10 1016@j Ijme 2021 100506

The International Journal of Management Education xxx (xxxx) xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
The International Journal of Management Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijme
Boosting entrepreneurial intention of university students: Is a

serious business game the key?
Cristina Pérez-Pérez, Thais González-Torres, Juan-José Nájera-Sánchez *
Department of Business Administration (ADO), Applied Economics II and Fundaments of Economic Analysis, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Paseo de
los Artilleros s/n, Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales, 28032, Madrid, Spain
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Why do politicians and academics want to encourage the creation of new companies? Why are
Entrepreneurial intention numerous reports and journals filled with analyses of environmental conditions or initiatives
Experiential learning aimed at boosting entrepreneurial intention? Because entrepreneurs play an essential role in
Serious business games
economic development. Education and training occupy an honored place on the list of methods to
Individual characteristics
increase entrepreneurial intention. In this paper, we assess the impact of an experiential learning
practice on students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, we consider the moderating role of
individual characteristics such as gender, age, proximity to entrepreneurship, academic perfor
mance, previous work experience, and propensity for risk. We observe the change in a university
student’s entrepreneurial intention as a consequence of participating in a serious business game.
We do not find that participation results in a significant positive general effect. Further, age,
proximity to entrepreneurship, propensity for risk, and academic performance moderate the
impact of participation. The results suggest students become aware of their need for additional
training and the difficulties of entrepreneurship and company management.
1. Introduction
In recent years, research dealing with the concept of entrepreneurial intention has increased exponentially, creating a new field of
research (Fayolle & Liñán, 2014). The importance of entrepreneurship as a critical component of economic evolution has sparked
academic interest in factors that influence entrepreneurial intention, especially education (Liñán, Urbano, & Guerrero, 2011; Nabi
et al., 2018; Martínez-García et al., 2019). Different studies have shown how training, especially experiential training, allows students
to learn entrepreneurship through experimentation (Buil et al., 2019; Gibb, 2002), as it is the most effective way to develop the skills
required (Minniti & Bygrave, 2001; Rae & Carswell, 2000). Universities, as a source of training, can stimulate entrepreneurial intention
(Acs et al., 2018; Forsman, 2011; McKeever et al., 2014). By developing an entrepreneurial mentality and skills in their students,
universities can boost entrepreneurial intentions (Boubker et al., 2021; Hynes et al., 2011), contributing to innovation, job creation
and poverty reduction (Liñán, Urbano, & Guerrero, 2011; Ribeiro-Soriano, 2017; Welter & Lasch, 2008; Wennekers & Thurik, 1999).
Based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), Entrepreneurial Intention models (Kolvereid & Isaksen, 2006; Liñán,
Rodríguez-Cohard, & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011) affirm that entrepreneurial intention arises from three motivating factors. First, attitude
* Corresponding author. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales, Paseo de los Artilleros, s/n. 28032, Madrid,
Spain.
E-mail addresses: cristina.perez.perez@urjc.es (C. Pérez-Pérez), thais.gonzalez@urjc.es (T. González-Torres), juanjose.najera@urjc.es
(J.-J. Nájera-Sánchez).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100506
Received 1 July 2020; Received in revised form 8 April 2021; Accepted 24 April 2021
1472-8117/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Cristina Pérez-Pérez, The International Journal of Management Education,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100506
C. Pérez-Pérez et al. The International Journal of Management Education xxx (xxxx) xxx
towards the start-up, i.e., an individual’s positive or negative evaluation toward becoming an entrepreneur. Second, perceived
behavioral control, which is an individual’s perception of their ability to enact a behavior. In this case, becoming an entrepreneur.
Third, subjective norms, or the social pressure from family, friends, or influential people regarding becoming an entrepreneur. Next,
the Theory of Experiential Learning states that an individual acquires necessary knowledge through the transformation of experience
(Kolv, 2000). The learning process is based on new experiences and student reactions to those experiences. This develops their un
derstanding, transforming it into knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Naufalin et al., 2016). Serious business games are described by
several authors as a pedagogical approach that enables students to develop skills and gain practical knowledge related to managing a
business, influencing their perceived behavioral control and their attitude towards the start-up, which may further their entrepre
neurial intention (e.g. Bellotti et al., 2012; Fellnhofer, 2015).
However, few studies analyze the factors that can amplify or reduce serious business game effects on entrepreneurial intention
(Costin et al., 2018; Kriz & Auchter, 2016; Zulfiqar et al., 2019). Moreover, the scarce literature about the impact of serious business
games on entrepreneurial intention offers inconclusive views. On one hand, the authenticity of the learning experience, with its
complexity and uncertainty, could lead to a decrease in entrepreneurial intention, so entrepreneurship programs’ effectiveness re
mains under suspicion, according to Newbery et al. (2016). On the other hand, Zulfiqar et al. (2019) suggest that business simulation
games can play an important role in developing favorable intentions toward entrepreneurship among students, mainly thanks to the
increase in their perceived ability to be entrepreneurs. This work analyzes the perceived value of business simulation games as the
independent variable in a sample of multinational undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate students.
Following Newbery et al. (2016) to provide a more objective vision of the role of serious games, this article focuses on analyzing the
effects of participating in a serious game on entrepreneurial intention in a sample of undergraduate business and management students
in Spain. To complement Newbery et al. (2016) study, we explore and empirically test the moderating role of several factors: key
sociodemographic variables -gender and age-, academic performance, previous work experience, proximity to entrepreneurship and
risk propensity. Our study has two other significant differences. First, the students in our sample are in the last course of their bachelor
degree instead of in the first course. Second, the nature of the simulation is different (our simulation is described in-depth in the
methods section).
This study’s fundamental contribution is the report of an absence of direct effect from participation in a serious business game on
entrepreneurial intention in a sample of undergraduate final year university students in Spain. However, some isolated effects are
observed, not so much in terms of learning as in new awareness regarding entrepreneurship. The study shows the irrelevance of some
personal characteristics as moderators in the analyzed relationship. At the same time, academic performance and proximity to
entrepreneurship do have moderating effects.
The paper is structured as follows. First, a theoretical model is proposed based on a literature review of serious business games in
higher education and their effects on entrepreneurial intention. Next, the empirical methodology is presented, followed by analyzing
the results, finishing with the discussion and conclusions.
2. Literature review and hypothesis
2.1. The role of serious business games in higher education
Experiential learning using educational tools such as serious business games is increasingly common in higher education (Bellotti
et al., 2012; Kolb, 2014; La Guardia et al., 2014). Hallinger and Wang (2020) report a rapidly growing publication trajectory in their
bibliometric review about simulation-based learning in management education, reflecting academics’ interest. It is a beneficial way for
students to experience situations that would be impossible in the real world due to considerations of safety, cost, and time, among
others (Corti, 2006). These methods represent a paradigm shift. The role of the students changes from passive to active. Additionally,
the teacher becomes a facilitator, who helps them relate theoretical knowledge to real-world situations and experiences (Michael &
Chen, 2006; Rubio Hurtado et al., 2016).
Traditional methodologies based on the lecture format focus on learning’s cognitive aspects, leading to a low-intensity learning
experience. However, experiential learning is intended to impact the whole person, not only in cognition but also in affective and
behavioral domains of learning (Hoover, 1974).This means that experiential learning requires the students’ active involvement at
different process points (Walter et al., 1981). In this vein, students not only attend a lecture but also make decisions and experience
their consequences, identify and solve conflicting problems in natural settings, and participate in role playing, among other activities.
This active involvement implies not only teacher-student dyadic interactions but also student-student or student-environment in
teractions. Additionally, students share their perceptions about the experience. This feedback is an excellent measure to assess whether
students genuinely learn and to improve their future experience (Gentry, 1990).
Following Kolb and Kolb (2005), this active involvement entails a creative tension among the different learning models —visual,
auditory, reading/writing and kinesthetic. This process is presented as a spiral learning cycle, in which students experience, reflect,
think and act according to the learning situation and to what is being learned. Thus, the experience drives student observation and
reflections, which are immediately assimilated, leading to new implications for action, which also serve as guides in creating new
experiences.
In this way, students can develop competencies that are in high demand by companies (Susi et al., 2007). The use of serious
business games has positive effects on the development of soft skills, that is, professional skills that involve personality and behavior
(Levant et al., 2016). Examples of these skills are communication, leadership, teamwork and entrepreneurship (de Freitas & Liar
okapis, 2011; Michael & Chen, 2006). Farashahi and Tajeddin (2018) showed simulations have equal or better learning performance
2
than case studies or lectures in problem-solving, interpersonal, and self-awareness skills.

Experiential learning has equally important implications for the teacher (Mason & Arshed, 2013), modifying their role from being a
carrier of knowledge to a promoter, facilitator and manager, whose tasks fall on the organization of experiences and learning
appropriate for students (Haase & Lautenschläger, 2011). The traditional learning method differs from the experiential learning
method in that the former focuses on a didactic teaching style centered on lectured-based teaching and learning, and the latter allows
students to learn through applications and actions. According to Whetten and Cameron (2002, p. 11) a “traditional, cognitive-based
curriculum without exposure to management skill development does not correlate with improvements of emotional intelligence,
management skills or career success.”
Experiential learning better prepares students for their future challenges by exposing them to the same feelings they will have once
they join the labor market. It also helps them develop interpersonal, teamwork and conflict resolution skills, crucial elements of
managerial competence, and helps establish and reinforce other professional skills (Raja & Najmonnisa, 2018). Scalzo and Turner
(2007) found that the blend of experiential learning methods with managerial skills resulted in practical knowledge for the students.
Hernández-Lara and Serradell-López (2018) how students perceived an improvement due to participating in a business game in
competencies related to teamwork, decision-making, information processing, reaching agreements, and dealing with uncertainty.
According to Kennedy (2017), simulation is a sub-tool of the experiential learning method used to offer students a real-life scenario
to practice their theoretical knowledge. Its main objective is to offer students the opportunity to learn by doing, immersing them in an
authentic management situation (Garris et al., 2002; Martin, 2000). Doing this provides a link between abstract concepts and real
problems, includes the practical element within learning situations, and allows students to practice decision-making abilities (Ben-Zvi,
2010).
2.2. Serious business games and entrepreneurial intention of university students: direct and moderating effects
2.2.1. The direct effect of serious business games on entrepreneurial intention

Entrepreneurship is defined as the process of identifying new opportunities, creating new economic activities and innovation (Low
& Macmillan, 1988; Schumpeter, 1934). Entrepreneurship is a complex phenomenon that requires making decisions in situations with
high uncertainty (Timmons et al., 2004). Research on entrepreneurship has grown significantly in recent years, leading to different
sub-fields, such as entrepreneurial behavior (Kraus et al., 2020).
Although there are some calls to further research (Nabi et al., 2017), entrepreneurship literature usually accepts that entrepre
neurial intention is the best variable for predicting entrepreneurial behavior. Entrepreneurial intention is the attribute that leads an
individual to pursue a career in self-employment or to establish their own business (Fayolle & Liñán, 2014). The consideration of
intentions as antecedents of entrepreneurial action (Ajzen, 1991) has led to a rapid expansion of the field of entrepreneurial intentions
in recent years (Ruiz-Alba et al., 2020).
Liñán and Fayolle (2015) identified five research trends in entrepreneurial intention: core entrepreneurial intention model, per
sonal level variables, entrepreneurship education, context and institutions, and entrepreneurial process. Donaldson (2019) analyzed
this literature in recent years and found that studies have continued those trends, highlighting the strength of educational themes. Both
works detect two main intellectual bases: the first related to social psychology, whose primary instrument is the Theory of Planned
Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980); and the second derived from the specific field of entrepreneurship and stemming
from the Entrepreneurial Event Model (Shapero & Sokol, 1982). There have been no significant shifts during recent years. Therefore,
understanding entrepreneurial intention continues to be embedded within these critical theories.
Besides intentions, there has been considerable discussion about entrepreneurial competencies or skills. According to Man et al.
(2002), entrepreneurial competencies represent the entrepreneur’s capacity to perform a job successfully. Man and Lau (2005) suggest
that these competencies are strongly related to the individual’s background (traits, personality, attitudes, social role and self-image).
However, they can also be acquired through training and education (skills, knowledge and experience). Some authors agree that an
entrepreneur can learn to discover and exploit opportunities through adequate business training (Dreisler, 2008; Solomon et al., 2008).
Following the idea of Chandler and Hanks (1994) that entrepreneurs needed to be competent both in entrepreneurial (recognize and
envision taking advantage of the opportunity) and managerial roles (acquire and utilize resources to coordinate the business interest
and activities), Mitchelmore and Rowley (2010) provide an integrated entrepreneurial competency framework based on a literature
review. We summarize these competencies in Table 1.
Through means to experiment and learn about entrepreneurial activities in a cognitively authentic and realistic environment, it is
possible to influence students’ entrepreneurial behavior and future attitudes (Fayolle et al., 2006; Huebscher & Lendner, 2010). One
method is business games, which offer a more realistic vision of the entrepreneurial experience than theoretical lessons and allow
experiential learning without consequences in real economic terms (Newbery et al., 2016; Whitton, 2009). This approach enables
students to observe the relationship between decisions and their results (Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018). Also, the students’ performance
in the game is usually connected with their grades, implying real consequences and encouraging them to optimize their behavior.
Despite the increase in entrepreneurship courses offered by higher education (Collins et al., 2006), the literature about the impact
of serious business games on entrepreneurial intention offers inconclusive views. The authenticity of the learning experience, with its
complexity and uncertainty, could lead to a decrease in entrepreneurial intention, so entrepreneurship programs’ effectiveness re
mains under suspicion (Newbery et al., 2016). However, several studies suggest that participating in serious business games has
positive effects on various success-determining skills such as decision making, risk management, problem-solving, communication,
teamwork, conflict management, and complex problem solving (Costin et al., 2018; de Freitas & Liarokapis, 2011; Levant et al., 2016).
Other types of business attributes that can be developed are risk aptitude and innovation, long-term vision, and the ability to cope with
3
complexity and competition (Bellotti et al., 2012). Finally, through simulation learning, students will be more aware of and better
understand their potential and attitude to become entrepreneurs (Zulfiqar et al., 2019). Many of these skills are gathered in the in
ventory proposed by Mitchelmore and Rowley (2010) (see Table 1).
This is consistent with the idea that adequate business training through serious business games has the potential to allow students to
develop a deep understanding of the market dynamics, competencies and skills needed to be an entrepreneur, and therefore feel more
empowered and encouraged to carry out this type of activity in the future (Costin et al., 2018; Dreisler, 2008; Mitchelmore & Rowley,
2010; Solomon et al., 2008; Zulfiqar et al., 2019). The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen 1987, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) predicts
that entrepreneurial intention is based on people’s attitude toward entrepreneurship and perceived behavioral control to carry out an
entrepreneurial behavior. Taking into account the previous arguments, we propose our first Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1. Participation in serious business games has a positive effect on university students’ entrepreneurial intentions.
2.2.2. The moderating variables on the relationship between serious business games and entrepreneurial intention
Much of the literature shows that entrepreneurial intention is influenced by sociodemographic, educational or psychological
characteristics (Bellotti et al., 2012; Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015) and is particularly focused on the role of education (Badri
& Hachicha, 2019; Liñán, Urbano, & Guerrero, 2011). However, there is a lack of contributions studying the influence of these var
iables from the individual’s perspective and the process in which the training effect on entrepreneurial intention occurs.
Gender is the focus of many studies. Gupta et al. (2009) provide evidence that gender-role stereotypes and gender identification are
significantly related to becoming an entrepreneur. More specifically, they found that people associate entrepreneurs with stereo
typically masculine characteristics. Similarly, several studies show that gender has a significant effect, with greater entrepreneurial
intent among males, due to better business knowledge (Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2012, 2015; Pines, 2002).
Nowiński et al. (2019) concluded that the effect of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intention is stronger for women
than for men. Zhang et al. (2014) show that serious business games generate higher levels of change in women’s entrepreneurial
Table 1
Entrepreneurial competency framework.
Entrepreneurial competencies Identification and definition of a viable market niche
Development of products of services appropriate to the firms chosen market niche/product innovation
Idea generation
Environmental scanning
Recognising and envisioning taking advantage of opportunities
Formulating strategies for taking advantage of opportunities
Business and management competencies Development of the management system necessary for the long term functioning of the organisation
Acquisition and development of resources required to operate the firm
Business operational skills
Previous involvement with start-ups
Managerial experience
Familiarity with industry
Financial and budgeting skills
Previous experience
Management style
Marketing skills
Technical skills
Industry skills
The ability to implement strategy (develop programmes, budgets, procedures, evaluate performance)
Familiarity with the market
Business plan preparation
Goal setting skills
Management skills
Human relations competencies Development of the organisational culture management feel is necessary to guide the firm
Delegation skills
The ability to motivate others individual and in groups
Hiring skills
Human relations skills
Leadership skills
Conceptual and relationship competencies Conceptual competencies
Organisational skills
Interpersonal skills
The ability to manage customers
Mental ability to coordinate activities
Written communication skills
Oral communication skills
Decision making skills
Analytical skills
Logical thinking skills
Deal-making skills
Commitment competencies
Source: Mitchelmore and Rowley (2010).
4
intentions than men’s. Authors such as Kriz and Auchter (2016) reveal that women’s entrepreneurial motivation falls dramatically
after a business game compared to men. The main findings suggest a more significant loss of interest in the game, a lower propensity to
take risks and a lesser leadership orientation. According to the authors, this may be due to certain gender stereotypes, as there was less
entrepreneurial intention among women before the business game. The same gender differences were found in other works (Wilson
et al., 2007). Garber et al. (2017) report differences between males and females in learning preferences and attitude toward the
experience itself in a serious game learning environment. Nevertheless, other research has shown less conclusive results regarding this
relationship (Towler et al., 2009), thus requiring further research. Based on the previous evidence, we propose the following
Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2a. There are significant differences between women and men regarding serious business games’ influence on entre
preneurial intention.
With few exceptions (e.g., Liñán, 2004), contributions regarding the influence of age in the context of serious games and its effects
on learning and competencies are scarce. This shortage may be related to the lack of data with sufficient statistical variability in this
individual characteristic. Hernández-Lara et al. (2019), demonstrate the existence of a negative relationship between age and learning
ability among serious game participants. Tiwari et al. (2014) and Vogel et al. (2006) found no significant differences between age
groups regarding learning effectiveness. Ahmed et al. (2017) found some differences in the perceived benefits of an entrepreneurship
education program among younger students, but there were no differences in entrepreneurial intention. Given these inconsistencies,
we propose the following Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2b. There are significant differences between age groups regarding serious business games’ influence on entrepreneurial
intention.
According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, entrepreneurship’s perceived attractiveness is based on attitudinal variables and
subjective norms (Ajzen, 1991). Therefore, entrepreneurial intention can be affected by a social background influenced by culture,
family members, friends, and personal business experience. Several studies confirm significant relationships between this intention
and the fact of having a parent, or other close relatives, who own a business (Fairlie & Robb, 2007; Soria-Barreto et al., 2017). These
results are consistent with those presented by Crant (1996) and represent the most significant role theory results, which suggests that
an individual identifies with and is influenced by a role model (Kagan, 1958). These influences affect entrepreneurial intention both
directly and indirectly (Krueger et al., 2000; Liñán, Urbano, & Guerrero, 2011). A positive role model can influence students to pursue
an entrepreneurial career. Saeed et al. (2014) highlight the positive effects of entrepreneurial parents and conclude that children of
entrepreneurs are twice as likely to become self-employed. Fayolle and Gailly (2015) showed that participating in an entrepreneurship
education program on entrepreneurial intention was more positive among students without a close entrepreneur. However, the in
fluence can be counterproductive, promoting a false sense of ability and identity. Newbery et al. (2016) reveal that students with a
close entrepreneurial role model experienced a more significant decline in entrepreneurial intention. This proximity can also have a
negative influence (negative model), as the student has closely experienced the challenges and problems associated with entrepre
neurship (Gibson, 2004). Based on the previous studies, we propose the following Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2c. There are significant differences between individuals with different proximity to entrepreneurship regarding serious
business games’ influence on entrepreneurial intention.
Previous studies show significant negative relationships between academic performance and entrepreneurial intention. However,
there are few contributions regarding the moderating effect of academic performance in the relationship between participation in
serious business games and entrepreneurial intention. Tao et al. (2012) confirm a positive effect on learning from participation in
serious games by the best-qualified students. According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, individuals may be more prepared, and
therefore, an entrepreneurial behavior or intention is more feasible (Ajzen, 2002). However, Hernández-Lara et al. (2019) report an
absence of effect between this variable and serious game effects. Previously, Washbush and Gosen (2001) had concluded similar
results. In our study, we propose the following Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2d. There are significant differences between individuals with different academic performance regarding serious
Diverse studies have found a positive and significant relationship between work experience and entrepreneurial intention
(Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015; Ooi & Nasiru, 2015). Others, however, show no such effect (Kristiansen & Indarti, 2004).
Students with previous work experience leverage their acquired knowledge and integrate it with new knowledge from the training
activity. However, according to Ballantine and Larres (2009), previous experience has no impact on students’ perception of learning.
Similarly, Tiwari et al. (2014) confirm the absence of a significant relationship between work experience and learning ability in a
serious game environment. Levant et al. (2016) also find no significant differences between students with and without experience in
developing entrepreneurship-related skills through serious games. Accordingly, we propose the following Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2e. There are significant differences between individuals with different previous work experience regarding serious
The Theory of Planned Behavior suggests that personal attitudes influence the evaluation of a tendency towards a specific behavior,
in this case, entrepreneurial intention (Ajzen, 1991). The literature highlights specific psychological characteristics that encourage the
creation of new businesses, such as a propensity for risk (Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015). Some authors have insisted on the
5
idea that entrepreneurs must have a certain tendency to take risks, as they must make decisions in complex situations keeping the
rewards in mind (Gürol & Atsan, 2006). It could, therefore, be said that having a risk-prone personality positively affects business
intentions (e.g., Bellotti et al., 2012; Crant, 1996; Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015). Thus, this personality trait can amplify the
stimulus of entrepreneurship-related training, increasing entrepreneurial intent. However, this relationship has not been proven in
previous studies. We propose the following Hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2f. There are significant differences between individuals with different propensities for risk regarding serious business
games’ influence on entrepreneurial intention.
Fig. 1 summarizes our research model.
3. Methods and data
3.1. Research design and data
To carry out this research, we surveyed students in the last course of a Business Administration Degree at a Spanish university. All of
the students took “Business game”, a subject organized around a serious business game. This subject is an optional module offered in
the first semester where the main activity is participation in a serious game simulation, allowing students to improve their business
experience and to implement knowledge previously acquired during their studies. At the same time, they need to develop and apply
instrumental skills, such as interaction ability (both external, with other teams, and internal, with the other members of their own
management team), leadership and initiative. The objective of this subject is to provide students with a practical environment in which
they can apply and develop professional skills.
Students participate in a computer-assisted simulation developed by one of the authors, forming workgroups of five or six people.
The workgroups have to manage a new-creation company, taking decisions including a specific mix of activities (production, research
& development, retail) and geographic location. There are eight rounds of decisions, which correspond to the first two years of the
company. The starting point is the same for all teams: the initial capital to fund their company and knowledge to build two products in
the electronics market. The students receive information about the environment: market features (customer profiles, price-elasticities,
advertising-elasticities, distribution cost, transport cost), production cost forecasts, etcetera. First, they must write a business plan,
identifying opportunities and analyzing their advantages and disadvantages. In this process, students have to develop most of the
abilities that Mitchelmore and Rowley (2010) refer to as entrepreneurial competencies. It is important to state that groups have
complete autonomy to configure their companies and select their business model: they can choose to be producers or not (if they
produce, they can focus on one or both products), to sell product in consumer markets or not, to carry out research & development
(even as the only activity) or to become specialized retailers (in one or several markets), among other options.
The participants must also complete other assignments: a balanced scorecard and objectives set, a financial forecast, an industry
analysis, and a deviations report. All of them are related to competencies that are useful in a business management environment.
Students are evaluated on three components: the company’s results (in a competitive scheme in which their final results determine
40% of the grade), the assignments’ scores (50% of the grade), and an evaluation by the workgroup members (about individual
performance).
Five hundred twenty-two students distributed in eight different classes took the subject in the 2018–2019 academic year. Three
professors/facilitators were in charge of these courses. To get as many responses as possible, all students registered in the course
received the survey. Therefore, this research sample represents the totality of the population undertaking this course in this specific
academic year.
Following Cohen and Bailey (1997), we used a quasi-experimental research design. Our approach was the one-group pretest-
post-test design. It consists of measuring the same variable (in our case, entrepreneurial intention) in a cohort, before and after this
group receives a stimulus (participation in the serious business game), and testing to see if there are significant changes in that
measurement between the two moments. Thus, each student received two questionnaires: one at the beginning and another at the end
Fig. 1. Research model.
6
of the course. The survey’s response rate was 96.17%.
3.2. Measures
We used the Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) (Liñán & Chen, 2009; Liñán, Urbano, & Guerrero, 2011; Liñán et al.
2011, 2011; Nabi et al., 2018), widely used by scholars to assess students’ entrepreneurial intention (Ahmed et al., 2020; Rauch &
Hulsink, 2015; Westhead & Solesvik, 2016). Our approach assesses entrepreneurial intention in two different moments: before and
after the serious business game. We wanted to test if this measurement varies between these two moments. To obtain a single measure,
we performed a principal components analysis, getting a unique factor. The factor explains 81.84% of the variance of single items, with
a reliability measure (Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.96, above minimum recommended values. We tested all variables for normality using
Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistics. None of them fit a normal distribution. Therefore, we used the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank
test in our analysis. We also analyzed the single items included in the EIQ to test possible changes in them between the two moments
(see Table 2).
To test the moderating effect, we divided the sample into groups according to each variable’s different categories. We established
these categories to create groups large enough to analyze possible differences and, at the same time, make sense. For Age, we created
three categories: 21 years or less, 22–25 years, and 26 or more years. For Proximity to entrepreneurship, we used a categorical variable
that distinguished between two groups: close, if the student had an entrepreneur in his/her closest social circle (second-grade family or
very close friend), and non-close (other cases).
Concerning Academic Performance, we considered two categories: students with an average qualification up to that moment below
7 (medium performance) and above 7 (high performance). The Spanish system usually qualifies students from 0 to 10, with 5 being the
minimum qualification to pass a subject. Only subjects that have been passed are included. Thus, the original variable lowest theo
retical value is 5 and the largest is 10.
To measure Previous work experience, bearing in mind the sample’s profile, we distinguished three categories: No work experi
ence, less than a year, and a year or more. Finally, we asked students about their attitude toward risk, using a Likert-scale of 7 points.
We grouped this variable into three categories: low-risk propensity (from 1 to 3), medium (from 4 to 5), and high (from 6 to 7). Table 3
sums the frequencies for all moderating variables.
4. Results
We summarize the results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for the whole sample in Table 4. We can see that there is a significant
change between the beginning and the end of the game only in the first item (“I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur”). If we
consider all the participants, the serious business game does not affect entrepreneurial intention. We notice just one significant change
among all considered variables: The feeling of being ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur. However, results point to a negative
relationship between participation and entrepreneurial intention. It contradicts Hypothesis H1, and, therefore, we can reject serious
games’ positive effect on university students’ entrepreneurial intentions.
To test the influences of moderating variables, we followed a similar process, considering the partial samples according to the
groups established by those variables. Table 5 summarizes the results for Gender and Age. We have marked with an asterisk all the
significant differences concerning full sample results. We can see that results do not change significantly for sub-samples. The only
exception is the first variable (“I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur”) for the oldest students. This group of students
responds to that question in the same way before and after the business game. Thus, we can refute Hypothesis H2a and, partially, H2b
regarding the existence of differences in Gender and Age on the serious games’ influence on university students’ entrepreneurial
intention.
Table 6 contains the results for Proximity to Entrepreneurship, Academic Performance, and Previous work experience. Concerning
Proximity to Entrepreneurship, we observe a significant change in two entrepreneurial intention variables: “I have the firm intention to
start a firm some day” and the factor Entrepreneurial intention. In both cases, the analysis of ranks shows students with less Proximity
to Entrepreneurship experienced a significant change of opinion, with a lower value response at the end of the game. We cannot reject
Hypothesis H2c about the differences between individuals with different Proximity to Entrepreneurship and the serious business
games’ effect on their entrepreneurial intentions.
We can observe significant deviations from the full sample for the high academic performance group. Specifically, students with a
Table 2
EIQ items mean and standard deviation.
Variable Beginning End
Mean SD Mean SD
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 4.48 1.61 4.8 1.55

My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur 4.31 1.79 4.34 1.83
I will make every effort to start and run my own firm 4.54 1.85 4.47 1.86
I am determined to create a firm in the future 4.26 1.9 4.28 1.91
I have very seriously thought of starting a firm 4.08 2 4.15 1.97
I have the firm intention to start a firm some day 4.16 2.06 4.19 2.01
7
Table 3
Moderating variables.
Cases Percentage
Gender
Female 278 55.38
Male 224 44.62
Age (years)
21 or less 191 38.05
Between 22 and 25 222 44.22
26 or more 89 17.73
Proximity to entrepreneurship
Non-close 235 46.81
Close 267 53.19
Academic performance
Medium 352 70.12
High 150 29.88
Previous work experience
Without experience 218 43.43
Less than a year 118 23.51
A year or more 166 33.06
Propensity for risk
Low 91 18.13
Medium 344 68.53
High 67 13.35
N 502
Table 4
Wilcoxon signed-rank test (full sample).
Negative ranks Positive ranks Ties Z Sig
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 205 108 189 − 5.122 0.000

My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur 161 151 190 − 1.003 0.316
I will make every effort to start and run my own firm 149 166 187 − 0.923 0.356
I am determined to create a firm in the future 155 161 186 − 0.301 0.763
I have very seriously thought of starting a firm 154 148 200 − 1.366 0.172
I have the firm intention to start a firm some day 169 147 186 − 0.769 0.442
Entrepreneurial intention (factor) 247 220 35 − 1.247 0.212
Table 5
Significance of Wilcoxon signed-rank test (subsamples according to Gender and Age).
Gender Age
Female Male ≤21 21<x<25 ≥25
N 278 224 191 222 89

I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur .004 .000 .002 .000 .249*
My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur .616 .351 .214 .601 .801
I will make every effort to start and run my own firm .284 .832 .704 .202 .669
I am determined to create a firm in the future .714 .965 .989 .840 .693
I have very seriously thought of starting a firm .504 .211 .097 .668 .901
I have the firm intention to start a firm some day .709 .486 .457 .657 .980
Entrepreneurial intention (factor) .498 .265 .255 .636 .568
better average qualification in their academic careers show significant changes in their responses between the beginning and the end of
the serious business game in three items: “I am determined to create a firm in the future”, “I have very seriously thought of starting a
firm”, and “I have the firm intention to start a firm someday”. Also, there is a significant difference in the Entrepreneurial intention
factor for the same group. The analysis of positive ranks, negative ranks, and ties for those variables in this sub-sample shows a
negative prevalence. It means that high-performance students responded with lower values at the end of the business game. Therefore,
we cannot refute the Hypothesis H2d suggesting the existence of differences between individuals with different Academic Performance
and serious business games’ influence on their entrepreneurial intentions.
In the sub-samples derived from the Previous Work Experience variable, we have not found any significant deviation from that
observed in the full sample. Therefore, we reject Hypothesis H2e about the differences between individuals with different Previous
Work Experience and serious business games’ influence on their entrepreneurial intentions.
Regarding the Propensity for Risk variable, the results for sub-samples (Table 7) do not show any significant deviation from the full
sample. The only exception occurs with high-risk propensity students: these participants do not change their response to “I am ready to
8
Table 6
Significance of Wilcoxon signed-rank test (subsamples according to Entrepreneurship closeness, Academic performance, and Work experience).
Proximity to Academic Previous work
entrepreneurship performance experience
Non close Close Medium High 0 <1y ≥1y
N 235 267 352 150 218 121 163

I am ready to do anything to be an 0 0.023 0 0 0.009 0.003 0.001
entrepreneur
My professional goal is to become an 0.492 0.445 0.519 0.386 0.274 0.703 0.399
entrepreneur
I will make every effort to start and run my 0.47 0.558 0.219 0.817 0.163 0.748 0.731
own firm
I am determined to create a firm in the 0.422 0.76 0.232 .012* 0.395 0.726 0.247
future
I have very seriously thought of starting a 0.24 0.421 0.839 .004* 0.78 0.245 0.284
firm
I have the firm intention to start a firm .096* 0.674 0.464 .016* 0.733 0.351 0.847
some day
Entrepreneurial intention (factor) .072* 0.985 0.96 .025* 0.723 0.558 0.223
do anything to be an entrepreneur” before and after their business game experience. As a result, we can partially refute Hypothesis H2f
on the differences between individuals with a different Propensity for Risk and serious business games’ influence on their entrepre
neurial intentions.
5. Discussion
The empirical study results indicate that participation in the serious business game has some effects on entrepreneurial intention,
although they occur in specific cases and, sometimes, in specific circumstances regarding the student’s characteristics. Significant
changes are observed in the participants’ assessment in only one of the variables that make up the model, the one related to the feeling
of preparation to be an entrepreneur. Moreover, this change is in the opposite direction from that expected: instead of feeling more
prepared, students consider themselves less prepared.
These results are consistent with Newbery et al. (2016). However, this fact goes against much of the literature of this field, in which
it has been shown that business games are especially suitable for the development of specific skills linked to both the development of a
professional career in business administration and management as in entrepreneurship (Costin et al., 2018; de Freitas & Liarokapis,
2011; Levant et al., 2016). Nabi et al. (2017) showed more studies reporting positive effects of entrepreneurship education, although
there are some relevant exceptions.
Concluding that participating in the game has impaired students’ abilities to be entrepreneurs seems untenable. There are plenty of
studies reporting the positive effect of entrepreneurship education on students’ competencies and their perception of these compe
tencies (in general and using serious games) (Bellotti et al., 2012; Fitó-Bertran et al., 2015; Hernández-Lara & Serradell-López, 2018;
Kriz & Auchter, 2016). These results have more to do, from our perspective, with exposure to a more realistic experience that allows
students to see their possible educational deficiencies or the difficulties involved in carrying out their own project. These are two
different explanations, with different implications, that we will analyze in the conclusions section.
In addition, it is possible that obtaining mediocre results in the business game may generate a negative effect on entrepreneurial
intention. Shepherd (2004) noted the opportunity entrepreneurship teachers have to facilitate students’ learning from failure.
However, even in a simulation context, business failure could generate an adverse emotional reaction that, especially in the short term,
would explain the decrease in entrepreneurial intention. This second explanation is consistent with the Spanish culture, in which
failure can be a significant obstacle for future attempts. Bosma et al. (2020), in the GEM report, show Spain as the third country in the
EU with the highest positive response to the question of whether fear of failure is a barrier to start a business.
Table 7
Significance of Wilcoxon signed-rank test (subsamples according to Risk propensity).
Risk propensity
Low Medium High
N 91 344 67
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur .000 .000 .472*
My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur .196 .210 .106
I will make every effort to start and run my own firm .526 .286 .414
I am determined to create a firm in the future .709 .705 .679
I have very seriously thought of starting a firm .303 .193 .654
I have the firm intention to start a firm some day .143 .644 .556
Entrepreneurial intention (factor) .231 .263 .568
9
Regarding the moderating variables, it is surprising that gender does not seem to moderate the relationship. Besides the direct effect
reported in the literature (Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015; Gupta et al., 2009), we found several works that point to the dif
ference between women and men regarding the effect of entrepreneurship education through a serious game, although they usually
concluded this impact is derived from learning preferences and attitude toward the experience itself (Garber et al., 2017). Kriz and
Auchter (2016) pointed to a dramatic decrease in motivation among women compared to men, and Newbery et al. (2016) also found
that a decrease in entrepreneurial intention resulting from playing a serious game is more likely among women. These results
contradict studies showing the effect of entrepreneurship education programs (Nowiński et al., 2019). These unclear and paradoxical
results can be explained by the confluence of two effects that previous literature has shown as different in males and females:
entrepreneurial education and serious games. The results we observe in our sample could derive from the combination of both,
canceling each other and, thus, showing no results. Further investigation with a different strategy could be necessary.
There are fewer precedents in age’s effect on the relationship. Newbery et al. (2016) showed no effect of this variable in their
sample. Kriz and Auchter (2016) reached a similar conclusion. However, there are difficulties in finding a sample with an extensive
enough range in this variable. Ahmed et al. (2017), in a sample with sufficient variability in age, also report no effect of general
entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intent. In our study, with students in the last year of their degrees, we replicated this
age range, and our results show there is a different effect in the older age category: no such significant and negative effect occurs in the
general sample, as previously discussed. The simplest explanation, in our opinion, is that participation in the business game did not
affect older students’ perception of the difficulties or their lack of training in starting a business. We see the same result in members of
the sample with a more risk-prone profile.
Our results show those without close ties to entrepreneurs had slightly different behavior regarding entrepreneurial intent. Spe
cifically, there is a significant and negative effect (at 90%) in the variable “I have the firm intention to start a firm some day” and in the
Entrepreneurial Intention factor. Previous works have reported different effects of role-models. Newbery et al. (2016) attributed a
negative effect on entrepreneurial intention to belonging to an entrepreneurial family. Analyzing the effects of entrepreneurship
education programs, Fayolle and Gailly (2015) showed that entrepreneurial intention’s positive effect was stronger in students without
a close entrepreneur. Our results do not confirm any of these effects. Our interpretation is that the discouragement effect occurs among
members who are not close to entrepreneurship because those who have lived in an entrepreneurial environment already know about
entrepreneurs’ difficulties.
Moderating effects are most clearly observed in academic performance: participants with higher performance seem to show less
interest in entrepreneurship after participating in the game. This could be explained by these students’ ability to determine with more
precision the effects that we commented on regarding level of preparation and, therefore, they are the most discouraged. Another
possible explanation could be that students with better academic performance have a more favorable perception of their chances in the
labor market. These results contradict those obtained by Hernández-Lara et al. (2019) and Washbush and Gosen (2001), which re
ported an absence of effect. The contrast to those of Tao et al. (2012) where a positive effect was shown is even more extreme.
We have not found studies about how work experience could mediate the effect of participation in a business game on entre
preneurial intent except for Newbery et al. (2016), who reported no effect of this variable. Our results confirm this absence of an effect.
Several studies have reported that prior work experience magnifies improvements in management and entrepreneurial competencies
derived from participating in serious games (Levant et al., 2016; Tiwari et al., 2014).
No studies provide a precedent for considering the effect of risk propensity on the studied relationship. Our results suggest a
significant difference for students with a high-risk profile as opposed to the entire sample: their entrepreneurial intention did not
decrease after participating in the business game. This is consistent with studies that have explored the effect of personality traits on
entrepreneurial intention and, in particular, risk propensity (Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015). Exploring the role of personality
traits on the relationship between entrepreneurship training (with or without serious games) and entrepreneurial intention can be an
exciting research line to contrast this result and to guide the future design of education programs in this field.
6. Conclusions, implications and future research lines
Economic literature has shown that entrepreneurship produces beneficial effects in economic and social development. Thus,
stimulating entrepreneurial intention is a reasonable goal for entrepreneurship and management teachers. However, some doubts
appear when entrepreneurship education activities are analyzed, especially considering serious games as the primary educational tool.
Our study sheds light on the effects of learning through experience, in this case through a business game, on entrepreneurial intention.
However, the results invite further research into the understanding of this relationship.
Given our results and previous research on this specific topic, we could conclude that serious games are not the right tool to boost
entrepreneurial intention. However, this conclusion omits a well-established relationship: serious games are an adequate tool to
develop entrepreneurship and management competencies. If competencies improve, why are we obtaining these results? We pointed to
two possible explanations in the discussion section: one related to educational deficiencies and the other to the entrepreneurial career’s
difficulties.
Focusing on students’ awareness of their training insufficiencies, from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), we have
reported changes in perceived behavioral control: participants feel less ready to become entrepreneurs after participating in the game.
However, the literature has shown that participants in this kind of experiential learning record improved competencies. Our inter
pretation of this paradox is that, although the students improve their competencies, they realize they are insufficient. Perhaps this is
true. So, even though they have more developed competencies, they notice gaps of which they were unaware before the entrepre
neurial experience. The effect on the perceived behavioral control construct results from a combination of contrary forces. Thus,
10
although we have not measured this effect on this construct, if this explanation is correct, as teachers, are we meeting our objectives?
And the answer should be positive because we are giving students more tools to be successful entrepreneurs. Stimulating the entre
preneurial intention of non-ready entrepreneurs is, from our perspective, irresponsible: it would not help the student, nor would it
generate the positive externalities associated with entrepreneurship if, finally, the project fails.
Continuing in this vein, simulations could become a powerful tool to determine what entrepreneurial and managerial competencies
students lack. Simultaneously, extending the use of or repeating the simulation could obtain two desirable effects: providing more
complete training to students and further stimulating entrepreneurial intent. Using a simulation as an initial step could provide
teachers with useful information to plan subsequent activities.
Focusing on the explanation based on the difficulties of being an entrepreneur, we found it more related to the attitude towards the
behavior component. Participating in a serious game allows students to realize how hard it could be to become an entrepreneur. This
could be related to the results students get in the game. As we pointed out, failing even in a controlled environment can inhibit
entrepreneurial intent, at least in the short term. However, this can also be seen as an opportunity to include practices in the entre
preneurial education program that teach how to manage the emotional consequences of failing. It can be a way of answering the call of
Shepherd (2004) and offering students a tool to get the maximum value from a failure in terms of learning.
We have also studied how some individual characteristics can influence the effect of the serious game on entrepreneurial intention.
However, the influence of many of these characteristics was weak or inexistent. Researching these variables’ effects on the relationship
between participating in a serious game and constructs like perceived behavioral control or attitude toward entrepreneurship is
necessary to plan training activities related to start-ups.
This work is not free of limitations. First, the circumstances resulted in a quasi-experimental research design without a control
sample to assess different training effects. The causal impact of games-based entrepreneurship education on the target population is
estimated without random assignment. We do not compare the changes derived from participating in a serious game and the changes
due to other teaching methods or simply not taking any entrepreneurship-related training. We used the EIQ tool to measure entre
preneurial intention. Although it has been used in plenty of works, it uses the term “entrepreneur,” which could be intimidating for
some responders. Finally, we measured only changes in entrepreneurial intention and only in the short term. Some of the changes
produced by training based on serious games could have their effect later, as Kriz and Auchter (2016) showed. Research on these
long-term effects and on constructs such as perceived behavioral control and attitude toward entrepreneurship may shed more light on
the role of serious games in this field.
As Ratten and Usmanij (2020) affirm, many research opportunities are yet to be discovered in the entrepreneurship education field,
especially regarding new teaching methods. In our opinion, the role that serious games can play is underexplored. The potential that
this methodology has shown in other management fields together with the few research results addressing the issue provides sufficient
reasons for further study.
Funding
This paper has been supported by Project ECO2015-67434-R (MINECO/FEDER) of Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competi
tiveness (Spain) and the project RTI2018-097447-B-I00 of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Spain).
Author statement
Authors declare that all of them have contributed in the same way.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
References
Acs, Z. J., Estrin, S., Mickiewicz, T., & Szerb, L. (2018). Entrepreneurship, institutional economics, and economic growth: An ecosystem perspective. Small Business
Economics, 51(2), 501–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0013-9
Ahmed Chandran, V. G. R., & Klobas, J. (2017). Specialized entrepreneurship education: Does it really matter? Fresh evidence from Pakistan. International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 23(1), 4–19. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-01-2016-0005
Ahmed Chandran, V. G. R., Klobas, J. E., Liñán, F., & Kokkalis, P. (2020). Entrepreneurship education programmes: How learning, inspiration and resources affect
intentions for new venture creation in a developing economy. International Journal of Management in Education, 18(1), Article 100327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijme.2019.100327
Ajzen, I. (1987). Attitudes, traits, and actions: Dispositional prediction of behavior in personality and social psychology. In Advances in experimental social psychology
(pp. 1–63). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60411-6
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)
90020-T
Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(4), 665–683.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs.
Badri, R., & Hachicha, N. (2019). Entrepreneurship education and its impact on students’ intention to start up: A sample case study of students from two Tunisian
universities. International Journal of Management in Education, 17(2), 182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.02.004
11
Ballantine, J., & Larres, P. M. C. (2009). Accounting undergraduates’ perceptions of cooperative learning as a model for enhancing their interpersonal and
communication skills to interface successfully with professional accountancy education and training. Accounting Education, 18(4–5), 387–402. https://doi.org/
10.1080/09639280902719366
Ben-Zvi, T. (2010). The efficacy of business simulation games in creating Decision Support Systems: An experimental investigation. Decision Support Systems, 49(1),
61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2010.01.002
Bellotti, F., Berta, R., De Gloria, A., Lavagnino, E., Dagnino, F., Ott, M., & Mayer, I. S. (2012). Designing a course for stimulating entrepreneurship in higher education
through serious games. Procedia Computer Science, 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.069
Bosma, N., Hill, S., Ionescu-Somers, A., Kelley, D., Levie, J., & Tarnawa, A. (2020). Global entrepreneurship monitor. 2019/20 Global report. London, UK: Global
Entrepreneurship Research Association.
Boubker, O., Arroud, M., & Ouajdouni, A. (2021). Entrepreneurship education versus management students’ entrepreneurial intentions. A PLS-SEM approach.
International Journal of Management in Education, 19(1), Article 100450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100450
Buil, I., Catalán, S., & Martínez, E. (2019). Encouraging intrinsic motivation in management training: The use of business simulation games. International Journal of
Management in Education, 17(2), 162–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.02.002
Chandler, G. N., & Hanks, S. H. (1994). Founder competence, the environment, and venture performance. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 18(3), 77–89. https://
doi.org/10.1177/104225879401800306
Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. (1997). What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite. Journal of Management, 23(3),
239–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639702300303
Collins, L. A., Smith, A. J., & Hannon, P. D. (2006). Applying a synergistic learning approach in entrepreneurship education. Management Learning, 37(3), 335–354.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507606067171
Corti, K. (2006). Games-based learning: A serious business application. www.pixelearning.com/docs/games_basedlearning_pixelearning.pdf.
Costin, Y., O’Brien, M., & Slattery, D. (2018). Using simulation to develop entrepreneurial skills and mind-set: An exploratory case study. International Journal of
Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 30(1), 136–145.
Crant, J. M. (1996). The proactive personality scale as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Small Business Management, 34, 42–49.
Donaldson, C. (2019). Intentions resurrected: A systematic review of entrepreneurial intention research from 2014 to 2018 and future research agenda. The
International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 15(3), 953–975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-019-00578-5
Dreisler, P. (2008). Entrepreneurship: From opportunity to action: The entrepreneurial process. In Contributions to management Science (pp. 5–13). https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-7908-2038-6_2
Espíritu-Olmos, R., & Sastre-Castillo, M. A. (2012). Why women claim to be less entrepreneurial than men. In Women’s entrepreneurship and economics (pp. 11–124).
New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1293-9_8.
Espíritu-Olmos, R., & Sastre-Castillo, M. A. (2015). Personality traits versus work values: Comparing psychological theories on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of
Business Research, 68(7), 1595–1598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.02.001
Fairlie, R. W., & Robb, A. (2007). Families, human capital, and small business: Evidence from the characteristics of business owners survey. Industrial and Labor
Relations Review, 60(2), 225–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390706000204
Farashahi, M., & Tajeddin, M. (2018). Effectiveness of teaching methods in business education: A comparison study on the learning outcomes of lectures, case studies
and simulations. International Journal of Management in Education, 16(1), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2018.01.003
Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small
Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065
Fayolle, A., Gailly, B., & Lassas-Clerc, N. (2006). Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education programmes: A new methodology. Journal of European Industrial
Training, 30(9), 701–720. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590610715022
Fayolle, A., & Liñán, F. (2014). The future of research on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 663–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jbusres.2013.11.024
Fellnhofer, K. (2015). Changing entrepreneurial intention and behaviour: A digital game-based learning environment dedicated to entrepreneurship education.
Journal for International Business and Entrepreneurship Development, 8(4), 378–404. https://doi.org/10.1504/jibed.2015.072938
Fitó-Bertran, À., Hernández-Lara, A. B., & López, E. S. (2015). The effect of competences on learning results an educational experience with a business simulator.
Computers in Human Behavior, 51, 910–914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.003
Forsman, H. (2011). Innovation capacity and innovation development in small enterprises. A comparison between the manufacturing and service sectors. Research
Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.02.003
de Freitas, S., & Liarokapis, F. (2011). Serious games: A new paradigm for education?. In Serious Games and Edutainment applications (pp. 9–23). Springer London.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2161-9_2.
Garber, L. L., Hyatt, E. M., & Boya, Ü. (2017). Gender differences in learning preferences among participants of serious business games. International Journal of
Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441–467. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1046878102238607
Gentry, J. W. (1990). What is experiential learning ?. In Guide to business gaming and experiential learning (pp. 9–20). NJ: East Brunswick.
Gibb, A. (2002). In pursuit of a new “enterprise” and “entrepreneurship” paradigm for learning: Creative destruction, new values, new ways of doing things and new
combinations of knowledge. International Journal of Management Reviews, 4(3), 233–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2370.00086
Gibson, D. E. (2004). Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 134–156. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00051-4
Gupta, V. K., Turban, D. B., Wasti, S. A., & Sikdar, A. (2009). The role of gender stereotypes in perceptions of entrepreneurs and intentions to become an entrepreneur.
Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 33(2), 397–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00296.x
Gürol, Y., & Atsan, N. (2006). Entrepreneurial characteristics amongst university students. Education + Training, 48(1), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/
00400910610645716
Haase, H., & Lautenschläger, A. (2011). The ‘Teachability Dilemma’ of entrepreneurship. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7(2), 145–162.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0150-3
Hallinger, P., & Wang, R. (2020). Analyzing the intellectual structure of research on simulation-based learning in management education, 1960–2019: A bibliometric
review. International Journal of Management in Education, 18(3), Article 100418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100418
Hernández-Lara, A. B., Perera-Lluna, A., & Serradell-López, E. (2019). Applying learning analytics to students’ interaction in business simulation games. The
usefulness of learning analytics to know what students really learn. Computers in Human Behavior, 92, 600–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.001
Hernández-Lara, A. B., & Serradell-López, E. (2018). Student interactions in online discussion forums: Their perception on learning with business simulation games.
Behaviour & Information Technology, 37(4), 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2018.1441326
Hoover, J. (1974). Experiential learning: Conceptualization and definition. Simulations. Games and Experiential Learning Techniques, 1, 8–14.
Huebscher, J., & Lendner, C. (2010). Effects of entrepreneurship simulation game seminars on entrepreneurs’ and students’ learning. Journal of Small Business and
Entrepreneurship, 23(4), 543–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2010.10593500
Hynes, B., Costin, Y., & Birdthistle, N. (2011). Practice-based learning in entrepreneurship education: A means of connecting knowledge producers and users. Higher
Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 1(1), 16–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/20423891111085366
Kagan, J. (1958). The concept of identification. Psychological Review, 65(5), 296. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041313
Kennedy, R. A. (2017). The effect of narrative feedback on the learning and transfer of complex communication skills. Old Dominion University. https://search.proquest.
com/openview/265673cd273856b8b15627e583ff2444/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y.
Kolb. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. FT press.
12
Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. The Academy of Management Learning and
Education, 4(2), 193–212. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMLE.2005.17268566
Kolv, D. (2000). The process of experiential learning. In Strategic learning in a knowledge Economy (pp. 313–331). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-7506-7223-
8.50017-4
Kolvereid, L., & Isaksen, E. (2006). New business start-up and subsequent entry into self-employment. Journal of Business Venturing, 21(6), 866–885. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jbusvent.2005.06.008
Kraus, S., Breier, M., & Dasí-Rodríguez, S. (2020). The art of crafting a systematic literature review in entrepreneurship research. The International Entrepreneurship and
Management Journal, 16(3), 1023–1042. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-020-00635-4
Kristiansen, S., & Indarti, N. (2004). Entrepreneurial intention among Indonesian and Norwegian students. Journal of Enterprising Culture, 12(1), 55–78. https://doi.
org/10.1142/s021849580400004x
Kriz, W. C., & Auchter, E. (2016). 10 years of evaluation research into gaming simulation for German entrepreneurship and a new study on its long-term effects.
Simulation & Gaming, 47(2), 179–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878116633972
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5–6), 411–432. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0
La Guardia, D., Gentile, M., Dal Grande, V., Ottaviano, S., & Allegra, M. (2014). A game based learning model for entrepreneurship education. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 141, 195–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.034
Levant, Y., Coulmont, M., & Sandu, R. (2016). Business simulation as an active learning activity for developing soft skills. Accounting Education, 25(4), 368–395.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2016.1191272
Liñán, F. (2004). Intention-based models of entrepreneurship education. Piccola Impresa/Small Business, 3(1), 11–35.
Liñán, F., & Chen, Y. W. (2009). Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship: Theory
and Practice, 33(3), 593–617. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00318.x
Liñán, F., & Fayolle, A. (2015). A systematic literature review on entrepreneurial intentions: Citation, thematic analyses, and research agenda. The International
Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 11(4), 907–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-015-0356-5
Liñán, F., Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C., & Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011). Factors affecting entrepreneurial intention levels: A role for education. The International
Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7(2), 195–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0154-z
Liñán, F., Urbano, D., & Guerrero, M. (2011). Regional variations in entrepreneurial cognitions: Start-up intentions of university students in Spain. Entrepreneurship &
Regional Development, 23(3–4), 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620903233929
Low, M. B., & Macmillan, I. C. (1988). Entrepreneurship: Past research and future challenges. Journal of Management. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638801400202
Man, T. W. Y., & Lau, T. (2005). The context of entrepreneurship in Hong Kong. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 12(4), 464–481. https://doi.org/
10.1108/14626000510628162
Man, T. W. Y., Lau, T., & Chan, K. F. (2002). The competitiveness of small and medium enterprises: A conceptualization with focus on entrepreneurial competencies.
Journal of Business Venturing, 17(2), 123–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(00)00058-6
Martin, A. (2000). The design and evolution of a simulation/game for teaching information systems development. Simulation & Gaming, 31(4), 445–463. https://doi.
org/10.1177/104687810003100401
Mason, C., & Arshed, N. (2013). Teaching entrepreneurship to university students through experiential learning A case study. Industry and Higher Education, 27(6),
449–463. https://doi.org/10.5367/ihe.2013.0180
McKeever, E., Anderson, A., & Jack, S. (2014). Entrepreneurship and mutuality: Social capital in processes and practices. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 26
(5–6), 453–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2014.939536
Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious games: Games that educate, train, and inform. Boston, MA, USA: Thomson Course Technology.
Minniti, M., & Bygrave, W. (2001). A dynamic model of entrepreneurial learning. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 25(3), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/
104225870102500301
Mitchelmore, S., & Rowley, J. (2010). Entrepreneurial competencies: A literature review and development agenda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour &
Research, 16(2), 92–111. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551011026995
Nabi, G., Liñán, F., Fayolle, A., Krueger, N., & Walmsley, A. (2017). The impact of entrepreneurship education in higher education: A systematic review and research
agenda. The Academy of Management Learning and Education, 16(2), 277–299. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2015.0026
Nabi, G., Walmsley, A., Liñán, F., Akhtar, I., & Neame, C. (2018). Does entrepreneurship education in the first year of higher education develop entrepreneurial
intentions? The role of learning and inspiration. Studies in Higher Education, 43(3), 452–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2016.1177716
Naufalin, L., Dinanti, A., & Krisnaeresanti, A. (2016). Experiential learning model on entrepreneurship subject to improve students’ soft skills. Dinamika Pendidikan
Unnes, 11(1), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.15294/dp.v11i1.8703
Newbery, R., Lean, J., & Moizer, J. (2016). Evaluating the impact of serious games: The effect of gaming on entrepreneurial intent. Information Technology and People,
29(4), 733–749. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-05-2015-0111
Nowiński, W., Haddoud, M. Y., Lančarič, D., Egerová, D., & Czeglédi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on
entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44(2), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/
03075079.2017.1365359
Ooi, Y. K., & Nasiru, A. (2015). Entrepreneurship education as a catalyst of business start-ups: A study on Malaysian community college students. Asian Social Science,
11(18), 350. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n18p350
Pines, A. M. (2002). The female entrepreneur: Burnout treated using a psychodynamic existential approach. Clinical Case Studies, 1(2), 170–180. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1534650102001002005
Rae, D., & Carswell, M. (2000). Using a life-story approach in researching entrepreneurial learning: The development of a conceptual model and its implications in the
design of learning experiences. Education + Training, 42(4/5), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910010373660
Raja, F. U., & Najmonnisa, K. (2018). Comparing traditional teaching method and experiential teaching method using experimental research. Journal of Education and
Educational Development, 5(2), 276. https://doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v5i2.1816
Ratten, V., & Usmanij, P. (2020). Entrepreneurship education: Time for a change in research direction? International Journal of Management in Education, 19(1), Article
100367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100367
Rauch, A., & Hulsink, W. (2015). Putting entrepreneurship Education where the intention to Act lies: An investigation into the impact of entrepreneurship education
on entrepreneurial behavior. The Academy of Management Learning and Education, 14(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2012.0293
Ribeiro-Soriano, D. (2017). Small business and entrepreneurship: Their role in economic and social development. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 29(1–2),
1–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2016.1255438
Ruiz-Alba, J. L., Guzman-Parra, V. F., Vila Oblitas, J. R., & Morales Mediano, J. (2020). Entrepreneurial intentions: A bibliometric analysis. Journal of Small Business
and Enterprise Development, 28(1), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-07-2019-0221
Saeed, S., Muffatto, M., & Yousafzai, S. Y. (2014). Exploring intergenerational influence on entrepreneurial intention: The mediating role of perceived desirability and
perceived feasibility. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, 18(2/3), 134–153. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEIM.2014.062877
Scalzo, C., & Turner, L. (2007). The effect of experiential learning experiences on management skills acquisition. Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential
Learning, 34, 155–160.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In D. L. Sexton, & K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72–90).
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall: C.A. Kent.
Shepherd, D. A. (2004). Educating entrepreneurship students about emotion and learning from failure. The Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3(3),
274–287. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2004.14242217
13
Solomon, G., Dickson, P. H., Solomon, G. T., & Weaver, K. M. (2008). Entrepreneurial selection and success: Does education matter? Journal of Small Business and
Enterprise Development, 15(2), 239–258. https://doi.org/10.1108/14626000810871655
Soria-Barreto, K., Honores-Marin, G., Gutiérrez-Zepeda, P., & Gutiérrez-Rodríguez, J. (2017). Prior exposure and educational environment towards entrepreneurial
intention. Journal of Technology Management and Innovation, 12(2), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-27242017000200006
Susi, T., Johannesson, M., & Backlund, P. (2007). Serious games – an overview. Technical Report HS- IKI -TR-07-001.
Tao, Y. H., Yeh, C. R., & Hung, K. C. (2012). Effects of the heterogeneity of game complexity and user population in learning performance of business simulation
games. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1350–1360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.06.003
Timmons, J., Spinelli, S., Tan, Y., Gillin, L. M., Burshtein, S. L., & Spinelli, S. (2004). New venture creation: Entrepreneurship for the 21st century. New York: McGraw-
Hill/Iriwin.
Tiwari, S. R., Nafees, L., & Krishnan, O. (2014). Simulation as a pedagogical tool: Measurement of impact on perceived effective learning. International Journal of
Towler, M., Lean, J., & Moizer, J. D. (2009). An exploration of student perception of a business simulation game. International Journal of Management in Education, 7
(2), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.3794/ijme.72.225
Vogel, J. J., Vogel, D. S., Cannon-Bowers, J., Bowers, C. A., Muse, K., & Wright, M. (2006). Computer gaming and interactive simulations for learning: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(3), 229–243. https://doi.org/10.2190/FLHV-K4WA-WPVQ-H0YM
Walter, G. A., Marks, S. E., & James, J. E. (1981). Experiential learning and change: Theory design and practice. Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy, 10(4),
Article 240–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506078109455616
Washbush, J., & Gosen, J. (2001). An exploration of game-derived learning in total enterprise simulations. Simulation & Gaming, 32(2), 281–296. https://doi.org/
10.1177/104687810103200301
Welter, F., & Lasch, F. (2008). Entrepreneurship research in europe: Taking stock and looking forward. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1540-6520.2007.00224.x
Wennekers, S., & Thurik, R. (1999). Linking entrepreneurship and economic growth. Small Business Economics, 32(2), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:
1008063200484
Westhead, P., & Solesvik, M. Z. (2016). Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intention: Do female students benefit? International Small Business Journal:
Researching Entrepreneurship, 34(8), 979–1003. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242615612534
Whetten, D. A., & Cameron, K. S. (2002). Developing management skills (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Whitton, N. (2009). Learning with digital games: A practical guide to engaging students in higher education. London, UK: Routledge.
Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship education.
Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 31(3), 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00179.x
Zhang, Y., Duysters, G., & Cloodt, M. (2014). The role of entrepreneurship education as a predictor of university students’ entrepreneurial intention. The International
Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 10(3), 623–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-012-0246-z
Zulfiqar, S., Sarwar, B., Aziz, S., Ejaz Chandia, K., & Khan, M. K. (2019). An analysis of influence of business simulation games on business school students’ attitude
and intention toward entrepreneurial activities. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(1), 106–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117746746
14

10 1016@j Ijme 2021 100506

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

10 1016@j Ijme 2021 100506

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The International Journal of Management Education xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The International Journal of Management Education

Boosting entrepreneurial intention of university students: Is a

2. Literature review and hypothesis

2.1. The role of serious business games in higher education

than case studies or lectures in problem-solving, interpersonal, and self-awareness skills.

2.2.1. The direct effect of serious business games on entrepreneurial intention

Source: Mitchelmore and Rowley (2010).

3. Methods and data

3.1. Research design and data

Fig. 1. Research model.

of the course. The survey’s response rate was 96.17%.

I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 4.48 1.61 4.8 1.55

I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 205 108 189 − 5.122 0.000

Female Male ≤21 21<x<25 ≥25

N 278 224 191 222 89

Non close Close Medium High 0 <1y ≥1y

N 235 267 352 150 218 121 163

Low Medium High

6. Conclusions, implications and future research lines

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

You might also like