses
• patterns available Specific headings used
• sizes available.
Colours of Dresses
...
Three topics of the letter
Patterns Available
given here
...
Sizes Available
...
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Example
The undersigned is of the opinion that no good will eventuate from the aforesaid
proposition regarding the implementation of the IMC. It is therefore proposed that
postponement of a decision be regarded as imperative.
This could be rewritten as follows:
I am not happy about your proposal to implement the integrated marketing
campaign. I therefore urge you to delay a decision.
246
Your clerk must have misunderstood our Our list of instructions stressed that …
instructions …
You failed to sign the attached form. The attached form was sent to us
unsigned. (Note the use of the passive
here.)
Example
247
Example
248
• Salutation: This is the standard opening of the letter, which greets the
person named in the address. If a post is named, then use ‘Dear Sir’ or
‘Dear Madam’. If you are unsure who the letter’s recipient will be, use the
phrase ‘To whom it may concern’. But use this sparingly. Rather try and
get the name of someone to whom you can address the letter, as this will
also ensure that you have someone to contact if a response to your letter
is delayed.
• Subject-line: This is a heading that gives the subject of the letter and is
placed after the salutation. It is essential to have this heading. It should
be typed in bold capitals and underlined. The subject-line should always
stand out from the letter.
• Body of the letter: This includes the following:
• the opening paragraph that gives the subject of the letter
• the middle paragraphs that develop the letter
• the closing paragraph that summarises, stresses action to be taken and
generates goodwill.
• Complimentary closing: The complimentary closing should be ‘Yours sincerely’
if someone has been named. However if ‘Dear Sir(s)’ or ‘Dear Madam’ has
been used then the letter should end with ‘Yours faithfully’.
• Signature: The sender signs his or her name above his or her typed name.
• Typed name: This gives the initials and name of the sender, followed by his
or her position in the company. If the sender does not indicate otherwise,
the reader will assume that the sender is a man. It is very important that
senders state how they wish to be addressed. For example, a woman might
wish to be addressed as ‘Ms’, ‘Miss’ or ‘Mrs’. Senders might have special
titles such as ‘Dr’ or ‘Prof.’ and these should be shown after the typed name.
• Reference to item(s) enclosed: The term ‘Encl.’ is used to show that documents
(or more) have been enclosed with the letter. It is useful as a record that
other documents have been sent.
• Initials of sender and typist: The initials of the sender normally appear first
in capitals followed by the initials of the typist in small letters.
• Presentation of letter: Letters should be typed on good quality bond paper.
The quality of the paper is very important for creating a good impression.
Attention-line
Some letters have an attention-line. These letters should be written as shown
in the example on the following page:
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Example
Opening paragraph
This paragraph should be short and should:
• tell the reader immediately what the letter is about
• summarise key points
• establish goodwill through its tone
• be written with short sentences and a simple vocabulary
• be written to give the reader a good first impression.
Middle paragraphs
These paragraphs should:
• be short and written in a clear, simple style
• be very well set out, using a range of techniques, such as headings and lists,
to make them as readable as possible
• have short sentences
• develop the letter logically, giving the necessary facts.
Final paragraph
This is a very important paragraph. It should:
• be written clearly and simply
• be written with an effective tone to generate goodwill
• summarise key issues
• state what the reader should do next
• state what the writer will do next
• leave a good final impression.
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The following example shows a letter that has been written according to all
the principles described.
Example
251
Writers of bad-news letters should always try to keep the goodwill of the
readers even though these readers receive bad news.
THANKS THANKS
Thank you for your application for this Thank you for your application for this
post. We appreciate your interest in post. We appreciate your interest in
joining our company. joining our company.
REGRET REASON
We find your qualifications and Our company has decided to promote
experience most impressive. However, internally for the next year …
we regret that we do not have any vacant
posts at the moment. REGRET
We find your qualifications and
REASON experience most impressive. However,
Our company has decided to promote we regret that, because of the above
internally for the next year … reason, we do not have any vacant posts
at the moment.
THANKS
Thank you for your interest in our THANKS
company. Thank you for your interest in our
company.
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• Middle of letter: This part should give exact details, preferably in a list.
• Final paragraph: Generate goodwill by thanking the reader and reinforcing
the action asked for at the beginning of the letter.
Example
Example
• Middle of letter:
• Give exact answers, point-by-point.
• If you are enclosing price lists or any other messages, refer to them.
• If you cannot meet with any request, say so and express regret in the
middle of the letter. Always try to be as helpful as possible. Say why you
cannot give any missing information.
• Final paragraph: Invite the writer to ask for any help or information he or
she may need. Use this paragraph to generate goodwill.
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Example
255
Refusals to requests
Sometimes a request has to be refused. Writers should treat this type of letter
as a bad-news letter, which is covered in detail earlier in this chapter. It takes a
good deal of care to refuse a request without losing the goodwill of the reader.
The plan for a refusal letter should be as follows:
• Subject-line: This should be neutral. It should not give the bad news.
• Opening paragraph: The inquirer should be made to feel welcome.
• Middle paragraphs:
• The situation should be reviewed.
• The request should be refused.
• Final paragraph:
• The writer should suggest other possible sources of information to
clarify the refusal or other companies that may be able to assist with
the request.
• The writer ends with a friendly closing. This is usually an offer of service
in other areas in the future.
Example
25 September 20__
Mr J. Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba
ENQUIRY ABOUT BULK SUPPLIES OF RICE
Clear opening style Thank you for your letter of 20 September, inquiring about
bulk supplies of our rice.
Since our telephone conversation on 20 September the
situation has changed. We have received a fax from our
agents in Malaysia stating that regular supplies of rice
cannot be guaranteed for the next six months because of
poor rains.
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Example
Bad news given in We very much regret, therefore, that we cannot guarantee
middle paragraphs supplies of rice for the next year.
Goodwill and We shall, however, do our utmost to send you the quantities
service stressed of rice that you have ordered. We will continue to offer our
very best service in the supply of dried foods, as we have in
the past.
Yours sincerely
J. SINGH (MRS)
SALES MANAGER
JS/mb
• Final paragraph:
• A motivation to the reader to take the desired action.
• A statement of what the writer considers to be fair action.
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Example
30 October 20__
Mrs J. Singh
The Sales Manager
Food Supplies Ltd.
53 Eighth Street
JAMESTOWN
9983
Dear Mrs Singh
Sharply focused BROKEN 5 kg BAGS OF RICE: INVOICE 2568, 25 OCTOBER
heading
Friendly opening Thank you for your prompt delivery of our first two orders of
brown rice. The rice was of very good quality.
A statement of However, the third order arrived with three broken bags. As
the problem a result, we had to buy extra rice at nearly twice the price.
DETAILS OF ORDER
Exact details The details of the order are as follows:
given in a list Date of order: 22 October
Date of delivery: 25 October
Invoice Number: 2568
Delivery Lorry: Number 3
Driver: Mr K. Bhana
Number of bags delivered: Five
Number of bags found broken: Three
BREAKAGE DURING PACKING AND DELIVERY
The three broken bags seem to have been broken during
packing or delivery. We take the greatest care when we
unpack our food consignments and our unpackers state
that they found the bags broken.
Exact request made Since we did not break the three bags, we should be
and goodwill kept grateful if you would replace them when you send our next
order.
Yours sincerely,
J. SIMBA
CATERING MANAGER
JS/ab
258
Letters of adjustment
These letters are replies to letters of complaint. They are either good-news
or bad-news letters. They should be written to generate as much goodwill as
possible.
• Middle paragraphs:
• The reader should be told exactly what steps will be taken to solve
the problem.
• If the reader has to take certain steps as well, then these should
be explained.
• Final paragraph:
• The writer should again express concern.
• The writer closes by expressing goodwill and a desire to continue
offering a service.
Example
5 November 20__
Mr J Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba
Exact heading BROKEN 5 kg BAGS OF RICE: INVOICE 2568, 25 OCTOBER
Concern expressed Thank you for your letter of 30 October. I am most concerned
that three of our bags of rice arrived broken. I am also
Writer maintains concerned at the inconvenience and loss that you suffered.
goodwill
259
Example
• Middle paragraphs:
• The writer reviews the problem.
• The writer refuses or partly refuses the adjustment.
• Final paragraph: The writer expresses goodwill and tries to maintain a good
relationship with the complainant.
260
Example
5 November 20__
Mr J. Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba
BROKEN 5 kg BAGS OF RICE: INVOICE 2568, 25 OCTOBER
Goodwill and concern Thank you for your letter of 30 October. I am most concerned
expressed that three of our bags of rice arrived broken. I am also
concerned at the inconvenience and loss that you suffered.
CAREFUL PACKAGING
Report back to reader I have checked with our packers and quality control
supervisor. They report that all the rice was very carefully
packed in plastic bags and then into our special delivery
boxes. Our plastic bags are extra thick to withstand all
bumps during delivery.
I can only assume that the bags were broken when they
were unpacked.
Bad news I, therefore, regret that I cannot meet your request for a
replacement of the three broken bags. However, as a gesture
of goodwill, I shall be sending you a 5-kg bag of our finest
brown rice.
Goodwill maintained We shall continue to offer you the very best products and
packaging at the lowest prices.
Yours sincerely,
J. SINGH (MRS)
SALES MANAGER
JS/mb
261
Note
Bad-news letters are difficult to write. Writers should keep their language neutral or positive
rather than negative. They should never suggest that the person complaining has been careless.
Writers should avoid the following expressions since they put the reader in the wrong:
◗ You failed to read the instructions.
◗ You claim that we packed the goods badly.
◗ We fail to understand why you neglected to sign the form.
◗ You must sign the form immediately and send it to us.
Writing bad-news letters was covered in detail earlier in this chapter (see page 252).
• Middle paragraphs:
• These paragraphs should expand on details already given.
• They should be very well set out.
• The writer should use the following readability techniques to attract the
reader’s attention:
– the name of the product in CAPITAL LETTERS
– repetition of product name
– headings
– lists
– short sentences
– short paragraphs.
• Final paragraph:
• This should urge action, for example by referring to a reply-paid card.
• To make it easy for the reader to contact you, the letter should also give
easy contact details, such as telephone, toll-free or fax numbers or an
email address.
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Example
RUSTPROOFERS
12 Cross Street, Cape Town
Tel: (021) 345678 Fax: (021) 345679
Dear Customer
RUSTPROOF: A PRODUCT THAT STOPS RUST IN ITS TRACKS
How many rusty cars have you seen round Cape Town? Is your car rusting away and
losing value? RUSTPROOF will stop rust in its tracks – all for R100.
WHAT WILL RUSTPROOF DO FOR YOU?
• RUSTPROOF has been tested in the worst weather conditions. It cannot be
beaten.
• RUSTPROOF binds with the rust and stops it right there!
• RUSTPROOF can be polished.
Consider this:
• No primer
• No expensive spraying equipment
• Paint on and leave to dry
• Dries in 10 minutes
• Duco finish
• Thirty colours to choose from.
HOW CAN YOU GET RUSTPROOF?
Fill in the attached card and post it to us. We’ll do the rest.
If you prefer, call us toll-free on 080 3456. Our highly trained consultants will give
you free advice on rust-proofing your car.
Remember – RUSTPROOF.
Yours sincerely,
J. Davis
MANAGER
Letters of invitation
When organisations hold functions to which guests are invited, they send out
formal invitations.
263
• the time
• the dress code (where relevant)
• an address and telephone number for responding.
Example 1
264
Example 2
ACE CATERING COMPANY
28 Third Street, Townsville 4568
Tel: (031) 58 6312 Fax: (031) 58 6313
THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF ACE CATERING COMPANY
request the pleasure of your company at a display of their new catering facilities
On 3 DECEMBER 2003
At THE COMPANY’S SHOWROOMS
28 Third Street, Townsville
Time 18h00
R.S.V.P. by 1 December 20__
Ms. K. Bhawa
P.O. Box 85, Townsville 4568
Telephone: (031) 58 6312
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Memoranda
Memoranda, often called memos, are messages written inside organisations.
They are organised like letters but vary a great deal in formality. They may
also be set out as reports with numbered headings.
Format of a memorandum
The format of a memorandum is totally different from that of a letter. Many
companies have standard printed memorandum forms. If staff do not have
such forms they usually create their own. The form below illustrates the
format for a memorandum.
Example
NAME OF COMPANY
MEMORANDUM
TO:
DATE:
COPIES TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
266
Example
267
268
Computer-based workstations
In most organisations, computers have been installed on every employee’s
desk. Each desk therefore becomes a workstation that is set up with either
a desktop computer or a laptop. The laptop option is more often used for
employees who are required to work in the office and when travelling.
The desktop or laptop computer will then be connected to ‘server’ systems.
These server systems:
• store the organisation’s documents
• send, receive and store email messages
• process the organisation’s data, such as finance data.
Employees will have varying access to the server in order to store and receive
information. This will be dependent on the employee’s job description and
job requirements.
Computer workstations are extremely versatile because of the many
software programs that are now available. These programs allow staff to
perform sophisticated activities that only experts could do a few years ago.
Documents can be edited, images manipulated, presentations developed,
payroll and finances tracked, stock monitored, brochures, advertisements
and posters created – and these are only a few of the different tasks that can
be undertaken on computers. All that is required is the right software and the
skills to use that software.
For example, computers enable companies to publish documents that are
professional in layout and appearance. This is called desktop publishing. By
combining words and graphics, individuals are able to design and produce
a range of excellent newsletters, catalogues and reports. The computer screen
allows the designer to lay out blocks of text, headlines and diagrams so that
he or she can see exactly what will be printed.
Electronic networks
Workstations may be interconnected using an electronic network known
as a Local Area Network (LAN). The connections are made physically using
Ethernet cables or wirelessly using Wi-Fi. The size and complexity of the
network depends on the size and needs of the organisation. Networks may
have centralised server systems providing services to end-user workstations.
The workstations access these central server systems via the LAN, enabling
them to store data centrally and access the centralised network services, such
as email and the Internet.
269
Also connected to the LAN will be the office printers. Often companies
will purchase large multi-functional printers that workstations share. These
large printers allow users to scan, copy, print, fax and email documents. All
computers that have access to the network will then be able to store, retrieve
and print documents.
270
Hard-copy storage
• Filing cabinets may store information according to the date or the
alphabetical order of subject or companies. Each filing cabinet drawer
should have:
• clearly marked files
• an index page at the front of the drawer
• a card on the outside.
• Visible card files in drawers: Each card summarises information that directs
the searcher to documents stored elsewhere.
• Rotary files: These files are similar to card files but the cards are stored on
a rotating holder for easy access. These cards guide people to documents
stored elsewhere.
• Horizontal files: These take the form of many shallow drawers in a cabinet.
They are useful for storing plans and other large documents.
271
Digital storage
• Online storage: Computers connected to a network and server will often
store information on the server, which acts like an electronic filing cabinet
with a large storage capacity. The server then becomes a large hard drive
where information needs to be stored systematically for easy retrieval.
Retaining information in electronic format enables information to be
easily located. This can be done for example by searching documents or
information using specific keywords or phrases.
• Cloud storage: Also available is the use of online storage called cloud storage.
Cloud storage allows for documents to be uploaded onto the Internet and
stored until needed. Security passwords and usernames are given to those
who are allowed access to the information. Those with access can then,
at any time and from any location, retrieve these documents by going
online and downloading the document back onto their laptop or desktop
computer. However, organisations must take care when using such online
services, since they may lose control over the security of their corporate
information.
• Storage discs: Another method of data storage is the use of storage discs
such as CDs, DVDs and USB ‘thumb drives’. These portable storage devices
are widely used due to the convenience they offer users. However they
allow corporate information to be freely removed from a workplace.
Organisations often implement and enforce policies governing the use of
such devices as part of a data leakage prevention strategy that also covers
email content.
Faxing
The fax or facsimile (Latin: ‘make the same’) machine transmits typed
or hand‑written messages to another fax machine by using a telephone
connection.
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Faxed messages should be sent with a cover page. This should state:
• the receiver’s name and company with a fax number
• the sender’s name and company with a fax number
• how many pages are being sent.
The sender should also type ‘Page 1 of 5’, ‘Page 2 of 5’, etc at the top of each
page. Receivers can then check that they have received the whole message.
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274
Blurring of hierarchies
Until recently, most organisations have been organised in some form of
pattern. This pattern tells people the line of command. It also tells people
about the formal lines of communication. However, email can cause major
changes in the above communication process. Senders can now avoid this
traditional method of communication.
A secretary would normally screen all telephone and written messages.
However, with email, every person has an email address. He or she may
therefore receive messages directly. This lack of screening means that anyone
can communicate with someone several levels higher on the organisational
chart. With email, ordinary members of staff have a better chance that senior
staff will read their messages.
This could mean that the hierarchy in the organisation does not exist for
email and that all users are equal. However, people in organisations have
different amounts of power and status. They would like to keep these and
need some isolation if they wish to do so.
275
276
Table 14.3 Comparison of some characteristics of telephone, email and typed messages
TYPED, PRINTED
CHARACTERISTIC
TELEPHONE EMAIL AND POSTED
OF MESSAGE
MESSAGES
Formality of message varies varies varies, but
more formal
Accountability of sender generally low moderate high
or receiver
Ease of distribution to low high moderate
a very large audience
Need for security moderate high high, especially
of message if confidential
Need for permanence low high high
of message
Ability to cross the low high moderate
hierarchy in an
organisation
277
Recent rulings around the world have allowed organisations to monitor email
messages and use them against staff in disciplinary hearings. Internationally,
courts have ruled in favour of employers when there has been a dispute
between the employee’s right to privacy and the employer’s right of ownership
of the email message.
Organisations are legally responsible for electronic messages sent by
employees. Each organisation has its own policy with regards to email, which
is ordinarily communicated to new employees. A code of conduct is signed
and it will be explained whether or not the organisation monitors company
email. Employees therefore need to be very careful about the messages that
they send using work-allocated email addresses. Employees should consider
segregating personal email messages into a ‘personal’ email account not
associated with or operated by their employer.
Email etiquette
Many organisations do not yet have policies governing the format, content
or use of email. Users of email therefore need to take care of their messages.
They also need to show good manners and learn correct email etiquette.
The following etiquette guidelines should help people when they create
email messages.
• Always include a salutation at the beginning of your email and a signature
at the end of the email.
• Be considerate. Do not give too much information in each message.
• Make your messages highly readable. Do not type the whole message in
capital letters as it looks as though you are shouting at your reader.
• Use headings, short paragraphs, short sentences and lists.
• Do not use ‘text speak’, for example: LOL, ROFL, BTW etc. or emoticons
in business emails.
• Focus your messages. If you start a new topic, use a new subject heading.
• Have good subject-lines. Make these unique. Good subject-lines help
readers to file, cross-reference and retrieve messages. They will also ensure
that your email does not get deleted without being read.
278
• Do not send junk mail, such as chain letters. They overload systems.
• Check your distribution list before you send any mail that you have received.
Receivers may already have copies of that item. Also, do not add people to
the distribution list unless they have to receive the communication.
• Assume that the messages you send and receive are permanent. Do not say
anything in email that you might not want to be made public or sent on
to others.
• Do not send on confidential mail without first getting permission.
• Be aware that email might not be as private as you wish. If you wish to
send a private message, then use another method of communication.
• Plan your messages carefully. Use text editors and spell checkers to make
sure that your message is accurate.
• Explain all technical terms if your readers have varying levels of knowledge.
• Do not add too many attachments to your email. Large bulky messages
clog the network.
279
Example
280
The following opening paragraph has been badly written. It lacks focus.
Example
Subject: Telephone Calls
We have 100 telephones in our building. Of our 200 employees, about 150
regularly use telephones for lengthy private calls. The main problem is that these
lengthy calls are blocking our system. We have had numerous complaints from our
customers that they cannot get through. We, as management, are very concerned
about this and are thinking about ways of freeing up our telephones so that
customers can get through. From 1 January 20__, all telephones will be monitored
on our new electronic system. Weekly printouts will be scrutinised to find out who
is using the telephone unnecessarily. Those who make more than one private call
a day will be asked to pay for the extra calls. Any employee who regularly uses the
telephone for excessive private calls will be warned. After three warnings you will be
dismissed from the company.
Example
281
Be direct. Have a very sharp focus in your first sentence as shown in the
example below.
Example
Opening paragraph that gives all the key points of the message
Express
goodwill
For example if you are sending your CV by email, then make sure that you
summarise all your key points at the beginning. Do not use a chronological
approach. This will lead to a rambling message that will not be read.
282
283
to get a quick reply. If you want a quick reply, consider the telephone or
a face-to-face meeting. Again, follow the conversation with a summary
email of the conversation.
Conclusion
Messages are integral to the effective running of any business. The messages
that are sent out from a business can have an impact on the reputation
of the company. Unprofessional, incorrectly worded or badly phrased
communication will impact on the perception that stakeholders have of the
company. By adhering to the suggestions made within this chapter, you will
be able to confidently communicate with colleagues, suppliers, customers
and your employer. Finally, always remember to read your communication
one last time before sending it off.
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15
CORPORATE IMAGE AND CORPORATE
IDENTITY
Introduction
In this chapter you are introduced to the concepts of corporate identity and
corporate image. An identity is the unique characteristics belonging to a certain
individual or shared by members of a group.
Therefore corporate identity can be described as everything that is distinctive,
lasting and central to an organisation that gives it a particular character. It
is created, to a large extent, by the kind of intentional and unintentional
messages that the organisation’s decision-makers communicate. It is similar
and closely related to the culture of the organisation since it provides people
with a framework of shared assumptions that lead to collective actions. But
it is an enduring symbol that helps people to recognise and remember the
company. Slogans, branded stationery, logos, uniforms and décor play a
significant role in corporate identity.
Corporate image, on the other hand, is how the public views the organisation.
It is a perception of the company that exists in the minds of the individuals
who receive and interpret messages sent out by the company. In the same
way that your words and actions influence how other people see you, every
message that is written or verbalised by or on behalf of an organisation
influences how that organisation is perceived by the public. Image then is
closely linked to the organisation’s reputation. The image of an organisation
is far less stable than its identity and can change very quickly, for example
through circumstances, media coverage and performance. The image of an
organisation is very important because a negative image can ruin a company
in no time. This is why most companies spend huge amounts of money on
branding, public relations and corporate advertising in order to maintain a
positive image and reputation. Therefore, understanding an organisation’s
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• differentiate between corporate identity and corporate image
• define corporate identity and corporate image
• explain and give examples of the elements that make up an organisation’s
identity
• describe the factors that affect corporate image
• justify why corporate identity and corporate image are important for
business communication.
What is identity?
Who am I?
Have you ever asked yourself, ‘Who am I? Why do I have certain
characteristics? Why does this make me feel so unhappy while
it is doesn’t seem to upset others? What makes me unique?’
These are examples of questions you have probably asked yourself consciously
or unconsciously since you were a child. How you answer these questions is
how you build up what is termed your identity. Your identity comprises those
characteristics that distinguish you from everybody else. For example your
personality traits, beliefs, aspirations, style, likes and dislikes are what make
you unique. Yet your identity is not fixed and stable. Your identity changes and
develops constantly. Moreover most people seem to have multiple identities,
such as a gender, professional and a social identity. Your social identity for
example refers to the groups you belong to, as well as your circle of close
friends or your family.
In contemporary society, people are increasingly starting to think
of themselves as brands when it comes to their identities and identity
management. Thinking of yourself as a brand and managing your own brand
image could hold many advantages for you. For example, if you go for a job
interview or if you want a promotion in your current company, you will need
to know how to ‘sell’ yourself and how to create a positive image of yourself.
Nonetheless, just as you have an individual identity, so too does every
organisation and this is referred to as a company’s corporate identity.
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Broadly speaking, one can therefore think of corporate identity as the visual
elements organisations use to make themselves recognisable and that gives
the company its unique character.
Botha et al (2007:259–261) and Tench and Yeoman (2006:251) identify the
following specific elements that form part of a company’s corporate identity.
• legal requirements
• the company has a new direction and vision
• social, cultural, religious or political pressure
• similarity to another company logo.
Coca-Cola is known for its slogans and the familiar music that goes along
with it. Some of its slogans have been:
• Things go better with Coke
• It’s the real thing
• Always Coca-Cola
• The Coke side of life
• Enjoy Coca-Cola.
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Simply put, corporate image is everything that forms our knowledge of that
organisation, including all our personal perceptions, experiences and what
we have ever seen, read and heard about an organisation. Corporate image is
therefore the impression created by ‘how the organisation looks, what it says
and what it does’. It is what you ultimately believe about an organisation
(Botha et al 2007:254). It is crucial for companies to act in ethical ways
and to be good corporate citizens because once a company’s reputation or
image is ruined, it is very difficult to repair. In addition, a negative image can
cause the downfall of the organisation. A good corporate image is usually
earned over years by the organisation and is created by all of its intended and
unintended actions.
However, although a company’s image is closely linked to its reputation,
it is not exactly the same thing. Tench and Yeoman (2006:253) make use of
a very good analogy to explain the difference between corporate image and
reputation. They equate corporate image with a photograph of an organisation
taken at one moment in time by an individual, whereas organisational
reputation is when that individual collates all the photographs (or images)
taken over a period of time into an album and forms an opinion of the
organisation by looking at the entire collection of photographs.
The following is a list of some of the ways and tactics that organisations
use to influence the perceptions of their target public and other stakeholders
in order to create a positive corporate image for the company (Tench and
Yeoman, 2006:255):
• advertising
• community relations
• corporate colours and designs
• direct marketing
• events
• financial communication
• lobbying
• media relations
• newsletters
• personal selling
• relationship marketing
• sales promotions
• sponsorships
• staff training.
The factors that follow influence corporate image (Botha et al, 2007:256–259);
(Skinner, Von Essen, Mersham & Motau 2010:269–271).
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important for organisations that get their resources from the environment
and/or community.
Management style
Staff usually only behave in desirable ways that contribute to the image of the
organisation if they are managed well. Good management can make or break
an organisation. Management influences organisational policies and plays a
major role in establishing the culture of the company. Managers also affect
the way the organisation is run and how satisfied or dissatisfied staff will
be. Moreover, managers need to govern staff so that they can deliver quality
service to the company’s customers.
Labour relations
In a socially conscious world, issues related to labour have become more
prominent. The way in which a company treats its employees and whether
this treatment is perceived as ethical, fair and just will influence how that
company is seen by the rest of the public.
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Conclusion
In this chapter we established that our identity plays a major role in who we
are and what we are about. The same is true for organisations. Within the
organisational context, both a corporate identity and a corporate image are
very important to ensure the continuing success of an organisation.
Corporate identity determines what messages the decision-makers of an
organisation will communicate about the organisation, to both internal and
external stakeholders. These messages will shape people’s perceptions of the
company, which contributes to the company’s corporate image.
Good business communication contributes significantly to both the
corporate identity and image of a company and can ultimately lead to the
success of a company.
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16
GOOD CUSTOMER RELATIONS
AND TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE
Introduction
With the amount of choices on offer to consumers it is becoming increasingly
important for companies to differentiate themselves from their competitors.
An effective way of doing this is to offer consumers the best possible service.
Good customer relations is a great marketing tool because customers who get
good service are going to tell their friends about their experiences with your
business, which can lead to more business (Evenson, 2005:1). The better the
service, the more customers talk and the more business you do.
Every point of contact that a customer has with an organisation
communicates something about the organisation; this message can be either
positive or negative depending on the customer’s experience of the exchange
(Ouwersloot & Duncan, 2008:66). A customer service representative with
an unprofessional tone will result in a customer interpreting that person’s
behaviour as being representative of the organisation as a whole. Poor service
from a staff member, whether over the phone or in person, could result in a
loss of business. Inattentive employees give the impression that they would
rather be somewhere else and that the customer is not important, which
makes customers feel uncomfortable and less likely to stay a customer.
This chapter will discuss aspects of customer relations with a particular
focus on telephone communication that will assist in ensuring that each
customer encounter is professional yet friendly.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain what customer relations is
• discuss the importance of customer relations
• explain the importance of telephone etiquette in a business context
• describe the correct tone, pace, inflexion and volume of voice when
speaking on the telephone
• explain the correct procedure when making a telephone call
• explain the correct procedure when answering a telephone call
• list the rights of a telephone user
• list bad habits used when talking on the telephone and how to avoid them.
Customer relations
The key to good customer relations is to place yourself in the shoes of your
customer. Imagine that you are walking into the business for the first time
and think about how you would like to be treated and the kind of service you
would expect.
The only way to really know the likes and dislikes of the customer is to
maintain an open dialogue with them Thill and Bovée (2007:23). In order
to do this, all opportunities for open dialogue with the customer have to
be treated with professionalism. A continued relationship with a customer
and an understanding of what he or she likes and dislikes could result in an
increase in profits, as the customer will not only return for future products
and services, but will become a proponent of the organisation. When people
experience good customer service, they often tell their friends and family.
The customer service experience offered by the organisation is then spread by
word of mouth, resulting in new customers.
Inadequate or poor service could result in the opposite. Customers who
are exposed to poor telephone etiquette may feel that they are being treated
badly or that they are neglected by the organisation. They will then take their
business somewhere else, resulting in a loss of profit and possibly reputation
if the customer then talks to others of the experience.
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example, walking into a store, calling a customer care centre, visiting the
company’s web site or receiving a phone call from a sales person are all touch
points. These need to be carefully managed so that the customer gets the best
conceivable experience with as little frustration as possible.
Some examples of poor customer relations that can leave a customer
feeling frustrated and angry are:
• being kept waiting or getting no reply when a return phone call is promised
or a course of action has been agreed upon
• either being ignored when entering a store or office or being harassed
continuously by phone or in-store. Customers want to be helped when
needed but also require time to reflect on the product or service they are
about to purchase
• being spoken to rudely when requesting information or assistance
• being treated as a nuisance rather than integral to the company’s success
• being lied to. Be honest and, if you cannot help the customer, explain
why, offer to get back to them with someone who can and then do this
immediately.
There are many more examples of poor customer relations. Can you think of
any? How could the situation have been handled differently in order to avoid
the poor service you received?
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• Do not pre-judge the customer. Keep prejudices aside and listen to the
customer before deciding on an appropriate course of action.
• Ask questions and listen carefully to the answer before responding.
• Participate in active listening.
• Try and maintain a positive attitude throughout the interaction. Negative
emotions can easily alter the interaction and result in a negative encounter.
The more positive the attitude, the better the interaction will be.
• Deal with each customer on an individual basis. Each customer will have
unique needs and will feel respected if dealt with as such.
• Keep all communication professional, yet friendly. This holds true for
difficult or angry customers. Remaining professional, demonstrating
understanding and being polite can help diffuse any potentially
problematic situations.
• Be respectful. Think of how you would want to be treated in the same
situation and act accordingly.
• Be honest and keep to your promises. If you have said that you will contact
the customer within the hour, time yourself if you have to, but call them
back as promised.
• End the relationship on a positive note:
• ask if the customer is satisfied with the course of action you recommended
• try and determine if there is anything else the customer may need
• thank the customer before saying goodbye.
• Always remember that the success of the business relies to a large extent on
your relationship with the customer.
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• helpful
• efficient
• interested
• concerned
• honest
• friendly
• professional.
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Stage 1
• Greet the caller as follows:
• ‘Good morning/afternoon’.
• ‘Thank you for calling’.
• The name of your organisation.
• Your name.
• ‘May I help you?’
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Stage 2
• Establish the reasons for the call.
• Record the message by writing it down.
• Read the message back.
• Use open and closed questions to negotiate the message.
• Show that you are listening by using phrases such as, ‘Oh yes’, ‘I see’ or
‘That’s right’.
Stage 3
• Solve the caller’s problem.
• If you cannot, say what you will do next and by when you will do it.
Stage 4
• End the call on a positive note, to establish and maintain goodwill.
TELEPHONE MESSAGE
Caller’s name:
Telephone number:
Company:
Call taken by:
Date:
Time:
Level of priority:
Details of call:
Action to be taken:
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Conclusion
The importance of customer service cannot be emphasised enough. Think
about a time when you entered a store or phoned a service provider and
got a rude, unhelpful or uninformed response. It is important to keep in
mind that customers talk to others about their experience and that just one
unsatisfied customer could become many if bad behaviour continues. Web
sites like hellopeter.com are a good example of what can happen to a business
if customer service turns ugly. By following the guidelines in this chapter, you
should be able to offer professional, calm and informed customer service to
all customers.
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17
MASS COMMUNICATION
IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
Introduction
Mass communication is the communication that reaches the largest and
widest variety of audiences. Mass communication is made up of two main
types of mass media, namely traditional mass media and what has become
known as new media, both of which will be discussed in this chapter.
Traditional mass communication is transmitted through traditional mass
media that includes press releases, advertisements, newspapers, radio, film
and television. Even though new media now also exists, traditional mass
media still plays a large role in messages that leave an organisation.
New media has become the new interface of organisations and also serves
a wider audience with a far better feedback system because it is immediate
and has an interactive quality. It includes but is not limited to the Internet,
short messages (SMSs), social media (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn), blogs,
wikis and podcasts.
While mass communication is a large scale way of sending messages and
therefore does not allow for the same personal relationships as interpersonal
communication, it is extremely powerful because it reaches so many people
at once.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• define the concept of mass communication
• explain the various functions of mass media
• describe with examples the various types of traditional media
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Inform
All media seeks to inform in some way. The spread of information depends on
the similarity of the receivers. The more similar they are in their beliefs, values,
education and social status, the more effective the spread of information will
be. The spread of information is often started by people called change agents
because they are often responsible for creating change. However, change
agents may not share the same values as their audience. For this reason, media
would normally work with an opinion leader who shares the values of a group
and who is respected by that group.
Persuade
All organisations need to persuade customers to use their services, buy their
products or make donations. This persuasion is done through a wide variety
of advertisements. These advertisements are designed to:
• attract people’s attention
• create particular attitudes that lead to action
• persuade people to buy and continue to buy.
Entertain
The mass media also seeks to entertain. This function serves as a form of
escape or diversion. The entertainment function attracts an audience and
makes it worthwhile for advertisers to advertise.
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written word, pictures and graphics for their impact. They therefore need a
literate audience.
Circulation figures are very important for attracting advertising revenue.
Newspapers therefore rely on eye-catching headlines, sensational pictures
and newsworthy items to attract attention. Their readability also needs to
be excellent.
Magazines are targeted at audiences that are more specific than newspaper
audiences. Any organisation wishing to advertise in a magazine will therefore
have to understand its audience thoroughly.
Radio
Radio has been a popular and successful medium for many years. It is
especially effective for a non-literate audience. It is also very useful for
people who are busy doing work that stops them from viewing television
or reading.
As an advertising medium, radio is particularly useful for smaller, less
wealthy organisations because it is less expensive. Radio is most effective
for advertising in which the visual impact is not important, for example
advertisements offering sales and discounts.
Film
Film has become a major form of recreation and entertainment. The
combination of sound and visuals has a powerful attraction for viewers.
Films are stimulating and, creative and are shown in comfortable and
pleasant surroundings.
Used as a medium for advertising, films have reached such high standards
of technical and artistic quality that they are often treated as art forms in their
own right. For all these reasons, they are a significant means of advertising,
but are expensive and are also restricted to cinemas for the best viewing.
Television
Of all mass media, television has had the greatest impact. Its major advantage
is that it brings its messages into people’s homes.
For this reason, television has become a major medium for advertisers. It is
especially effective when spoken messages need to be combined with visuals.
However, as with films, which are expensive, companies have to ensure that
their audience research is as accurate as possible.
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Public relations
All organisations need to make the public aware of what they have to offer.
Apart from advertising their products, companies may undertake public
relations exercises. These exercises are aimed at creating a positive image
of the company. They are a form of advertising designed to influence the
attitudes towards and beliefs about the particular company.
Public relations exercises are designed to establish and maintain an
understanding between any organisation and its public. These exercises aim
to foster trust in the integrity of an organisation. Management knows that
a company’s reputation, built up over many years, can be destroyed very
quickly. Therefore public relations aims at creating and maintaining an image
for the company.
However, the public relations focus is not only outwards. Many large
companies now aim their public relations activities at their own staff as well.
These activities have become more important as companies have grown larger.
Senior management cannot hope to control or influence every individual in
such organisations. Public relations activities are therefore aimed at fostering
a good company spirit and a positive attitude towards its customers.
These efforts have implications for the mass media. Public relations personnel
use a wide variety of media to convey their messages. They may, for example,
provide speakers at conferences. They could also sponsor a wide range of
activities aimed at maintaining and improving the company’s image.
These activities involve the use of a range of media. These could for
example include:
• brochures explaining the company’s policy towards the environment
• films showing the company’s contributions towards society
• advertorials in magazines showing how the company recycles all its
waste products
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Press/media release
The press release, also called a media release, is a basic communication
tool for organisations in their bid to get coverage. It is an important part
of public relations because it is the public relations practitioner’s way of
getting the organisation’s messages out into the public without paying for
advertising coverage. It is a written document that the organisation’s public
relations practitioner puts together about that organisation, its new products
or services, exciting news or any other information the organisation wants to
get out there.
The difficult thing about a press release is that it is not published by the
organisation. Unlike advertising campaigns, which organisations have to pay
for in order to be given coverage, press releases are sent to news agencies in the
hope they will publish them. The information is sent by the public relations
practitioner or company spokesperson to the journalist or editor in a specific
format that is aimed at the audience of the mass media, not the journalist. It is
therefore crucial that the press release is written in such a way that editors and
journalists will want to publish it without changing your wording.
Media releases usually consist of condensed information (most are less
than one side of A4 paper, less if sent by email) and aim to convey the essence
of the story in the hope of prompting coverage in the mass media that is
being approached (Baverstock, 2002:63)
The example on the next page is of a media release layout and paragraph
contents as explained and adapted from Nunes (2011). Note that there is a
‘slugline’ at the top of each page of the press release. A slugline is so called
because it is like a slug or a snail that leaves a trail everywhere it goes. This is
effectively what a slugline does; it leaves a ‘trail’ of the content of your press
release for those you have sent it to. The slugline contains a brief word or two
taken from the topic on each page and it also includes the page number of
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the press release. With electronic copies and online releases now being used,
sluglines are no longer frequently used.
Example
Media release layout and paragraph contents as explained and adapted from Nunes
(2011).
(The slugline at the top right of the release helps keep track of the press release
during the editorial process. It is a brief word or two used to identify the broad topic.
The number behind the slugline indicates the page number. With electronic copies
and online releases now being used, sluglines are not frequently used.)
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Example
Once the media release has been written, use the Riversdale formula before
sending it to the relevant media. This formula consists of three Cs:
• Check: Check all facts and information as well as spelling and grammar.
• Clarify: Get rid of any words or sentences that could be misunderstood or
lead to misinterpretation of information.
• Condense: Replace big words with small ones or simpler ones and shorten
long sentences.
The following example of a media release is from SAA; you will note it is
for immediate release as there is no embargo. Some organisations would
state (FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE) others will only state an EMBARGO.
Example taken from: http://www.flysaa.com/za/en/flyingSAA/News/SAA-
Cargo-partnered-with-Toyota-South-Africa-Motors-for-the-Dakar-Rally.html.
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Advertising
Companies, in order to be competitive, have to advertise. They have to let
people know who they are and what products and/or services they have to
offer. If consumers do not know about a given product, they are not going
to buy it. Advertising therefore fulfils a very important function. It informs
consumers of the product or service, persuades them to buy and reminds
them to keep buying after the first purchase. Advertising can be explained
as the act of communicating a message through a carefully chosen, paid-for
medium to a targeted public with the purpose of informing, persuading and
reminding the public to purchase a product or service.
The messages created to promote the company, product or service require
careful thought as there are numerous elements that need to be taken
into consideration. These decisions are based on research and expertise.
Advertisements have to be skilfully prepared if they are to attract the attention
of the public and companies should therefore discuss their advertising needs
and ideas with specialist advertising companies.
Members of companies would not ordinarily be expected to write their
companies’ advertisements. This section has therefore been written simply to
give you an understanding of the elements of advertising.
However, there are certain advertisements that the company might have to
write themselves:
• classified advertisements for newspapers or magazines
• advertisements for vacant posts
• unsolicited sales letters
• circulars.
Advertisements are designed to attract attention. Once the potential buyer has
noticed the advertisement, the company hopes to create an attitude that will
persuade him or her to take the desired action, buy the product or service and
ultimately become a returning customer. Advertisements are aimed at specific
groups in the population called target markets. The advertisements are
targeted at these groups of people because of market research that indicates
that they are the most likely to purchase the product or service. Their needs,
dreams, hopes, desires, concerns and fears are then established through
additional research. These factors are taken into account when developing
the advertising campaign so that the message will catch the attention of and
speak to the target market. Such an advertisement would be designed both to
inform and persuade. It should attract attention and set the mood for action.
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Once the target market has been identified and the objectives for the
advertisement have been agreed on, a decision will have to be made as to
which medium will be the best to use to reach the desired market. Radio is
effective for advertisements that rely more on factual information. The visual
impact is not important. Television on the other hand is very effective when
the visual and the spoken word are important. The company could consider
using newspapers and magazines that rely on the visual impact of pictures
and the written word. While the Internet (online advertising) predominantly
makes use of the visual impact of pictures and the written word, on rare
occasions it can include audio. Out-of-home media makes use of visual
impact on billboards in the form of bold images and short catchy slogans
that will quickly convey a message.
Stage 1: Attention – The first stage is to attract the attention of the reader,
listener or viewer. This is called a cognitive stage. The audience starts
thinking about the advertisement and its content.
Stage 2: Interest – At this stage the audience’s interest should be aroused. This
is a more emotional approach to the advertisement.
Stage 3: Desire – This stage should arouse a desire in the audience. This is also
an emotional approach to the advertisement.
Stage 4: Action – If the other three stages have been successful, then the audience
is stimulated to action, for example to purchase the product or use the
company’s service.
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Advertisers analyse people’s needs, attitudes and desires. They try to ‘teach’
people what they want. They do this by:
• selecting the media, such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television
• aiming advertisements at carefully analysed segments of the population
• using pictures, words, colours and shapes.
Once they have achieved the above, advertisers try to make buying as easy
as possible.
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• challenging statements
• quotations from famous people
• something unexpected
• appeals to people’s desire for health, leisure, success, comfort, wealth
• emphasis on the qualities of the product compared with rival products
• evidence based on scientific research
• testimonials from authorities
• headings
• lists
• capital letters
• repetition of key ideas
• slogans
• offers of free samples
• an invitation to action by filling in a reply-paid card.
Example
JONESVILLE: Convenient premises on First Street comprising approx. 400 m2 of
Offices and Warehouse. Secure yard with loading bay and parking. Avail. Jan 2013
Ph. Mr Said 384568 (ah).
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Example
New media
What is new media?
There is no simple definition of new media and many people have different
views. Manovich (2011) explains that new media is about the shift in cultures
from traditional forms of media to computer-mediated ways of producing,
packaging and distributing messages, as well as a computer-mediated way of
communicating. It is the convergence of digital communication technologies.
New media gives us access to content any time via digital media, examples
of which are PCs, iPads and cellphones. There is interactive feedback with
new media because of the digital connectivity. This means that you can access
as many people as you want over various time zones and continents – it is
borderless communication.
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With new media you, as the user, are the maker of your own content and
the distributor of the content that you have created. There is therefore also
creative input because you can create your own messages and form online
communities. Most new media is digital in format and can include a number
of areas, such as videogames, Internet, computer multimedia and social
media, to name but a few.
The Wharton School (2009), the business school of the University of
Pennsylvania, lists the following as the top 30 innovations of the last 30 years.
Note how many of these are linked to new media.
1. Internet, broadband, WWW (browser and html)
2. PC/laptop computers
3. Cellphones
4. Email
5. DNA testing and sequencing/Human genome mapping
6. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
7. Microprocessors
8. Fibre optics
9. Office software (spread sheets, word processors)
10. Non-invasive laser/robotic surgery (laparoscopy)
11. Open source software and services (such as Linux, Wikipedia)
12. Light emitting diodes
13. Liquid crystal display (LCD)
14. Global positioning system (GPS)
15. Online shopping/ecommerce/auctions (such as eBay and Kalahari)
16. Media file compression (jpeg, mpeg, MP3)
17. Microfinance
18. Photovoltaic solar energy
19. Large scale wind turbines
20. Social networking via the Internet
21. Graphic user interface (GUI)
22. Digital photography/videography
23. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) and applications (such as EZ Pass)
24. Genetically modified plants
25. Biofuels
26. Barcodes and scanners
27. Automatic teller machines (ATMs)
28. Stents
29. Static random-access memory (SRAM)
30. Anti-retroviral treatment for AIDS
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anywhere and at any time can post anything about your organisation to a
wide audience – for free.
Because of mass media, organisations need to be aware of the following:
• The general public is now well informed about companies’ activities.
• They cannot make major decisions that affect people or the environment
without consulting the public and advertising their intentions.
• Mass media has enormous potential to reach specific audiences quickly.
• The needs and desires of their specific audiences must be understood and
catered for.
• Careful market research should be undertaken so that their advertisements
and other public relations exercises reach the right audience.
• The mass media can help to build up and to destroy an organisation.
• Simply using mass communication does not mean that it has been used
effectively. For example just having a Facebook page does not mean a
business is socially active in the social media space. A business would
need to gain momentum for this page and have people from both within
and outside the organisation engaging with this space. The same would
go for mainstream mass communication. In other words, just because
an organisation has a huge billboard campaign does not mean that its
message is encoded by everyone.
Conclusion
In today’s times, reaching the masses and engaging with mass media has
become even more complex because there are so many different options. From
traditional to new media, the choices are expansive and using a combination
of the correct mass communication media becomes increasingly important
to ensure successful business communication. For this reason, understanding
mass communication and mass media is vitally important. It will help
you to use the correct mass media and engage more effectively with mass
communication. This will keep you and your organisation successful and
ahead of the game.
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18
BUSINESS PROPOSALS, BUSINESS PLANS AND
ACADEMIC PROPOSALS
Introduction
In order to progress in business and research or academic environments you
will need to be able to communicate your ideas, plans and objectives concisely
and professionally. The documents explained in this section will ensure that
your business and research plans are structured and communicated in a
professional and informed manner.
People tend to think that putting proposals and plans together is an easy
task and that it will not take up a lot of time because it is usually only a few
pages long. Nothing could be further from the truth. Proposals and plans can
be highly complex and they take a lot of time to complete.
Bezuidenhout (2011:289) states that completing a business plan can take
up to 400 hours. If you are going to spend this amount of time doing the
research, brainstorming ideas, constructing an argument and developing a
plan of action, you want to make sure that you are not penalised for a poorly
structured proposal or plan in the end.
Business plans and proposals are written forms of communication that
are crucial to a successful business. A well thought out business proposal that
eloquently and factually explains your business, its future and its potential
will help to entice and excite a potential client or investor. If you are able to
add to your client base, this will bring in financial assistance from investors
and ensure that your business continues to grow.
We will also be looking at academic proposals in this chapter. An academic
proposal based on facts and a well-structured argument is likely to ensure
acceptance into a postgraduate qualification and could even secure research
funding for you.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• plan and create a professional business plan
• plan and develop a well-organised, well set out and clearly written
business proposal
• develop a well-structured and academically sound academic proposal.
Suggested format
The suggested format below gives you a detailed menu of what can be
included in a business plan. If you need to draw up a business plan, select the
sections that you need for your specific business plan from this menu. The
business plan will need to be formulated with the business in mind and may
not require all of the below sections to be included.
• A title page that should include:
• Clear title
• Prepared for:
• Prepared by:
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Date:
•
• Index words or search words
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–– Weaknesses
–– Opportunities
–– Threats
• Re-state what you want:
• Re-focus on exactly what you want.
• Re-stress the specifics of what you plan to offer and what return investors
are likely to get.
• Stress your likely competitive edge.
• Stress your keys to success.
• Stress why your business is likely to be financially attractive.
(Bezuidenhout, 2011:289); (English, 2012:113).
Proposals
What is a proposal?
A proposal is a persuasive message. It is written to persuade people to take
action and it can take on many forms. However a proposal should always be
based on facts and should suggest an action with appropriate justification
(English, 2012:93).
Let’s look at an example. Let’s say an event management company wants
to increase its client base. It hears of a large company that is launching a
new product and is looking for an events company to host this launch. In
order to be considered for the launch, the event management company will
have to put together a proposal to tender for the contract. In this proposal
to the potential client, it will need to outline what services can and should
be provided to meet the objectives for the event and how it can supply these
services. Also it will need to include the cost of implementing the actions
outlined, as well as justification as to why the proposed actions would be the
best options to meet the client’s objectives.
Each proposal will be different, as it needs to meet the client’s needs.
However each proposal will have the same basic outline (as explained below).
The uniqueness of each proposal will be determined by how the information
is discussed within that outline and how it is presented to the client.
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A requested proposal is one that a client asks for, for example a proposal on
what action you would take to solve the client’s problem and how much you
would charge to solve it.
A non-requested proposal is a proposal that is used in order to generate more
work for yourself. This type of proposal may be used inside a company where
you want to propose a possible new project. You may also send a non-requested
proposal to a potential client in an attempt to get business from them.
Requested proposal
A requested proposal should have these sections (English, 2012:96–100):
• Title page or title that should include:
• A full title
• Who the proposal has been prepared for
• Who prepared the proposal
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Glossary
•
A section that may be included below the tables and figures is a glossary.
The glossary should include the definitions of all technical terms, as
well as any difficult words that the reader may not know.
• List of symbols and acronyms
If there are any symbols and/or acronyms that the reader will need
in order to appropriately understand the proposal, they need to be
included in this section.
• The body of the proposal
The body of the proposal is the main section of the proposal. It is here
that all the hard work, research and creative ideas get explained in enough
detail to excite and persuade the client to accept the proposal. It must
follow the following structure:
• Introduction, which should include:
–– the purpose and need for the proposal
–– background information
–– a statement of the problem(s) to be solved
–– the need for a solution
–– purpose of the proposal
–– procedures that were used to set up the proposal
–– an outline of the remainder of the proposal.
• The detailed proposal, which should contain the following sub-sections
with numbered headings:
–– a description of exactly what the writer proposes to do
–– the scope of the proposed action
–– the boundaries of the proposed action
–– any limitations to or constraints on the proposal
–– methods to be used to put the proposal into action
–– a breakdown of tasks to be done and their deadlines
–– exact proposed timelines and work schedules
–– a detailed costing of the proposed action
–– method of payment.
• A justification of the proposal, which puts forward a persuasive
message that contains the following sub-sections under the following
sub-headings:
–– benefits of the specific proposed solution
–– feasibility of the solution
–– the likelihood of the proposed action succeeding
–– the feasibility of the financial plan.
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• Urge to action
This short section re-stresses the proposed action.
• References
List all references to other material here. If you did some research for your
proposal to support some of your claims, you need to include them in
a references list. This includes the references of information you have
gathered from journal articles, books, magazines, reports, interviews or
online sources, etc. (Referencing was discussed in Chapter 12.)
• Appendices or attachments
These should contain some or all of the following depending on the nature
of the proposal:
• detailed figures that will show how any proposed expenditure has
been calculated
• detailed calculations to back up any technical proposals
• detailed results of questionnaires or other surveys
• the company’s employment policies
• the company’s success with other projects
• a description of the company’s staff, their qualifications and experience
• the company’s financial statements.
Non-requested proposal
Non-requested proposals contain all of the above sections. However, note the
following differences:
• The proposers have to sell themselves as well.
• In the summary, writers should state briefly who they are.
• In the background to the proposal, the writers should state what they do
and include the following:
• a brief description of the organisation
• a brief description of their experience with projects
• a brief description of their staff’s experience and qualifications
• a brief statement of the company’s financial position
• a brief statement of the company’s employment practices.
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should include the assumptions you are making about what serves as
knowledge, what the purpose of knowledge or research is and your
assumptions about the nature of reality.
• The research design: For example cross-sectional, longitudinal, etc.
• The research approach: Quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods and a
justification for why you are using this approach.
• Whether the study will be basic, applied or both.
• Whether the study will be exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, etc.
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• Describe the method(s) you will use to collect data. The method you
choose will depend on your research approach. Some methods such as
experimental designs, are only suitable for qualitative research while
others, such as focus groups and in-depth interviews are only suitable
for qualitative research. Researchers can also use a mixed-methods
approach which makes use of methodological triangulation, meaning
a combination of methods. There are many methods to choose from
and you can combine these different methods in order to assist you
in answering your research question. However you need to be able to
justify why you chose a particular method(s) and what the pros and
cons of using that method(s) are.
• Describe the method(s) you will use to analyse your data. Again, this is
dependent on your approach. Data analysis methods include, among
many others, the t-test, chi-square test, content analysis, thematic
analysis, etc.
• Feasibility of the study
• Provide a detailed and realistic research budget.
• Include proposed timelines.
• Stipulate the resources required.
• Address all significant ethical considerations.
• Address the validity and reliability of the study (using different
terminology such as trustworthiness, credibility, transferability and
dependability and confirmability).
• Limitations of the study (for example time limitations, geographical area,
access, generalisability, resources, etc).
• Outline of the study. A tentative outline of the thesis and proposed chapters
must be included.
• Sources consulted and a preliminary bibliography.
Remember that you must use academic writing when you put together a
research proposal. Academic writing is a technical form of writing with its
own conventions. The language is usually formal and factual and you must
avoid making sweeping generalisations. Every claim you make or argument
you put forward should be backed up by evidence and citations. You also
need to revise your proposal several times to ensure that it is structured in a
logical way and that you are making a clear argument. You should also pay
attention to language details such as spelling, grammar and syntax.
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Conclusion
It is extremely important to know that every time you write anything to
anyone, especially in a business context, you are also sending out messages
about yourself, such as your values, level of professionalism, intelligence
and others. In a business context, you are representing the organisation
or institution whose reputation and possible business may depend on the
image you present. Knowing how to put together professional documents
confidently and effectively will make you and your organisation look
competent and professional. Putting together a persuasive business plan
may also mean the difference between success and failure. If you want to
continue with post-graduate studies, you will also need to learn the skills to
put together a research proposal that will persuade your potential supervisor
that your study is worth doing. You may even use a well-written research
proposal to secure funding for your research.
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19
REPORTS
Introduction
Although reports come in many different forms, such as school reports,
weather reports or even health reports, and serve many different functions,
they are all fixed-format documents. Business reports are similar to other
kinds of reports in that they convey information, but they are usually a result
of a need for information regarding sales, costs, investments, problems or
required action. In this chapter we will provide you with an overview of
the purposes, types, characteristics and structure of reports and will provide
practical examples for you to examine and use as a ‘template’ from which to
work on your own reports.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the main purposes and different types of business reports
• list the main characteristics of business reports
• identify and explain the various elements of a business report
• identify and use appropriate style, tone and language in business reports
• write a summary report based on given information.
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The preliminaries make up the first part of the report and make use of Roman
numerals instead of page numbers. This differentiates them clearly from
items in the body of the report. The preliminaries include:
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Terms of reference (the brief )
• Summary or abstract
• Table of contents
• List of illustrations (if applicable)
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• Glossary (if applicable, difficult words may also be defined at the bottom
of each page)
• List of symbols and acronyms (if applicable).
As you will have noticed, the list of items in the preliminaries and the body
of the report indicates the possible sections of a report, not all of which you
will necessarily need. You should select only the sections relevant to the
report’s terms of reference after including the essential components. For
example, an informative report would stress procedures and findings, while
an investigative and feasibility report would stress procedures and findings,
as well as conclusions and recommendations.
On the following pages we will make use of practical examples to
demonstrate the necessary sequence and content of each section of the report.
Although the order is not cast in stone, the order used in these examples
is strongly recommended. It moves the conclusions and recommendations
closer to the beginning of the report which is very helpful for decision-makers.
They do not usually need to read all the details of the findings before they
reach the conclusions and recommendations.
The Preliminaries
Title page
A title page should contain the following information:
• a clear, informative title
• for whom the report has been prepared
• by whom the report has been written
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This page should be well set out with good readability. As with all business
documents, it should provide the reader with an excellent first impression.
Example
Acknowledgements
This section is used to thank any individuals who assisted in the process of
collecting and compiling information during the investigation.
Example
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Impersonal style used The writer wishes to thank the following for their assistance
throughout (not ‘I’) during the investigation:
• Mr N. Zuma
• Ms K. Maloyi
• Ms P. Kincaid
• Ms Z. Pillay
Goodwill is The writer also wishes to record the invaluable help of
generated through Mr P. Moodley who ensured that this investigation took
acknowledgements place quickly and openly.
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Terms of reference
Terms of reference refer to the instructions given to the investigator. They
are called terms of reference because everything in the report refers back to
these instructions. Without a clear set of instructions, no investigation or
report is possible. The terms of reference are
sometimes called a brief, which simply refers Note
to a set of instructions. Ensure that you have been
carefully briefed if you are ever
Terms of reference should always contain the asked to write a report and
following five points: prepare to negotiate with the
1. who instructed the writer
briefer until you can both agree on
the exact instructions. Bad reports
2. when the instructions were given are often caused by poor briefing
3. why the instructions were given rather than by poor investigation or
4. a detailed list of exactly what the writing. Therefore, make sure that
your brief always contains the five
investigator is supposed to do
points shown alongside and ask
5. the date by which the report has to be for further clarity if your brief does
handed in. not include these details.
Example
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Summary
The summary should be so well written that it can replace the actual report
should someone be too busy to read the entire report. It should be brief but
complete and written for a wide lay audience. A good summary should help
the reader decide whether or not to read the main report.
Summaries vary considerably in length. Some companies ask for 300
words or no more than one page. Other companies expect a longer summary.
We would recommend a summary of between five and ten per cent of the
length of the original report. An abstract or executive summary is no longer
than one typed page and may be published as a separate document.
Example
SUMMARY
This report describes the results of an investigation into the
Opening sentence
tells reader exactly causes of the high staff turnover at the LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd
what the report is Hazelwood branch.
about
The writer was asked to investigate the causes of the high
staff attrition at the branch, which, in the 2012 financial
year, lost a considerable volume of its usual trade due to
Reason the report insufficient and ill-trained staff. The cost to the LibertyTiles
was necessary Hazelwood branch (in comparison to 2011 figures)
amounted to R978 000 for the 2012 period. Management
wished to determine the problem and identify a solution
so that full profitability could be restored as quickly as
possible.
Note the use of PURPOSE OF THIS SUMMARY
sub-headings to The purpose of this summary is to:
guide the reader
• describe the main procedures for gathering information
• provide the main conclusions
• give the main recommendations
• record the major findings.
Example
PROCEDURE USED
The writer gathered information through:
• direct communication in private consultations with
employees at the branch
• anonymous surveys of employees
• an audit of the branch’s operations
• consultation with an industry HR specialist.
MAIN CONCLUSION
The main conclusions are that:
• the Branch Manager displays gross mismanagement
practices
• the commission structure used at the branch is a source
of dissatisfaction and perceived unfairness
• a major lack in motivation and work satisfaction is
evident in branch employees
• irregular accounting practices and possible
misappropriation of funds are taking place.
MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS
The writer recommends that:
• the Branch Manager be subject to disciplinary action and
criminal charges
• an interim Branch Manager be sourced from the branch
employees; a suitable candidate has been identified
• significant team-building exercises be implemented for
the branch as soon as possible
• a revision of the commission structure used at the
branch be undertaken.
RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION
The above conclusions and recommendations are based on
the following findings:
• that the major causes of staff attrition are identified and
discussed in Appendix I
• that a significant level of dissatisfaction exists with the
current commission structure used at the branch
• that staff exhibit low levels of job satisfaction, as
discussed in Appendix II
• that the Branch Manager be placed under performance
management in terms of Human Resources Policy
document in Appendix III.
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Table of contents
This lists all the major and minor headings in the report. It shows the reader:
• how the information has been organised
• on which page(s) each section may be found.
Example
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Acknowledgements i
Terms of Reference ii
Summary iii
List of Illustrations v
Glossary vi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. PROCEDURE FOR GATHERING INFORMATION 2
3. CONCLUSIONS 3
4. RECOMMENDATIONS 5
Note use of full 5. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION INTO STAFF ATTRITION 7
explanatory 5.1 Description of staff attrition numbers 7
heading
5.2 Description of staff interview results 8
5.3 Description of anonymous surveys 12
5.4 Description of audit results 14
5.4.1 Financial audit 14
Note use of 5.4.2 Human Resources audit 16
sub-headings 5.4.3 Policies audit 19
indented to 6. LIST OF REFERENCES 23
third level
7.1. APPENDIX I: Staff attrition causes 24
7.2. APPENDIX II: Results of staff attrition 27
7.3. APPENDIX III: Human Resources Policy document 30
If there are only graphs, diagrams and other graphics, then the heading is List
of figures.
350
Example
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Each illustration must List of tables
have a number, a full 1. National staff attrition by branch 2012 8
caption and a page 2. Reported causes of attrition 12
number.
List of figures
1. Organogram – LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd. 1
2. HR Flowchart – Recruitment process 2
3. HR Flowchart – Disciplinary procedures 19
Glossary
A glossary is a special dictionary for the report. All technical terms are listed
in alphabetical order and defined. Writers may also define difficult words at
the bottom of each page in a footnote.
Example
Example
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352
Example
353
Example
Findings
These are the facts of the investigation. The writer should set out these facts in
a logical, coherent and highly readable way. The writer should use:
• a multiple decimal numbering system
• specific major and minor headings
• good coherence in paragraphs
• good links between paragraphs.
The writer should guide the reader step-by-step through each stage of the
findings. It is important to connect your paragraphs in a logical way and to let
your reader know when you are moving from one finding to the next.
354
Example
355
Conclusions
The conclusions are based on the facts gathered. They are the implications
of the facts or the insights that the writer has gained from the investigation.
Since writers express opinions here, they may use some emotive language (for
example ‘the situation warrants our immediate attention’) and relative words
(for example ‘it is possible to deduce that…’). However it is still important that
the content does not become too emotive (for example ‘it will be disastrous
if the situation is not solved immediately’). At this stage the writer should
not introduce any new information. Please note the bridging sentence at the
beginning of the example.
Example
3. CONCLUSIONS
Bridging sentence The writer has drawn the following conclusions from the
findings:
Use of headings that 3.1. EXTENSIVE STAFF DISSATISFACTION WITH BRANCH
focus on the key MANAGER
conclusions. A majority of staff at the branch indicated
unhappiness with the branch manager, Ms M.
Kuhn’s HR practices, citing unfair labour practice
and vindictive behaviour.
At this stage, do not 3.2. IRREGULAR ACCOUNTING PRACTICES DETECTED
introduce any new A total of R306 000 was allocated to Petty Cash
information (it should all instead of Sales over the period June 2012
be information available to September 2012. The branch bookkeeper
in the Findings section) interviewed indicated that this was under explicit
instruction of Ms Kuhn.
3.3. BRANCH HR PRACTICES FLAWED
Staff interviewed noted unfair labour practices
including refusal and/or forced leave, withholding
of commission earned and flouting of LibertyTiles’
recruitment policy.
3.4. CORRECTIVE MEASURES AVAILABLE FOR
IMPROVEMENT
Consultation regarding the findings with HR and
Labour Law specialist, Dr F.G. Smith, yielded a plan
of action that is expected to return LibertyTiles
Hazelwood to profitability and stabilised staffing
within a year from implementation.
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Recommendations
The recommendations are based on the conclusions. They are the actions that
should be taken as a result of the findings and conclusions. Recommendations
are expressed by means of action words in the headings, for example
‘Implement’, ‘Undertake’ or ‘Promote’. If possible, the writer should give
details here. Recommendations should be expressed at as low a level of
abstraction as possible. Please note the bridging sentence at the beginning of
the example.
Example
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
Bridging sentence As a result of the findings and conclusions, the writer
recommends the following:
Note the use of action 4.1. CONDUCT DISCIPLINARY ACTION OF MS M. KUHN
headings – these are Hold disciplinary enquiry, with a recommendation
very important (use an of termination of employment and instigation of
imperative verb to start criminal charges against Ms Kuhn into:
each one)
• misappropriation of funds to the value of
R306 000
• gross managerial misconduct
• violations of SA Labour Legislation.
Should this be required, 4.2. PROMOTE CURRENT HAZELWOOD SALES MANAGER
provide any diagrams TO BRANCH MANAGERIAL POSITION
necessary in this section Mr P. Baloyi has been identified as a suitable,
to give the reader exact ethical and respected replacement for the Branch
information.
Manager position.
4.3. IMPLEMENT DR SMITH’S PLAN OF ACTION AT THE
BRANCH
This will include direct intervention from Group CEO,
team-building exercises, and audit and adjustment
of faulty staffing and remunerations.
List of references
Writers need to acknowledge any work written by others that they have used.
In the South African context, the Harvard method is usually acceptable, but
it is important to establish whether or not a different system of referencing is
required before you begin the report. If you have used a superscript number
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system, the list of references will appear in the order in which they appeared.
The list of references is placed at the end of the major section or at the end of
the report in alphabetical order by surname.
Example
Bibliography
A bibliography is used with a list of references if the writer uses the Harvard in-
text referencing system. The entries in the bibliography appear in alphabetical
order of surname of the authors and not in the order of their appearance in
the report. See Chapter 12 for guidelines in this regard.
Example
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note the absence of Adams, T. 2012. Accounting for Ethics. Johannesburg:
numbers or bullets and Nersa Inc.
the alphabetical order of Koutsatis, J.K. 2010. Ethical human resources practices
the sources used. in South Africa. Johannesburg: PKL Publishers.
Madden, F. 2009. Disciplinary hearings in the new South
Africa. Cape Town: Juta Inc.
Appendices
Material that is too detailed for the body of the report is placed in the
appendices. The writer should refer to this material in the body of the report.
358
Example
359
Example 1
A memorandum of transmittal introduces the report and is used inside the company.
360
Example 2
A letter of transmittal is written to a client outside the company and is formal and
impersonal. It contains the same elements as the memorandum.
K. TLADI
Human Resources Director
Encl. Report
F.N./jj.
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Conclusion
This chapter has introduced you to the basic purposes, types and formats
of a business report and you should now feel comfortable enough to write
a summary report based on the templates provided in this chapter. Please
remember that although not all elements of a report will always be used, it is
important that you understand which ones are essential and that you are able
to adapt the general structures to your specific purpose. In addition, never
underestimate the importance of a well-written report. Readers of your report
are likely to be impressed by your competence if the report is well set out and
well written and it could just give your career a boost if these skills are noted
by the right people.
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20
INSTRUCTIONAL GRAPHICS
Introduction
Communicating information by using graphical images, also known as
instructional graphics, helps to explain data or text. However, while graphics
may be used to enhance the meaning of text elements, they should be
accompanied by explanatory text to ensure that the intended meaning or
interpretation is made clear. In this chapter, each graphical example will have
explanatory text where it is needed.
Technical devices, such as computers installed with a graphics creation
and manipulation software package, are usually used to create these graphics.
For example, Microsoft® Excel™ may be used to generate graphs from data
captured on spreadsheets.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• use a range of graphics, such as tables, pie charts, line graphs, diagrams
and cartoons to present information
• design graphics that your readers can understand
• place graphics in a text where they are functional and needed
• integrate graphics into a text, using a proper introduction above the graphic
and a proper analysis below the graphic
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These graphics use elements that a writer cannot explain by using words only.
These elements include the use of:
• space, as in tables
• shapes, as in bar graphs, illustrations or pictograms
• colours, to make points stand out
• lines, as in line graphs and algorithms to show relationships and
stage‑by‑stage procedures
• more than one dimension, such as length, breadth and even depth.
Good visuals have a greater impact than just the spoken or written word. The
combination of a spoken and visual message can be twice as powerful as the
spoken message on its own. In the same way, graphics add visual appeal to
a written message. They also help to explain difficult ideas, show relationships,
simplify and summarise.
Representational graphics
Representational graphics vary in detail. They could be
a line drawing or a photograph. The aim of this graphic
is to closely resemble the object that it depicts. For
example, a stick figure can represent a human being.
Arbitrary graphics include graphics that have no real live counterpart that
they are attempting to portray and therefore include things such as tables,
charts and cognitive or mind maps.
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In this chapter we will specifically look at the use of the following types
of graphics:
• tables
• area graphs (pie charts)
• bar graphs
• histograms
• the Gantt chart
• line graphs
• diagrams
• pictograms
• maps
• hierarchical flow charts
• flow charts
• cartoons.
Tables
A table is any grouping of numbers and other information into rows and
columns. Tables are very effective for presenting large amounts of information
in a small space. A table should include the sections shown below.
Table number: Every table should be numbered above the table. Tables can be numbered
from the beginning to the end of a whole report. They can also be numbered
within each chapter.
Title of table: Every table should have a clear title telling the reader exactly what the table
is about. This title appears above the table.
Stub heading: This heading is at the top of the left-hand column. The items in this column
refer to information across the table.
Column heading: This heading is a general heading that describes the data running in the
columns.
Sub-headings: Each sub-heading describes the data in that column.
Note
If the table has been taken from another source, then a proper reference should be given below
the table.
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Examples
In the above table, the reader’s eye is guided downward. If it is important to guide
the reader’s eye across, then lines should be ruled horizontally rather than vertically.
The following example illustrates tables with lines drawn horizontally or vertically.
The table above stresses the machines. The table below stresses the months. If a
fully ruled table is used, then it is a good technique to highlight key numbers. The
table below also illustrates this technique. Note that the table is not complete.
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Note
In the previous table, the 9 has been highlighted because it is significant.
Tables are suited to a variety of audiences, from lay to expert, according to the
tables’ complexity. Very detailed tables are difficult for a lay audience.
Area graphs
These graphs, also called circle graphs and pie-charts, show how a total or
whole area is divided up. They usually display the percentages of overall
amounts in a similar way to big and small slices of a cake.
Area graphs are simple and well suited to a lay audience. Since it is difficult
to guess proportions accurately, these charts give a general impression and are
not suitable for showing exact amounts (unless accompanied by numerical
labels indicating percentages).
Figure 20.1 below shows an example of a pie chart or Note
area graph. Note that the largest proportion is given first. All graphic devices
The graph should be viewed clockwise. To have the best other than tables
impact, area graphs should be divided into a maximum are called figures.
of five or six sectors. The title is normally
put below the figure.
Note that it is helpful to put in figures to guide
the audience.
Office expenses
10%
Repairs
15%
Salaries
40%
Pensions
35%
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Various styles of pie charts are available, including edged and exploded views
of pie charts. These all show the same information but use a different visual
perspective of the chart itself. The expenses for the reporting period in the pie
chart in Figure 20.1 were three-quarter Human Resources related, with other
expenses accounting for the difference.
Bar graphs
Bar graphs are easy to read. They are good for showing discrete or separate
information and for comparing amounts. Bar graphs may be presented
horizontally or vertically. Most bar graphs are presented vertically. However,
if a sender wishes to show stopping times for motor cars, for example, then
horizontal bars would be effective (see Figure 20.6 on page 371). Bar graphs
are suitable for a lay audience.There are various types of bar graphs.
Sales in 1 000s
of Rands R27 000
25
R22 000
20
R16 000
15
10
0
City City City
One Two Three
Figure 20.2 Example of a single bar chart showing a comparison of book sales by city
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Multiple bar charts as shown in Figure 20.3 are very useful for comparison.
Note the use of a key. There should always be a space between the clusters
of bars. This type of bar shows how a total can be broken into component
parts. Each bar in this illustration is divided into three components. Each
component shows the proportion of a total.
Sales in 1 000s
of Rands
25 KEY
Textbooks
20
Non-fiction
15
Novels
10
0
City City City
One Two Three
Sales in 1 000s
of Rands
30 KEY
25 Textbooks
20 Non-fiction
15 Novels
10
0
City City City
One Two Three
Figure 20.4 Cumulative bars showing the amounts spent on three types of books in three cities
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Percentage of
total sold
100 KEY
Textbooks
75
Non-fiction
50 Novels
25
0
City City City
One Two Three
Figure 20.5 Cumulative bars showing the percentage of three types of books sold in three cities
Beer consumption
in ml
250
350
550
750
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Stopping distance in metres
Figure 20.6 Example of a horizontal bar graph illustrating stopping distances in a vehicle after
the drive has been drinking beer
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20
15
15
11
10 8
6
5
5 4
–3
–5
–5
–10 –8
Figure 20.7 An example of a bilateral bar chart showing profits and losses made in
three bookshops
Negative amounts fall under the ‘0’ line, which represents the ‘break-even’
point for each shop. In this chart, the actual amounts of earnings and expense
are not shown, only the net profit or loss.
Histograms
Histograms are similar to bar graphs but they have a continuous base. They
show the distribution of something, such as rainfall, in terms of amounts or
frequencies. These amounts or frequencies are shown over equal intervals
such as months, weeks or days. Histograms are used when these intervals are
discrete rather than continuous. The area contained within the lines gives
definite information. (See Figure 20.8 on the following page.) Histograms are
aimed at an expert or technical audience.
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Petrol consumption
in litres
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Gantt chart
Gantt charts are a specialised type of bar chart. They are used in activity
planning to show when each stage in the process starts and finishes. (See
Figure 20.9 below.) Each bar shows the starting and finishing dates for
component tasks of a project. Note that some activities may commence
before others have been fully completed. Gantt charts may not be used in
day-to-day operations in a particular type of business, but they may become
useful for example when planning a move to new offices.
Weeks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Job 1 Foundations
Job 2 Piping
Job 3 Brickwork
Job 4 Plumbing
Job 5 Roofing
Figure 20.9 Gantt chart to show job planning over ten weeks
373
Line graphs
Line graphs are used to show a continuous relationship between two variables.
The independent variable is shown on the horizontal axis. The dependent
variable is shown on the vertical axis.
Line graphs are used by expert audiences. They are useful for showing
trends. If senders want amounts to be read off, they should provide a grid.
Numbers sold
in thousands
25
20
15
Cars
10
5 Trucks
Figure 20.10 Jagged-line graph to compare sales of trucks and cars from 1997 to 2003
Curve graph: The curve graph shows a relationship between two variables
when the relationship between the two can be defined. (See Figure 20.11 on
the following page.) This type of graph is useful in company reports.
Note
The term ‘curve’ is also used to refer to an ordinary line graph. You therefore need to check the
wording of any instructions very carefully.
374
Temperature
in degrees Celcius
25
20
15
10
Time in hours
Figure 20.11 Example of a curve graph to show the relationship between time and temperature
20
15 Wines
10
Brandy
Beer
Figure 20.12 Example of a cumulative jagged-line graph to show profits made from beer,
brandy and wines from 1997 to 2003
375
Note
Illustrations are often
used to show general
and specific points in
messages. If you use a
illustration for a specific
point, use an arrow to
show the reader where
to look. Do not let
readers guess what the
illustration shows.
Figure 20.13 Illustration showing how to assemble a motor car suspension system
376
FEEDBACK
NOISE
Pictograms
Pictograms use simplified figures to show statistical and other information.
They give general information only and are informal. They are very useful
for a lay audience, particularly if people speak different languages. (See
Figure 20.15 below.)
Figure 20.15
Figure 20.15 Examples of pictograms
Examples of pictograms
377
Figure 20.16 Pictograms to illustrate the growth in the number of women employed from
Figure 20.16
2001 to 2003
Pictograms to illustrate the growth in the number of women employed from 2001 to 2003
Maps
These vary from the very simple to the highly technical and appeal to a wide
audience. However, a key should always be provided.
378
KEY
Tropical fruits
Citrus
Maize
Wheat
Manager
Assistant
managers
Clerks
379
Flow charts
Flow charts help readers to understand each step in a process. Lines are used
to show the flow of information, goods or instructions. Readers are able to
follow a path and to decide what information is relevant to them.
Flow charts are aimed at educated lay audiences and also at specialists.
The simple chart in Figure 20.19 illustrates a set of stages in decision-making.
A B C D
Cartoons
Cartoons are generally used for a lay or non-specialist audience. They are
often used as a pictorial story instead of writing. They are used to entertain,
educate, advertise and make social comment. (See Figure 20.20 on the
following page.)
380
Figure 20.20 A cartoon used as social commentary to make people think more critically
about feminist concerns
381
The writer should never assume that a reader will understand exactly what
the graphic illustrates. Always provide an explanation. The example below
illustrates the technique.
Example
The table below illustrates the motor car sales figures for two types of cars for 2010
and 2011. The sales figures for Car A and Car B are compared.
Table 5.2 Motor car sales figures for 2010 and 2011
TYPES OF MOTOR CAR
NUMBERS SOLD BY YEAR
CAR A CAR B
2010 15 000 10 000
2011 10 000 6 000
The figures above show that there has been a decline in sales for both types of
motor car. Please note the extreme drop in sales of Car B in 2011. The figure of
6 000 is a severe blow to the retail trade.
Designing graphics
Make sure that you establish why you are presenting a graphic. Then analyse
your audience. Once you have established your purpose and analysed your
audience, then you can design a suitable graphic. Pay special attention to:
• the size of the graphic
• the amount of material to be included
• the title of the graphic
• the wording of the captions
• the clarity of the graphic for the audience
• the accuracy of the graphic
• the integration of the graphic into your message.
Once you have the final product, do a thorough check by asking yourself the
questions in the checklist on the following page.
382
Graphics checklist
Have I:
◗ provided good contrasts between adjacent sections by means of effective shading?
◗ used dark lines around bars to make each bar stand out?
◗ used shading to emphasise shapes and volumes?
◗ written horizontal labels?
◗ provided a key?
◗ written labels at the ends of lines rather than underneath them?
◗ provided a clear title?
Conclusion
Graphics provide a visual accompaniment to text and, while the adage may
claim that ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’, words are an essential
accompaniment to graphical elements, providing explanation and context.
Graphics should be carefully chosen in order to ensure that they add weight
to an argument or point rather than detract from or dilute the point.
Graphics are powerful elements and can extend the accessibility of the
material beyond what is achievable when readers are faced with text-only
documents. Graphics help to explain complex concepts, relationships
between objects or people, trends over time and steps in a process.
Well-selected graphical elements in a document may help an organisation’s
ability to communicate effectively with its employees, customers and suppliers
and to ensure business success.
383
21
ORAL MESSAGES
Introduction
For some people, standing up in front of a group of people and talking is one
of the most terrifying things they could be asked to do. In fact, research shows
that some people fear public speaking more than death. This however does
not have to be the case. The anxiety of public speaking often comes from not
knowing what to expect: will the audience understand what I am saying, what
if I say the wrong thing, what if I forget what I need to say, what if I stumble
over my words, will I be able to keep them interested, will they judge me? All
of these are valid concerns, but the anxiety they produce can be reduced by
planning ahead: understanding what the expectations of the audience are,
having an appropriate presentation drafted, knowing which presentation
method would be best suited for the audience and practising the presentation
as much as possible.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the differences in the formats for a presentation and an oral report
• prepare a presentation or an oral report
As a presenter, you want to capture your audience’s attention at the onset. You
can make use of one or more of the following techniques to do this:
• Ask an interesting question or a couple of interesting questions (but not
too many). In this way, you will get your audience involved by making
them think about your topic.
• Refer to current or recent events that link with your topic and give it
added interest.
385
386
People normally present reports because they have been instructed to:
• investigate a problem
• report on the feasibility of a project
• report back on the progress of a project
• report on a situation.
An oral report therefore has a more rigid format than a general presentation.
The format is as follows.
Introduction
• A brief statement of the terms of reference (also called a brief) or
instructions given to the presenter. The terms of reference should include:
• the name of the person who gave the instructions
• the date on which the instructions were given
• the main instructions given.
Conclusions
• These are the insights gained from their facts and the implications.
• Again, do not introduce new information at this stage because it will only
confuse your audience.
387
Recommendations
• These are the proposed actions to be taken as a result of the findings and
the conclusions.
388
389
beliefs, attitudes, needs and goals of others. Persuaders should also find out
at the start if the audience is likely to be positive or negative towards them
and their ideas. All of us are suspicious of people who try to persuade us to do
something, especially if it is something against our will. You should therefore
be cautious that you do not make your audience suspicious or hostile towards
you in your attempts to persuade them.
Approaches to persuasion
• The logical appeal as an approach to persuasion makes use of hard facts as
a basis. When you make use of fact you can use either an inductive or a
deductive approach.
• The inductive approach uses specific Note
examples as a basis for making a ◗ Use both sides of an argument
general statement. This approach is to persuade people. Do not
useful if your audience starts off against simply argue from one point
of view.
your view. If you are a salesperson for ◗ If you feel that your audience
a pharmaceutical company, you could, is hostile, start with points with
for example show several specific which they can agree. Then
results of tests that support the benefits move to your point of view.
◗ In order to be persuasive you
of the drug you need to sell and then need to show that you have
move towards a general statement of great knowledge of the facts.
your product, such as how it benefits a ◗ You can also persuade people
person’s overall health. through your own attitudes
and enthusiasm.
• The deductive approach starts with
a general statement and moves to
specific statements to back it up. This approach is effective if you feel
that your audience is likely to accept your general statement as long as
you support it with specific examples. You will therefore start by saying
your product contributes significantly to a person’s overall health and
then you can provide specific examples in the form of test results to
support this claim.
• The personal appeal as an approach to persuasion is an approach where you
ask people to trust you based on your own reputation or credibility.
• You can also use a psychological appeal, which is based on an analysis of
the audience’s needs, desires and motives. It should stress the benefits to
the audience.
390
• The middle
• Develop the argument in terms of its advantages and disadvantages.
• Work from the problem to the solution.
• Keep stressing the advantages to the audience.
• The end
• Stress the desired action you want the audience to take and how they
will benefit from taking that action.
When you present your speech or oral report pay special attention to:
• non-verbal communication, particularly paralanguage, eye contact, hand
movements and the way you stand (stand evenly on both feet, do not cross
your arms and legs or twist your back, use natural gestures to emphasise
points and keep eye contact with the audience)
• your dress and general appearance
• your level of enthusiasm
• your style
• the quality of your audio-visual aids and the way in which you use them.
For example, it will not create a favourable impression if your presentation
is full of spelling mistakes, your slides contain too much information or
you use too many different types of fonts in different sizes.
391
392
Achieving credibility
Speakers can make themselves credible by:
• paying very careful attention to the beginning of the message to make a
good first impression
• ensuring that they are introduced by someone who the audience respects
• paying close attention to their appearance
• selecting their ideas carefully and supporting what the audience likes or
can identify with
• using facts to back up general statements
• ensuring their delivery is excellent
• establishing common ground with the audience
• appearing open-minded and sincere
• ending on a powerful note.
393
• The major advantage is that you • Disadvantages are that the laptop
are able to create an interactive and the data projector could be
presentation that can include: incompatible. Always test the two
• Microsoft®Word-based together in a rehearsal.
presentations • The laptop may not be your own,
• images (photographs, graphs, so you will have to ensure that the
cartoons, etc.) software you have used is compatible
• videos and clips with the hardware provided.
• audio material • Not all presentation venues will have
• hyperlinks to websites the equipment required to show both
all of which may assist in creating video and audio material – check
an all-inclusive and engaging beforehand what equipment will be at
presentation. your disposal.
• Presentations can be created that • Have a back-up plan in case of a
use a wide range of point sizes, power failure.
fonts and styles, limited only by the • If you are going to use links to
software you choose to use. websites or if you store your
• The presentation can be stored on presentation online in a cloud drive,
numerous devices (discs, USB or a lack of Internet connection will
cloud drives) ensuring that you have prohibit access to these links.
multiple back-ups.
394
Suggestions:
• When you use colour combinations, ensure that your background colour is not
too dark.
• Provide a strong contrast between your background and the colour of your letters,
so that your slides are readable.
• Use a large font size of up to 32-point for your letters.
• Do not overload your screen. Keep your layout simple.
• Do not put the entire presentation on your slides; the presentation should guide
you, not present for you.
• Use the 6 x 8 rule: a maximum of six points per slide and a maximum of eight
words per point.
• When you are listing items, bring items on one at a time so that you build up
your list.
• Keep in mind that each screen of information must be read and understood in
only ten seconds.
• Try to use a range of diagrams and other illustrations, combined with words.
• When placing video, audio or website links in your presentation, make sure that
they work before you present.
• If you are going to place a YouTube link in the presentation, make sure that it
adds to the presentation and does not distract from the point you are trying
to make.
• Download a video file beforehand so that your audience does not have to wait
for the video to buffer during the presentation.
• Find out if the presentation will be shown on a television screen or through a
projector – the different formats could affect how the images and colours are
seen by the audience.
• Very important – ALWAYS save numerous copies of the presentation in case one
of your copies gets corrupted or lost.
395
Suggestions:
When using a video, make sure that you:
• test the equipment and the film at the venue
• have everything ready for immediate playing.
When setting up your audio, make sure that:
• everything is ready for instant playing when you need it
• the audio is clear and loud enough for all to hear. You can play it through proper
speakers and do not depend on the speakers of your laptop because it will not
be loud enough.
396
Suggestions:
When using a white board, make sure that you:
• write boldly and carefully
• stop talking while you write, finish writing and then turn to talk to the audience
• do not talk to the audience with your back turned to them
• use a pointer and stand aside so that people can see what you have written
or drawn
• use strong colours – certain colours such as yellow can disappear on a white
board if the light shines directly on them
• practise in advance what you plan to write
• check beforehand to make sure that the white board markers are not dry
and unusable.
397
Suggestions:
When using a model, ensure that you:
• tell the audience what the scale is
• display the model prominently during your presentation
• do not hand a model round during your presentation as it will distract
the audience.
Handling questions
All your oral presentations give you the chance to involve your audience. The
most useful involvement is through questions. The most effective technique
is to set aside time for answering questions at the end. Keep in mind that if
you have a very large audience, you might have to repeat the questions so that
the rest of the audience, who may not have heard the question, know what
the question is.
Ensure that you control the situation so that your audience participation
does justice to the audience and to the content of your presentation and that
it does not interfere with the time-restrictions placed on your presentation.
Unreasonable numbers of questions and interruptions can ruin an otherwise
good presentation.
398
Difficult questions
This section has been designed to help you answer difficult questions.
399
Conclusion
Even for the most confident of people, standing up and talking in front of
a group of people can be daunting. This chapter should, however, provide
guidelines as to how to combat some of the anxiety that comes with speaking
in public.
Keep certain key things in mind, such as testing your audio-visual aids
in advance, making sure they fit with the presentation, speaking clearly,
projecting confidence through your body language and breathing naturally.
In addition, know your topic, know your audience and prepare thoroughly
beforehand and the presentation itself will become less daunting and your
confidence levels will increase.
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A
academic proposals 327 marketing and 292
checklist 340 mass advertising 7, 305–306
literature review 337 mass communication see mass
methodology 338–339 communication
outline for 336–337 newspapers, magazines 308
referencing of 209 objectives 316
research issues 337–338 problems with 317
writing of 336–339 public context 100
advertising and advertisements public relations see public relations
AIDA method 317 radio 309, 311
and business communication 1 techniques 318
cartoons, use of 380 television and see mass media
choice of words 155, 158 advertorials 310
circulars 315 agendas
classified 315, 319–320 AGM 139
computer programmes and 269 for meetings 143
consumers and, see consumers formal 143–144
corporate images 285, 290, 293 aggression
demographic analysis 308 vs assertiveness 35
design of 315 problems with 35
entertainment 308 AGM see meetings
external environment and 24 assertiveness 35
film 309 and clear statements 36
function of 315 and self-esteem 35
informing 315 attitudes
persuading 308, 315 cultural differences 112
re job applications 129–130 audiences and
market research and 18 advertisements 315–317
406
407
linear 13 corporate
convergence 13–24 advertising and 285, 290
networks see networks identity see identity
non-verbal see non-verbal image see image
communication creativity and ideas
open 81 academic proposals and 327,
within an organisation 79 ff 333–334
outward 100 audio-visual aids and 393
participants, effect on 15–16 Bendinger’s stages 241
needs and goals of 22 explanation and portrayal of 365,
perceptions of 22 376–378
pressures on 22 mindmaps 242, 389
as receivers 16, 18, 22 persuasion and 389, 393
as senders 15, 18, 22 oral presentations and 388–389
process 8 stimulation of 240
with public 24 culture and cultural
advertising 34, 100 assumptions 112
two-way 18, 42 background 21
written 19 and see writing behaviour 106
conflict climate vs 107–109
avoidance 77 context: high vs low 106, 112
business success and 2 defined 105
causes of 8, 11, 16, 21, 55, 59, 98, differences, effect of
112–114 attitudes, values, beliefs 112
cultural differences and 104–105 verbal vs non-verbal 111
dealing with 77–78 frame of reference 21
deception and 56 importance of 6
within groups 64, 65, 75 individualism vs collectivism 6
leadership and 68, 71 intercultural see intercultural
management and 65, 77, 82–86, 110 masculinity vs femininity 106
in meetings 138 mores and norms 106, 107
reduction, norming stage 62 within organisations 107
storming stage 61 relativity 112
types of 75–77 ways of thinking 112
consumers and see customers worldviews 105
needs re advertising 315–318 curriculum vitae
services to 295 job application 132–135
copyright 212 and see plagiarism customer/s – persuasion of
electronic sources and 218, 222 advertisements 308
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420