WIND ENERGY

Wind Energ. 2001; 4:23–37 (DOI: 10.1002/we.44)

Research Lightning Protection for Wind Turbine

Article Blades and Bearings
I a n C o tto n ,∗ N ic k J e n k in s a n d K r is h n a n P a n d ia r a j U M IS T , M a n c h es ter, U K

K e y w o r d s: The protection of wind turbines from lightning damage is increasingly important as they
lig h tn in g increase in size and are placed in locations where access to carry out repairs may be
p ro tec tio n , difficult. As blades are the most common attachment point of lightning, they must be
b la des ,
b ea rin g s , adequately protected. In addition, the passage of lightning current through wind turbine
win d tu rb in es bearings introduces a risk of lightning damage to these vital components. Investigations
relating to the improvement of blade lightning protection systems have been carried out,
including experiments designed to address the difficult problems involved in the protection
of hydraulic cylinders used for tip brake control. Work has also focused on the ability of
lightning current to cause damage to wind turbine bearings. The work has been a mixture
of computer simulations and experimental testing using high-voltage and high-current
facilities. Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In tro d u ctio n
It is well k n o wn th a t win d tu rb in es a re v u ln era b le to lig h tn in g da m a g e. T h ey a re ta ll s tru c tu res o ften p la c ed in
lo c a tio n s wh ere th ere is a h ig h lig h tn in g a c tiv ity a n d h a v e b la des m a de la rg ely fro m h ig h -res is tiv ity m a teria l.
T h ey a ls o c o n ta in a m ix tu re o f h ig h -v o lta g e elec tric a l s y s tem s a n d lo w-v o lta g e elec tro n ic s y s tem s th a t c a n
b e da m a g ed b y b o th direc t a n d in direc t lig h tn in g s tro k es .
Wh ile tra ditio n a l win dm ills h a v e b een p ro tec ted fro m lig h tn in g fo r m a n y y ea rs , th e fi rs t res ea rc h rela tin g
to th e p ro tec tio n o f win d tu rb in es a g a in s t lig h tn in g da m a g e wa s c o n du c ted in th e la te 1970s a n d ea rly 1980s
in th e U S A . T h e fi rs t rep o rts fo c u s ed o n th e p ro tec tio n o f a v ertic a l a x is win d tu rb in e, a s u b s ta n tia lly differen t
des ig n fro m th e h o riz o n ta l a x is m a c h in e n o w in wides p rea d u s e.1 In la ter y ea rs , fu rth er s tu dies were c a rried
o u t dea lin g with m a c h in es m o re s im ila r to m o dern des ig n s .2 – 5 T h es e rep o rts des c rib e th e lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n
o f a h o riz o n ta l a x is win d tu rb in e, in c lu din g p ro tec tio n o f th e b la des , th e elec tro n ic c o n tro l s y s tem s a n d th e
g en era to r.
U n til 1994 a n u m b er o f p a p ers s ta ted th a t n o rec o rds o f lig h tn in g s trik in g a win d tu rb in e ex is ted a n d a s s u c h
th e s c a le o f th e p ro b lem wa s n o t k n o wn .6 S in c e th a t tim e, lig h tn in g h a s b een s h o wn to c a u s e m a jo r da m a g e
to win d tu rb in e c o m p o n en ts a n d is a c tu a lly o n e o f th e m a in s o u rc es o f win d tu rb in e in s u ra n c e c la im s . T h e
a p p ro a c h to b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n h a s a ls o c h a n g ed s in c e th e ea rly p a p ers were written . T h e A m eric a n
res ea rc h a n d th a t o f J a eg er 7 des c rib ed lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s th a t were m o u n ted o n th e o u ts ide o f a
win d tu rb in e b la de. C u rren t b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s u s e a c o n du c to r th a t is p la c ed in s ide a win d
tu rb in e b la de.
It wa s o rig in a lly th o u g h t th a t th e in s ta lla tio n o f b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n wo u ld in c rea s e th e p ro b a b ility
o f lig h tn in g s trik in g a win d tu rb in e b la de, s in c e b la des were o ften m a de s o lely o f n o n -c o n du c tiv e m a teria ls .6
S o m e m a n u fa c tu rers to o k th e dec is io n n o t to fi t b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s . H o wev er, ex p erien c e h a s

Ł
C o rres p o n den c e to : Ia n C o tto n , B 21, F erra n ti B u ildin g , U M IS T , P O B OX 88, M a n c h es ter M 60 1Q D, U K . E-
m a il: ia n .c o tto n @ u m is t.a c .u k
C o n tra c t/g ra n t s p o n s o r: Eu ro p ea n C o m m is s io n ; C o n tra c t/g ra n t n u m b ers : J ORJ -C T 95 -005 2; J ORJ -C T 98-0241.
C o n tra c t/g ra n t s p o n s o r: Dep a rtm en t o f T ra de a n d In du s try (ET S U ); C o n tra c t/g ra n t n u m b er: J ORJ -C T 95 -005 2.

R ec eiv ed 8 A p ril 2 0 0 1
C o p y rig h t  2001 J o h n Wiley & S o n s , L td. R ev is ed 7 A u gu s t 2 0 0 1
A c c ep ted 2 6 A u gu s t 2 0 0 1
24 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

s h o wn th a t b la des n o t fi tted with a lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem c a n b e des tro y ed. It is n o w v ery ra re to fi n d
a m o dern win d tu rb in e with n o b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n .
T h ere h a s b een c o n s idera b le wo rk in Eu ro p e th a t h a s ex a m in ed th e a p p lic a tio n o f b la de p ro tec tio n to a win d
tu rb in e.8 – 10 A n IEC tec h n ic a l rep o rt h a s rec en tly b een written th a t s u m m a riz es th is ex p erien c e a lo n g with
th a t o f th e U S A .4 T h e rep o rt en ds with deta ils o f s u g g es ted fu rth er wo rk to im p ro v e win d tu rb in e lig h tn in g
p ro tec tio n .
T h is a rtic le fo c u s es o n th e im p ro v em en t o f b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s a n d th e n eed fo r b ea rin g
lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n . T h e IEC rep o rt in rela tio n to b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s ta tes :

F o r win d tu rb in es th e g en eric p ro b lem is p ro tec tio n o f th e b la des a g a in s t direc t lig h tn in g s trik es . It h a s

b een fo u n d du rin g th e rec en t y ea rs th a t es ta b lis h m en t o f a n in tern a l do wn -c o n du c to r c o n n ec ted to two
rec ep to rs — o n e o n ea c h s ide o f th e b la de— a t th e b la de tip is a n a deq u a te s o lu tio n fo r b la des s h o rter
th a n 20 m

Win d tu rb in e b la des a re n o w b ein g p ro du c ed a t len g th s o f 30 m a n d a b o v e. A s will b e des c rib ed fu rth er,

th e a b ility o f a n in tern a l do wn c o n du c to r a n d two ex tern a l rec ep to rs to in terc ep t a lig h tn in g s tro k e wh en
th e b la des ex ten d b ey o n d 20 m c a n b e q u es tio n ed. It is th erefo re n ec es s a ry to rea p p ra is e th e ty p es o f
lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem u s ed o n win d tu rb in e b la des th a t a re lo n g er th a n 20 m In v es tig a tio n s u s in g
fi n ite elem en t s o ftwa re a re p res en ted a n d th es e s h o w th e p o ten tia l h a z a rd to a lo n g win d tu rb in e b la de.
Res u lts o f tes ts u s ed to in v es tig a te th e s elec tio n o f a p p ro p ria te m a teria ls fo r th e ex tern a l rec ep to r a n d
ex p erim en ts rela ted to th e p ro tec tio n o f a h y dra u lic c y lin der u s ed to c o n tro l a tip b ra k e m ec h a n is m a re
a ls o s h o wn .
T h e s ec o n d to p ic dis c u s s ed in th is a rtic le is th e n eed to fi t lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n to win d tu rb in e b ea rin g s .
T h ere h a s b een little c o n c lu s iv e ev iden c e th a t b ea rin g s c a n b e da m a g ed b y lig h tn in g c u rren t, b u t th is do es
n o t ru le o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f da m a g e. A n y da m a g e c a u s ed to a b ea rin g in th e fo rm o f p ittin g o f th e b ea rin g
s u rfa c e m a y n o t b ec o m e o b v io u s fo r a s ig n ifi c a n t p erio d o f tim e u n til it h a s c a u s ed fu rth er da m a g e. T h e
IEC do c u m en t ta k es th e v iew th a t lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n is req u ired fo r win d tu rb in e b ea rin g s a n d c o n ta in s th e
fo llo win g q u es tio n wh en dis c u s s in g th e n eed fo r fu rth er res ea rc h :

H o w to p ro tec t th e b ea rin g s a n d g ea rs in th e m ec h a n ic a l driv e tra in a g a in s t lig h tn in g c u rren ts , i.e. h o w

to lim it th e lig h tn in g c u rren t p a s s in g th ro u g h b ea rin g s a n d g ea rs to a s u s ta in a b le lev el?

T h is a rtic le des c rib es la b o ra to ry tes tin g u s ed to es ta b lis h th e lik elih o o d o f win d tu rb in e b ea rin g s b ein g
da m a g ed b y lig h tn in g c u rren t fl o win g th ro u g h th em . T es ts were c o n du c ted o n fo u r b ea rin g s , two p itc h b ea rin g s
a n d two s m a ller b ea rin g s rep res en tin g lo w-s p eed s h a ft b ea rin g s . T h e res u lts s h o wed th a t in s ig n ifi c a n t da m a g e
wa s c a u s ed u n les s th e b ea rin g wa s ro ta tin g a t a s p eed s u ffi c ien t to p ro du c e a h y dro dy n a m ic la y er b etween
th e ra c ewa y s a n d b a lls /ro llers . On e c o n c lu s io n is th a t lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s h o u ld b e fi tted to th e m a in s h a ft
b ea rin g (s ), wh ile b ea rin g s th a t c a n b e c la s s ed a s s ta tio n a ry (i.e. th e p itc h a n d y a w b ea rin g s ) wo u ld n o t req u ire
s u c h p ro tec tio n .
A ll th e wo rk des c rib ed with in th is a rtic le wa s c a rried o u t u n der C EU c o n tra c ts J OR3-C T 95 -005 212 a n d
J OR3-C T 98-0241.13 Wo rk des c rib ed with in th es e fi n a l rep o rts is p res en ted in m o re deta il.

B lad e L ig htn in g P ro tectio n

Win d tu rb in e b la des a re th e o b v io u s p o in t o f lig h tn in g a tta c h m en t, b ein g th e h ig h es t p o in t o f a win d tu rb in e.
H o wev er, th e h ig h res is tiv ity o f th e m a teria ls u s ed in ty p ic a l b la des m ea n s th a t th ey do n o t c o n du c t lig h tn in g
c u rren t with o u t th e ris k o f s ig n ifi c a n t da m a g e. T h e ty p ic a l s tru c tu res o f two c o m m o n ty p es o f b la de a re s h o wn
in F ig u re 1.

C o p y rig h t  2001 J o h n Wiley & S o n s , L td. Wind Energ. 2001; 4:23–37

L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 25

Filter
Glass/Epoxy Web

Glass/Epoxy
Glass/Epoxy
4mm Wood Veneers Styrofoam

Epoxy Glue Glass/Epoxy

Gel Coat
Glass/Epoxy
Gel Coat

Reinforced Leading Edge

PVC Foam

PVC Foam
UD Glass/Polyester

F igu re 1 . T y p ic a l s tru c tu res o f w o o d ep o x y a nd G R P w ind tu rb ine b la des

Attachment/ D amage M echanisms

It wa s th o u g h t du rin g th e dev elo p m en t o f o lder m o dels o f win d tu rb in es th a t b la des c o n ta in in g n o m eta llic
elem en ts (i.e. th e ty p e o f b la des u s ed o n p itc h -reg u la ted tu rb in es ) wo u ld n o t a ttra c t lig h tn in g s tro k es a n d
th erefo re did n o t req u ire p ro tec tio n . A n ea rly lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y m p o s iu m g a v e c o n fl ic tin g o p in io n s wh en
th e n eed fo r b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n wa s dis c u s s ed.6 H o wev er, it h a s b een s h o wn th a t th e b la de s erv es a s a
p referen tia l p a th fo r th e lig h tn in g c u rren t in c o m p a ris o n to th e a ir. A s im p le ex p erim en t with in a h ig h -v o lta g e
la b o ra to ry s h o ws th is is to b e ex p ec ted, s in c e s u rfa c es h a v e a lo wer elec tric a l b rea k do wn s tren g th th a n th e
a ir a ro u n d th em .
Wh en lig h tn in g a tta c h es to a n u n p ro tec ted win d tu rb in e b la de th a t c o n ta in s n o m eta llic p a rts , it c a n tra v el in
o n e o f th ree lo c a tio n s . It c a n tra v el o n th e o u ts ide s u rfa c e, th e in s ide s u rfa c e o r with in th e b la de la m in a tio n s .
L ig h tn in g a tta c h in g to a n u n p ro tec ted b la de u s u a lly ta k es m o re th a n o n e o f th es e p a th s , c rea tin g a ty p e o f
da m a g e th a t c a n b e des c rib ed a s s titc h in g . T h is o c c u rs wh en a lig h tn in g dis c h a rg e m a k es a h o le in th e b la de,
p ro g res s es a c erta in dis ta n c e in s ide th e b la de a n d th en ju m p s b a c k o u t. T h is m a y h a p p en rep ea tedly , lea din g
to a s titc h in g p a ttern s u c h a s th e o n e s h o wn in F ig u re 2 th a t wa s g en era ted a rtifi c ia lly in a h ig h -v o lta g e
la b o ra to ry .8
Wh en s titc h in g o c c u rs , th e b u lk o f th e da m a g e is c a u s ed b y th e fo rm a tio n o f a n ex ten ded in tern a l a rc
eith er in s ide th e b la de o r b etween b la de la m in a tio n s . A lig h tn in g dis c h a rg e c a n c a u s e a tem p era tu re ris e o f
a p p ro x im a tely 30,000 K a n d p ro du c e a h ig h -p res s u re s h o c k wa v e th a t c a n ex ert a la rg e fo rc e. T h is s h o c k
wa v e wo u ld b e h ea rd a s th u n der if it wa s p ro p a g a tin g th ro u g h a ir. T h e len g th o f th e a rc a n d th e b la de
c o n s tru c tio n a re two o f th e fa c to rs th a t will determ in e th e lev el o f o b s erv ed lig h tn in g da m a g e fo llo win g th e
lig h tn in g s trik e.
Da m a g e c a n ra n g e fro m s p lit tra ilin g edg es (g en era lly th e wea k es t p a rt o f th e b la de c o n s tru c tio n a n d h en c e
lia b le to s p rin g o p en ) to c o m p lete des tru c tio n o f th e b la de. In a n u m b er o f c a s es o b s erv ed b y th e a u th o rs , it
is th o u g h t th a t th e h ig h -p res s u re s h o c k wa v e in o n e b la de h a s p ro p a g a ted in to th e o th er b la des v ia th e h u b ,
res u ltin g in c o m p lete des tru c tio n o f th e ro to r. It is n o t k n o wn wh a t p erc en ta g e o f lig h tn in g s tro k es a tta c h in g

C o p y rig h t  2001 J o h n Wiley & S o n s , L td. Wind Energ. 2001; 4:23–37

26 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

F igu re 2 . S titc h ing p a ttern th ro u gh a G R P p a nel c rea ted in a n H V la b o ra to ry

to a n u n p ro tec ted b la de will s im p ly fo rm a p a th do wn th e o u ts ide o f th e b la de a n d c a u s e n o da m a g e, b u t

with a n a v era g e o f two to th ree s tro k es p er lig h tn in g fl a s h th e c h a n c e o f lig h tn in g da m a g e to a n u n p ro tec ted
b la de is h ig h .
A b la de fi tted with n o lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem b u t c o n ta in in g m eta llic elem en ts (s u c h a s a tip b ra k e
m ec h a n is m fo r s ta ll reg u la tio n ) is m o re v u ln era b le to lig h tn in g da m a g e. Ev en if th e m ec h a n is m is o f a s u ita b le
s iz e to c a rry th e lig h tn in g c u rren t, th ere will b e s ig n ifi c a n t da m a g e a t th e lig h tn in g a tta c h m en t p o in t wh ere
th e b la de s k in m u s t b e p en etra ted to rea c h th e c o n du c tiv e elem en t. T h ere h a v e b een a n u m b er o f o c c a s io n s
wh en ea rly s ta ll-reg u la ted b la des h a v e b een s tru c k a n d th e tip b ra k e c o n tro l c a b le h a s b een da m a g ed a fter it
h a s b een h ea ted b y th e lig h tn in g c u rren t.6

Protection M ethodologies
F ro m th e in fo rm a tio n g iv en in th e p rev io u s s u b s ec tio n , it is a p p a ren t th a t it is des ira b le to u s e a b la de lig h tn in g
p ro tec tio n s y s tem . T h e req u irem en ts o f s u c h a s y s tem a re:

ž in terc ep tio n o f a lig h tn in g s tro k e b y a n ex tern a l rec ep to r (a ir term in a l)/c o n du c to r;

ž c o n du c tio n o f th e lig h tn in g c u rren t to ea rth with n o s ig n ifi c a n t p res s u re ris e with in th e b la de (i.e. n o
fo rm a tio n o f a rc s with in th e b la de);
ž s u c c es s fu l o p era tio n o f a n y m ec h a n ic a l m ec h a n is m (e.g . tip b ra k e m ec h a n is m ) with in th e b la de fo llo win g
th e lig h tn in g s tro k e;
ž relia b le o p era tio n o f th e lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem o v er a p ro lo n g ed p erio d.

T wo b a s ic m eth o ds o f b la de p ro tec tio n ex is t a n d th es e h a v e b een des c rib ed in o th er do c u m en ts :9,11

(a ) ex tern a l rec ep to r c o n n ec ted to a n in tern a l do wn -c o n du c to r;

(b ) c o n du c to rs p la c ed ex tern a lly o n th e b la de s u rfa c e o r ju s t u n der th e b la de s u rfa c e.

T h e fi rs t s y s tem is th a t u s ed in m o s t win d tu rb in e b la des a n d c o n s is ts o f a lig h tn in g rec ep to r th a t ta k es th e

fo rm o f a m eta l dis c o r s im ila r o b jec t p la c ed fl u s h with th e s u rfa c e o f a b la de n ea r to th e tip . T h e rec ep to r
p en etra tes in s ide th e b la de wh ere it is c o n n ec ted to a n in tern a l c o n du c to r. T h is c o n du c to r ru n s th ro u g h th e
b la de ro o t a n d is n o rm a lly c o n n ec ted to th e ea rth v ia th e lo w-s p eed s h a ft. A n ex a m p le o f th is des ig n is
s h o wn in F ig u re 3. B a s ed o n fi eld ex p erien c e, th is s y s tem h a s b een s h o wn to b e effec tiv e fo r b la des u p to a
len g th o f a p p ro x im a tely 15 –20 m .14 T h e dis a dv a n ta g e o f th is s y s tem is th a t it relies o n th e lig h tn in g s tro k e
a tta c h in g to th e ex tern a l rec ep to r. S in c e th is is a rela tiv ely s m a ll a rea o n a la rg e win d tu rb in e b la de, th e s y s tem
in terc ep tio n effi c ien c y (th e effi c ien c y o f th e s y s tem in a ttra c tin g lig h tn in g s tro k es to th e req u ired a tta c h m en t
p o in t) m a y b e s ig n ifi c a n tly les s th a n 100% . T h is v iew is rein fo rc ed b y a n ec do ta l ev iden c e o f a n u m b er o f
lo n g er b la des fi tted with th is ty p e o f s y s tem s u fferin g lig h tn in g da m a g e. T h e o p era tio n o f a n in tern a l lig h tn in g
p ro tec tio n s y s tem is illu s tra ted b y F ig u re 4, wh ic h s h o ws th e c o ro n a a ro u n d a n in tern a l lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n

C o p y rig h t  2001 J o h n Wiley & S o n s , L td. Wind Energ. 2001; 4:23–37

L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 27

Ligh tning receptor placed flush w ith blade

surface and connected to internal conductor
Ligh tning receptor

Carbon fibre sh aft

Combined ligh tning protection

system dow n conductor and tip
brak e control cable
Internal conductor connected to earth

F igu re 3 . Interna l ligh tning p ro tec tio n s y s tem fo r p itc h - a nd s ta ll-regu la ted b la des

F igu re 4 . N ega tiv e im a ge o f th e c o ro na p ro du c ed b y a n interna l b la de ligh tning p ro tec tio n s y s tem w h en a D C v o lta ge o f
4 5 0 k V w a s p la c ed o n a s p h ere 1 m a w a y , c lea rly s h o w ing th e tw o ligh tning rec ep to rs p la c ed o n eith er s ide o f th e b la de

s y s tem s u b jec ted to a h ig h DC elec tric fi eld. In th is la b o ra to ry ex p erim en t th e c o ro n a is p ro du c ed fro m th e

tip a s well a s fro m th e rec ep to rs th em s elv es .
T h e s ec o n d s y s tem relies o n a c o n du c to r ru n n in g th e fu ll len g th o f th e b la de o n o r in c lo s e p ro x im ity to
th e s u rfa c e. A n ex a m p le o f th is ty p e o f s y s tem is s h o wn in F ig u re 5 wh ere th e do wn -c o n du c to r is a llo win g
c o n du c tio n o f th e s tro k e c u rren t v ia a n a rc o n th e s u rfa c e o f th e m eta llic m a teria l. A c o n du c to r ru n n in g th e
fu ll len g th o f th e b la de will h a v e a s ig n ifi c a n tly im p ro v ed in terc ep tio n effi c ien c y in c o m p a ris o n with th e fi rs t
in tern a l c o n du c to r s y s tem des c rib ed. H o wev er, it is a p p a ren t fro m th e dec is io n b y m o s t m a n u fa c tu rers to u s e
th e fi rs t s y s tem th a t th is is ea s ier to m a n u fa c tu re. Ex tern a l s y s tem s a ls o c a u s e a ris k o f a ero dy n a m ic n o is e
a n d dra g a s well a s da m a g e du e to ic e fo rm a tio n in jo in ts .
T h e h ig h v elo c ity o f th e b la des n ea r th e tip s m ea n s th a t ex tern a l c o n du c to rs p la c ed o n th e b la de s u rfa c e will
b e v u ln era b le to ero s io n . P la c em en t o f ex tern a l c o n du c to rs ju s t u n dern ea th th e b la de s u rfa c e to p ro tec t a g a in s t
ero s io n da m a g e h a s b een s u g g es ted a n d tried b y s o m e m a n u fa c tu rers . It is , h o wev er, diffi c u lt to g u a ra n tee
g o o d a dh es io n o f th e g el c o a t to th e res t o f th e b la de. P la c in g th e p ro tec tiv e c o n du c to r fu rth er in to th e b la de
u ltim a tely p ro du c es p ro b lem s wh en th e b la de is s tru c k b y lig h tn in g . In th is c a s e, s ig n ifi c a n t da m a g e wo u ld
o c c u r to th e b la de m a teria l b efo re th e lig h tn in g s tro k e c o n n ec ts with th e ex tern a l c o n du c to r.
Wh ile th es e ty p es o f lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem ex is t, th ere is a req u irem en t to m a k e th em m o re relia b le.
T h e fo llo win g th ree s u b s ec tio n s des c rib e in div idu a l p ro b lem s a s s o c ia ted with th e relia b ility o f b la de lig h tn in g
p ro tec tio n .

Assessing the Interception E fficiency of a Blade Lightning Protection System

Wh ile th e ty p es o f b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem des c rib ed a b o v e h a v e b een s h o wn to o p era te s u c c es s fu lly ,
it is n o t c lea r wh eth er a s y s tem u s in g rec ep to rs a n d a n in tern a l do wn -c o n du c to r will c o n tin u e to in terc ep t a ll

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28 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

F igu re 5 . Ex a m p le o f a s im u la ted ligh tning s tro k e to a b la de fi tted w ith a n ex terna l ligh tning p ro tec tio n s y s tem

lig h tn in g s tro k es a s b la des in c rea s e in len g th . T h e u s e o f th e ro llin g s p h ere m o del in IEC 6102415 a llo ws
fo r th e fa c t th a t lig h tn in g a tta c h es to ta ll s tru c tu res b elo w th e h ig h es t p o in t.11 T h is s u g g es ts th a t lo n g win d
tu rb in e b la des eq u ip p ed with a n in tern a l lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem m ig h t b e v u ln era b le to da m a g e if a s in g le
rec ep to r is p la c ed a t th e tip o f th e b la de.
Do wn wa rd-p ro p a g a tin g lig h tn in g lea ders do n o t tra v el in a to ta lly v ertic a l direc tio n fro m th e c lo u d to th e
ea rth b u t m a y tra v ers e th e s k y fo r m a n y h u n dreds o f m etres . T h is m ea n s th a t a s tep p ed lea der will n o t a lwa y s
p ro g res s v ertic a lly to wa rds a win d tu rb in e. C o n s ider th e c a s e wh ere a do wn wa rd-p ro p a g a tin g lea der m o v es
to wa rds th e c en tre o f a win d tu rb in e b la de. It h a s a c h o ic e o f th ree p a rtic u la r direc tio n s in wh ic h to tra v el. It
c o u ld fl a s h o v er th e s u rfa c e o f th e b la de a n d tra v el to th e tip o r th e ro o t h a rm les s ly , b u t it c o u ld a ls o p u n c tu re
th ro u g h th e b la de s k in to rea c h th e in tern a l do wn -c o n du c to r (a s idefl a s h ) a s s h o wn in F ig u re 6. F ig u re 7
s h o ws a n ex a m p le o f th is h a p p en in g lo c a lly a t a b la de tip .
T h e lik elih o o d o f lig h tn in g a tta c h in g a wa y fro m th e lig h tn in g rec ep to r is diffi c u lt to a s s es s . T h e p o in t wh ere
th e lig h tn in g s tro k e will a tta c h to th e b la de will dep en d o n th e ex a c t g eo m etry o f th e a tta c h m en t p ro c es s a n d
th e rela tiv e dielec tric s tren g th s o f th e p a th s p res en ted to th e do wn wa rd-p ro p a g a tin g lea der. In a n a ttem p t to

Disch arge trav els to receptor

(possibly stitch ing th rough blade)

Ligh tning strik e attach es to w ind

turbine blade aw ay from th e blade tip

Disch arge passes th rough blade material

to internal dow n conductor (sideflash )

Disch arge trav els dow n to h ub

(possibly stitch ing th rough blade)

F igu re 6 . A tta c h m ent o f a ligh tning s tro k e to a w ind tu rb ine b la de a nd th e p o s s ib le p a th s it m a y ta k e

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L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 29

F igu re 7 . D a m a ge lo c a l to a n ex terna l rec ep to r p la c ed a t th e tip o f a w ind tu rb ine b la de

a s s es s wh eth er th is ev en t c o u ld h a p p en , a 30 m b la de m o del wa s c o n s tru c ted in a 3D fi n ite elem en t s o ftwa re

p a c k a g e. A u n it v o lta g e wa s p la c ed in differen t p o s itio n s a ro u n d th e b la de a n d th e elec tric fi eld a t th e b la de
s u rfa c e wa s p lo tted. T h e ex is ten c e o f a h ig h elec tric fi eld is o n e o f th e c riteria n ec es s a ry fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f
a n a n s werin g lea der, a n im p o rta n t p a rt o f th e lig h tn in g a tta c h m en t p ro c es s .
F ig u re 8 s h o ws th e res u lts o f o n e s im u la tio n wh ere a p o in t v o lta g e fa c et (s im u la tin g th e tip o f th e do wn wa rd
p ro p a g a tin g lea der) wa s p la c ed 10 m a wa y fro m th e tra ilin g edg e in th e c en tre o f th e b la de. Wh ile th ere is
a n in tern a l lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem a n d a s s o c ia ted rec ep to r fi tted to th is b la de, n o reg io n o f h ig h elec tric
fi eld c a n b e o b s erv ed a t th e b la de tip .
T h e wo rk n eeds to b e dev elo p ed in m o re deta il b efo re a n y defi n ite c o n c lu s io n s c a n b e dra wn , b u t it do es
s erv e to illu s tra te th e p o s s ib le ris k a n d c a n a ls o illu s tra te p o s s ib le s o lu tio n s . F ig u re 9 s h o ws th e elec tric fi eld
p lo t o n th e fi rs t 20 m o f a b la de wh en lig h tn in g rec ep to rs a re p la c ed a t a p p ro x im a tely 5 m in terv a ls . T h e lig h t
reg io n s o f h ig h elec tric fi eld c a n b e c lea rly o b s erv ed a n d th es e a re th e lik ely fo rm a tio n p o in ts o f a n s werin g
lea ders .
Wh ile m u ltip le rec ep to rs p la c ed a t reg u la r in terv a ls a lo n g th e b la de a re o n e wa y o f im p ro v in g th e
in terc ep tio n effi c ien c y o f a win d tu rb in e b la de, a n ex tern a l c o n du c to r wo u ld do th is eq u a lly well. T h e fi n a l
dec is io n o n th e c h o ic e o f s y s tem will u ltim a tely b e rela ted to m a n u fa c tu rin g .

Selection of M aterials for U se as a Lightning R eceptor

F o r a n in tern a l-ty p e lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem th e ex tern a l rec ep to r m a y b e ex p ec ted to s u ffer s ev era l
lig h tn in g a tta c h m en ts du rin g its lifetim e (p o s s ib ly o n e a y ea r o r m o re if in s ta lled in a rea s o f h ig h lig h tn in g
a c tiv ity ). Wh en ea c h lig h tn in g a tta c h m en t o c c u rs , ero s io n o f th e tip m a teria l a t th e ro o t o f th e lig h tn in g
a rc c h a n n el ta k es p la c e a s th e m eta l is h ea ted u p . T h e deg ree o f m eltin g a n d ero s io n is k n o wn to dep en d

B lade Root
Leading edge
B lade T ip

Region of h igh electric field at blade

centre

F igu re 8 . S im u la tio n o f th e elec tric fi elds o n a 3 0 m b la de res u lting fro m th e tip o f a s tep p ed lea der a p p ro a c h ing th e tra iling
edge w ith o nly o ne ligh tning rec ep to r fi tted a t th e b la de tip

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30 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

B lade Root

Leading edge

B lade T ip

Region of h igh electric field at

receptors

F igu re 9 . S im u la tio n o f th e elec tric fi elds o n a 3 0 m b la de res u lting fro m th e tip o f a s tep p ed lea der a p p ro a c h ing th e tra iling
edge w ith m u ltip le ligh tning rec ep to rs fi tted

o n th e m a teria ls u s ed (it is a fu n c tio n o f m eltin g p o in t, res is tiv ity a n d th erm a l c o n du c tiv ity ). T o determ in e
if a p a rtic u la r m eta l wa s m o re s u ited fo r u s e a s a lig h tn in g rec ep to r, a tes t wa s c a rried o u t wh ere s ev era l
m eta llic s a m p les o f s im ila r dim en s io n s were s u b jec ted to th e lo n g -du ra tio n c u rren t c o m p o n en t (i.e. th e p a rt
th a t c o n ta in s th e b u lk o f th e tra n s ferred c h a rg e a n d c a u s es m o s t m eltin g ) o f a lig h tn in g a rc a tta c h m en t.
S a m p les in c lu ded c o p p er, a lu m in iu m , tu n g s ten –c o p p er, tu n g s ten c a rb ide a n d s ta in les s s teels , m o s tly in th e
fo rm o f ro ds o f a p p ro x im a tely 10 m m dia m eter. T h es e were m a c h in ed wh ere p o s s ib le to a s lig h tly s m a ller
dia m eter 5 m m fro m th e tip a n d p o lis h ed fo r th e n ex t 15 m m in o rder to h elp a s s es s h o w m u c h m a teria l wa s
b ein g lo s t o r m elted in th e tes ts .
P h o to g ra p h s o f th e s a m p les a fter th e tes t a re s h o wn in F ig u re 10. In a lm o s t a ll th es e tes ts , s o m e q u a n tity
o f th e m eta llic s a m p le b ec a m e m o lten b u t th en s o lidifi ed m o re o r les s in s itu , a n d little if a n y m a teria l wa s
a c tu a lly lo s t. F o r a rea l lig h tn in g a tta c h m en t to a ro ta tin g b la de, a n y m a teria l wh ic h b ec o m es m o lten wo u ld
b e lik ely to b e ejec ted b y th e ro ta tio n a l (‘c en trifu g a l’) fo rc es a c tin g o n it, a n d s o a n y m a teria l wh ic h is
fo u n d to h a v e m elted du rin g th e tes ts s h o u ld b e a s s u m ed lik ely to b e ‘lo s t’ du rin g a rea l s trik e to a ro ta tin g
b la de.
A lu m in iu m p erfo rm ed wo rs t a s a c o n s eq u en c e o f its lo w m eltin g p o in t, a n d th e m o lten z o n e ex ten ded to
a p p ro x im a tely 4 m m fro m th e en d. It h a d b een ex p ec ted th a t th e m a teria ls with th e h ig h er m eltin g tem p era tu res
wo u ld p erfo rm b etter, a n d c erta in ly th e tu n g s ten –c o p p er a llo y p erfo rm ed th e b es t, a lth o u g h ev en with th is

F igu re 1 0 . R ec ep to r s a m p les fo llo w ing a rc a tta c h m ent tes ts . T o p : a lu m iniu m , s ta inles s s teel 3 1 6 , c o p p er, s ta inles s s teel
3 1 0 . B o tto m : to o l s teel, tu ngs ten c a rb ide, tu ngs ten– c o p p er a llo y

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L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 31

m a teria l th ere wa s s o m e ero s io n . Wh en ex a m in in g th e s teels , th ere were s ig n s o f s o m e s u rfa c e m eltin g , b u t

th e dep th to wh ic h it p en etra ted c a n o n ly b e a s s es s ed b y s ec tio n in g , wh ic h wa s n o t c a rried o u t.
It is c lea r fro m th e tes ts th a t th o u g h t n eeds to b e g iv en to rec ep to r des ig n to en s u re th a t a rec ep to r
c a n with s ta n d th e lig h tn in g da m a g e ex p ec ted o v er a lifetim e o r, a ltern a tiv ely , th a t it c a n b e rep la c ed wh en
n ec es s a ry . T h e tes ts s h o wed th a t tu n g s ten –c o p p er a llo y wa s th e m eta l b es t s u ited fo r u s e a s a rec ep to r o u t
o f th o s e tes ted.

Protection of a H ydraulic Cylinder ( for Tip Brake Control)

In a s ta ll-reg u la ted win d tu rb in e b la de a h y dra u lic c y lin der is o ften p la c ed in th e lig h tn in g c u rren t p a th . T h is
is u n a v o ida b le, a s th e h y dra u lic c y lin der en s u res th a t ten s io n is m a in ta in ed o n th e tip b ra k e c a b le wh ic h is
a ls o u s ed a s th e lig h tn in g c o n du c to r in th e b la de. Ex p erien c e h a s s h o wn th a t lig h tn in g c u rren t fl o win g th ro u g h
th e h y dra u lic c y lin der c a n da m a g e h y dra u lic s ea ls , lea din g to lea k a g e o f h y dra u lic fl u id a n d a fa ilu re o f th e
tip b ra k e m ec h a n is m . T o in v es tig a te th e s ev erity o f th e p ro b lem a n d to a ttem p t to fi n d a s o lu tio n , ex p erim en ts
were c o n du c ted a t C u lh a m Elec tro m a g n etic s a n d L ig h tn in g in th e U K .
T h e tes t o b jec t wa s a h y dra u lic c y lin der o f th e ty p e u s ed in b la des to a c tu a te th e tip b ra k e m ec h a n is m .
On e en d o f th e c y lin der wa s s lu n g fro m a c ra n e v ia a s teel c a b le, wh ile th e o th er en d wa s c o n n ec ted to a
weig h t o f a ro u n d 100 k g a ls o v ia a s teel c a b le. T h e c y lin der wa s fi lled with h y dra u lic fl u id a n d th e p is to n
wa s p la c ed a ll th e wa y in s ide th e c y lin der. A tes t wa s th en c a rried o u t b y in jec tin g 200 k A in to th e tes t
a rra n g em en t. T h is c u rren t wo u ld h a v e to p a s s th ro u g h th e c y lin der to rea c h ea rth . F o llo win g th e c o n c lu s io n
o f th e fi rs t lig h tn in g c o n du c tio n tes t, th e s elf-s ea lin g h y dra u lic c o n n ec to r wa s relea s ed, a llo win g th e p is to n to
m o v e fu rth er o u t o f th e c y lin der. T h is b ro u g h t a n ew reg io n o f th e m eta llic s h a ft in to th e z o n e a dja c en t to
th e c a s t iro n wip er (th e s ec tio n o f th e h y dra u lic c y lin der wh ere th e p is to n p a s s es tig h tly a g a in s t th e c y lin der)
wh ere th e m o s t s ig n ifi c a n t da m a g e wa s b ein g c a u s ed. T h is p ro c es s wa s rep ea ted fo r ea c h o f th e s u b s eq u en t
tes ts .
In a ll tes ts , da m a g e o c c u rred to th e s h a ft wh ere a rc in g a p p ea red to h a v e ta k en p la c e a t th e in terfa c e b etween
th e wip er a n d th e s h a ft. S ep a ra te tes ts u s in g differen t c u rren t wa v efo rm s s h o wed th a t th e da m a g e wa s du e
to th e h ig h -en erg y p o rtio n o f th e lig h tn in g c u rren t wa v efo rm a n d n o t th e c o n tin u in g c u rren t p h a s e. M o s t
im p o rta n tly , h o wev er, th e p res en c e o f a 2.5 m c o p p er b o n d s tra p p la c ed in p a ra llel to th e c y lin der m a de n o
a p p a ren t differen c e to th e lev el o f da m a g e. T h is is p res u m ed to b e b ec a u s e th e s h a ft –c y lin der ro u te is o f
m u c h lo wer in du c ta n c e th a n th e p a th th ro u g h th e b o n d s tra p a n d is th erefo re a p referen tia l p a th . F ig u re 11
s h o ws th e ty p e o f da m a g e en c o u n tered.
A s ec o n d tes t s eries wa s c a rried o u t wh ere th e tes t m eth o d wa s s im ila r b u t th e in ten tio n wa s to s tu dy
o th er p o s s ib ilities fo r b o n din g a c ro s s th e c y lin der, in p a rtic u la r wh eth er th e u s e o f s h o rter b o n din g s tra p s , o r
m o re th a n o n e b o n d s tra p in p a ra llel, wo u ld redu c e th e s ev erity o f th e da m a g e. No im p ro v em en t in th e lev el
o f da m a g e c o u ld, h o wev er, b e m a de ev en with a n u m b er o f s h o rt b o n din g s tra p s p la c ed in p a ra llel to th e
c y lin der. T h e da m a g e c a u s ed du rin g th e tes tin g wa s deem ed to b e u n a c c ep ta b le ev en a t th e rela tiv ely lo w
m edia n s trik e lev el o f 30 k A a n d with a m in im u m a c h iev a b le b o n d s tra p len g th in s ta lled. It wa s th erefo re

F igu re 1 1 . D a m a ge to th e h y dra u lic p is to n fo llo w ing th e fi rs t h igh -c u rrent tes t

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32 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

Copper bond strap

Current In
CY LIN DER Current O ut

N ylon Spacer Insulating B olt

Wash ers

F igu re 1 2 . Ins ertio n o f a n ins u la ting b rea k into th e tes t s y s tem

F igu re 1 3 . Ex p ec ted lo c a tio n o f da m a ge o n th e h y dra u lic c y linder a fter th e tes t w h ere th e ins u la ting b rea k did no t fl a s h o v er

dec ided to s tu dy th e effec t o f a n in s u la tin g b rea k a t th e to p o f th e c y lin der, b y in s ta llin g s u c h a b rea k with a
p a ra llel b y p a s s b ra id, a s s h o wn s c h em a tic a lly in F ig u re 12.
In th e fi rs t tes t o f th is c o n fi g u ra tio n a t ¾40 k A th e v o lta g e wa s in s u ffi c ien t to c a u s e a fl a s h o v er a t th e
3 m m th ic k n y lo n wa s h er. T h e c u rren t a ll fl o wed th ro u g h th e b ra id a n d s o n o da m a g e wh a ts o ev er o c c u rred
to th e c y lin der. S u b s eq u en t s h o ts with h ig h er c u rren t lev els c a u s ed th e n y lo n wa s h er to fl a s h o v er (in p ra c tic e
th is c o u ld b e p rev en ted b y fi ttin g a lo n g er wa s h er). F ig u re 13 s h o ws th e res u lts o f a tes t a fter th e a p p lic a tio n
o f a h ig h -c u rren t im p u ls e to th e p ro tec ted s y s tem , n o da m a g e is v is ib le.
It is c lea r fro m th e res u lts o f th e tes ts th a t a n in s u la tin g b rea k , with a s u ffi c ien t ra tin g to h o ld o ff th e v o lta g e
dev elo p ed du rin g th e fl o w o f c u rren t th ro u g h th e b o n d s tra p s , is req u ired to p ro tec t th e h y dra u lic c y lin der.
T h e u s e o f b o n d s tra p s a lo n e will n o t p rev en t da m a g e.

Summary
M o dern b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s h a v e p erfo rm ed ex trem ely well in s erv ic e b u t im p ro v em en ts in
relia b ility c a n s till b e m a de. T h is is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t c o n s iderin g th e m o v e to o ffs h o re win d tu rb in es
wh ere a c c es s fo r m a in ten a n c e/rep a ir will b e in c rea s in g ly diffi c u lt. Im p ro v em en ts in th e m a teria l u s ed fo r
rec ep to rs a n d in th e p ro tec tio n o f h y dra u lic c y lin ders with in s ta ll-reg u la ted b la des c a n b e ea s ily m a de u s in g
th e deta ils p ro v ided, a lth o u g h th ey a re u n lik ely to c o m p letely a llev ia te th e n eed fo r m a in ten a n c e. T h e n eed
to im p ro v e th e in terc ep tio n effi c ien c y o f a b la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem c a n s till b e q u es tio n ed a t th e
p res en t tim e, a lth o u g h it is lik ely to b ec o m e in c rea s in g ly im p o rta n t a s tu rb in es in c rea s e in s iz e.

L ig htn in g D am ag e to W in d T u rb in e B earin g s
Wh en lig h tn in g s trik es a win d tu rb in e b la de, th e lig h tn in g c u rren t will in ev ita b ly b e c o n du c ted th ro u g h o n e
o r m o re b ea rin g s . If th is fl o w o f c u rren t da m a g es th e b ea rin g in s u c h a wa y th a t it n eeds rep la c em en t, th e
c o s t to th e tu rb in e o wn er will b e h ig h .
L o n g du ra tio n A C o r DC elec tric a l c u rren ts a re k n o wn to b e a b le to c a u s e b ea rin g da m a g e wh en th e c u rren t
den s ity th ro u g h th e b ea rin g ex c eeds a g iv en v a lu e. It is a ls o k n o wn th a t lig h tn in g c u rren ts c o n du c ted th ro u g h
s m a ll b ea rin g s c a n a n d do c a u s e p ittin g da m a g e a n d o c c a s io n a lly weldin g . H o wev er, th e rela tiv ely la rg e s iz e

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L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 33

o f win d tu rb in e b ea rin g s m ea n s th a t th e c u rren t den s ity is lo w a n d lig h tn in g da m a g e m a y n o t b e a n o b v io u s

s o u rc e o f o p era tin g p ro b lem s .8,9
T h ere is little ev iden c e fro m th e fi eld th a t c o n c lu s iv ely s u p p o rts th e v iew th a t b ea rin g s m a y b e da m a g ed b y
lig h tn in g c u rren t. V erify in g th a t b ea rin g da m a g e h a s b een c a u s ed b y lig h tn in g is o ften diffi c u lt, s in c e tu rb in e
b ea rin g s a re n o t n o rm a lly c h ec k ed a fter a lig h tn in g s tro k e. A n y da m a g e th a t h a s b een c a u s ed is lik ely to
lea d to fu rth er m ec h a n ic a l da m a g e a s th e b ea rin g ro ta tes , res u ltin g in a redu c tio n in b ea rin g lifetim e. S u c h
m ec h a n ic a l da m a g e c o u ld b e a ttrib u ted to o th er c a u s es , es p ec ia lly a fter a n u m b er o f y ea rs .
T h ere h a v e, h o wev er, b een s o m e rep o rts th a t win d tu rb in e b ea rin g s h a v e b een da m a g ed b y a lig h tn in g
s tro k e. On e rep o rt do c u m en ts th e in s p ec tio n o f a win d tu rb in e b ea rin g th a t wa s dis m a n tled im m edia tely a fter
a lig h tn in g s tro k e wh ere th e tu rb in e h a d n o t b een ru n n in g s in c e th e lig h tn in g s tro k e o c c u rred.11 P ittin g a n d
a b ra s io n da m a g e u p to 3 m m in dia m eter wa s fo u n d o n a ro u n d a q u a rter o f th e b ea rin g ro llers . S im ila r m a rk s
were fo u n d o n th e b ea rin g ra c ewa y . T h e b ea rin g m a n u fa c tu rer es tim a ted a redu c tio n in th e b ea rin g lifetim e
to a th ird o f th e des ig n lifetim e.
S u c h is s u es led to th e ex p erim en ts n o w des c rib ed. T h e m a in o b jec tiv e o f th e ex p erim en ts wa s to determ in e
th e ex ten t to wh ic h a win d tu rb in e b ea rin g c o u ld b e da m a g ed b y lig h tn in g .

Current Waveforms U sed in Testing

F ig u re 14 s h o ws a n ex a m p le p ro fi le o f a do wn wa rd n eg a tiv e lig h tn in g fl a s h (wh ic h m a k e u p 90% o f a ll
fl a s h es wo rldwide). A ty p ic a l lig h tn in g fl a s h c o n s is ts o f a n u m b er o f in div idu a l s tro k es . T h e fi rs t s tro k e is
k n o wn a s th e fi rs t retu rn s tro k e a n d will g en era lly h a v e th e h ig h es t p ea k c u rren t. T h e fi rs t retu rn s tro k e is
fo llo wed b y two to th ree s u b s eq u en t s tro k es o n a v era g e. T h e fi g u re s h o ws th e p res en c e o f a lo n g c o n tin u o u s
c u rren t fo llo win g th e s ec o n d s u b s eq u en t s tro k e, s u c h a c o n tin u o u s c u rren t m a y fo llo w a n y in div idu a l s tro k e.
T wo in div idu a l h ig h -c u rren t im p u ls e g en era to rs were u s ed in th e la b o ra to ry to p ro du c e a c u rren t wa v efo rm
s im ila r to th a t o b s erv ed in th e s ec o n d s u b s eq u en t s tro k e. B o th g en era to rs c o n s is t o f c a p a c ito rs c h a rg ed to a
h ig h v o lta g e th a t a re th en dis c h a rg ed v ia res is ta n c e a n d in du c ta n c e to p ro du c e th e c o rrec t wa v efo rm . T h e fi rs t
g en era to r p ro du c es wh a t is k n o wn a s th e c o m p o n en t A c u rren t. T h is is th e h ig h -en erg y c o m p o n en t o f th e
lig h tn in g s tro k e a n d h a s a m a x im u m p ea k c u rren t o f 200 k A a n d a n a c tio n in teg ra l (s i2 dt) o f 2.2 M J !1 .
T h e s ec o n d g en era to r p ro du c es th e c o m p o n en t C c u rren t th a t is u s ed to rep res en t th e c o n tin u in g c u rren t p h a s e
o f a lig h tn in g s tro k e. It h a s a lo w p ea k c u rren t (o f th e o rder o f a few k A ) b u t h a s a c h a rg e c o n ten t o f 640 C .
T h e v a lu es o f p ea k c u rren t, a c tio n in teg ra l a n d c h a rg e c a n b e c o m p a red with th o s e fo u n d in a rea l lig h tn in g
s tro k e s h o wn in T a b le 1. It is c lea r th a t th e g en era to rs in th e la b o ra to ry p ro v ide tes t lev els o n ly fo u n d in a
s m a ll p erc en ta g e o f rea l lig h tn in g s tro k es .
T h e A a n d C c o m p o n en ts o f th e c u rren t wa v efo rm c a n b e a p p lied to a tes t o b jec t eith er in s eq u en c e o r
s ep a ra tely if req u ired. A p p ly in g th e c u rren t c o m p o n en ts s ep a ra tely a llo ws th e iden tifi c a tio n o f th e da m a g e-
c a u s in g c o m p o n en t with m o re c erta in ty .

Current
(negativ e polarity) Subseq uent
First return
strok es
strok e

Subseq uent strok e w ith

continuing current

t
11
F igu re 1 4 . Ex a m p le c u rrent p ro fi le o f a do w nw a rd nega tiv e ligh tning fl a s h

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34 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

T a b le 1. Rea l lig h tn in g s tro k e elec tric a l p a ra m eters

F irs t retu rn s tro k e S u b s eq u en t s tro k es

P ea k c u rren t 90 k A o r m o re in 5 % o f fl a s h es 30 k A o r m o re in 5 % o f fl a s h es
A c tio n in teg ra l 0.5 5 M J !1 o r m o re in 5 % o f fl a s h es 0.05 M J !1 o r m o re in 5 % o f fl a s h es
C h a rg e 240 C o r m o re in 5 % o f fl a s h es 11 C o r m o re in 5 % o f fl a s h es

A tes t p ro g ra m m e wa s c a rried o u t, in itia lly tes tin g two 600 m m dia m eter p itc h b ea rin g s to in v es tig a te th e
lik elih o o d o f th es e b ein g da m a g ed b y lig h tn in g c u rren t. F o llo win g th es e tes ts , fu rth er wo rk wa s c a rried o u t
o n ro ta tin g b ea rin g s o f a s m a ller s iz e.

H igh-current Testing of Wind Turbine Pitch Bearings

S im u la ted lig h tn in g c u rren t wa s c o n du c ted a c ro s s s ta tio n a ry b la de p itc h b ea rin g s . T h e tes t s a m p les were two
b ea rin g ra c es a p p ro x im a tely 0.6 m in dia m eter. On e s a m p le wa s a p ro du c tio n b ea rin g with o u t p re lo a d a n d
c o u ld b e tu rn ed ea s ily . T h e s ec o n d h a d a n effec tiv e p re lo a d a p p lied b y in s ta llin g s lig h tly o v ers iz ed b a ll-
b ea rin g s , a n d h a d a ru n n in g to rq u e o f a ro u n d 60 N m . In th e tes t a rra n g em en t th ey c o u ld b e lu b ric a ted with
g rea s e a s wo u ld b e th e c a s e in p ro du c tio n b ea rin g s .
A s s h o wn in F ig u re 15 , th e c u rren t wa s c o n du c ted to th e c en tre ra c e o f th e b ea rin g v ia a to p p la te wh ic h
h a d s ev era l fi x in g b o lts a ll ro u n d th e c irc u m feren c e o f th e b ea rin g . T h e c u rren t th en left th e b ea rin g o u ter
ra c e v ia a lo wer p la te wh ic h wa s s im ila rly b o lted a ro u n d its c irc u m feren c e, a n d retu rn ed to th e c a p a c ito r
b a n k . T h e in ten tio n o f th is des ig n wa s to a llo w c u rren t to fl o w th ro u g h th e b ea rin g a s u n ifo rm ly a s p o s s ib le
a ro u n d its c irc u m feren c e.
T es ts were c a rried o u t with th e p itc h b ea rin g s in th eir p ro du c tio n s ta te a n d b y a p p ly in g b o th th e h ig h -
en erg y (c o m p o n en t A ) a n d th e lo n g -du ra tio n (c o m p o n en t C ) c u rren ts to s im u la te a s ev ere lig h tn in g s tro k e.
S u rfa c e effec ts o n o n ly a few b a lls o c c u rred a n d th e da m a g e wa s s o s lig h t a s to b e b a rely v is ib le. T h e s u rfa c e
s im p ly a p p ea red s lig h tly a b ra ded o v er a n a rea o f u p to 4 m m ð 1 m m . F o r b o th th e u n lo a ded a n d p relo a ded
b ea rin g s th e da m a g e wa s th erefo re deem ed b y th e b ea rin g m a n u fa c tu rer to b e in s ig n ifi c a n t. T h e a dditio n o f
la rg e q u a n tities o f g rea s e to th e b ea rin g m a de n o n o tic ea b le differen c e to th e lev els o f da m a g e fo r th e lo a ded
b ea rin g s . T h e c o n c lu s io n fro m th is tes t wa s th a t s ta tio n a ry b ea rin g s o f a s im ila r s iz e o r la rg er c a n with s ta n d
th e effec ts o f lig h tn in g c u rren t with n o s ig n ifi c a n t da m a g e.
P itc h b ea rin g s a re n o rm a lly s ta tio n a ry a n d h a v e a c o n du c tiv e s u rfa c e–s u rfa c e m eta llic c o n ta c t a llo win g th e
p a s s a g e o f la rg e a m o u n ts o f lig h tn in g c u rren t with n o da m a g e. H o wev er, o th er b ea rin g s with in a win d tu rb in e

Current Collected From Current Injected Into

B earing O uter Race B earing Inner Race

F igu re 1 5 . P itc h b ea ring tes t a rra ngem ent

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L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 35

n o rm a lly ro ta te a n d a n in s u la tio n o il fi lm is n o rm a lly p res en t b etween th e b ea rin g elem en ts . T h e s ec o n d s et

o f tes ts wa s des ig n ed to in v es tig a te th e effec t th a t th is m a y h a v e o n th e p ro b a b ility o f lig h tn in g da m a g e.

H igh current Testing of R otating Bearings

In a ro ta tin g b ea rin g th ere will b e a h y dro dy n a m ic lu b ric a n t la y er b etween th e ro ller/b a ll a n d th e ra c ewa y s ,
a n in ten tio n a l fea tu re o f b ea rin g o p era tio n . S u c h a fi lm wo u ld req u ire a c erta in v o lta g e to b rea k do wn b efo re
a n a rc c o u ld fo rm . C o n du c tio n o f c u rren ts a c ro s s a n in s u la tin g b a rrier o f th is ty p e (v ia a s m a ll a rc ) wo u ld b e
ex p ec ted to g en era te rela tiv ely s ev ere da m a g e, s im ila r to th a t p ro du c ed b y a n a rc welder. A tes t p ro g ra m m e
to in v es tig a te th e s ev erity o f th is da m a g e wa s c a rried o u t.
T wo s im ila rly s iz ed s ets o f ro ller b ea rin g s o f 15 0 a n d 170 m m in tern a l dia m eter were u s ed in th e tes t
p ro g ra m m e. T h ey h a d b een rem o v ed fro m a g ea rb o x a n d th erefo re h a d s o m e s ig n s o f wea r, a lth o u g h th ere
wa s n o ev iden t da m a g e. T h es e b ea rin g s tes ted were s o m ewh a t s m a ller th a n win d tu rb in e m a in b ea rin g s .
H o wev er, a s lo n g a s th e h y dro dy n a m ic effec ts n o ted b elo w a re in o p era tio n fo r b o th ty p es o f b ea rin g , tes tin g
a s m a ller b ea rin g wo u ld g iv e, if a n y th in g , wo rs e da m a g e.
It wa s im p o rta n t fo r th es e tes ts th a t th e b ea rin g s were o p era tin g in a h y dro dy n a m ic reg im e. A dv ic e o n h o w
to s elec t s u c h a n o p era tin g reg im e fo r h y dro dy n a m ic lu b ric a tio n wa s p ro v ided b y a b ea rin g m a n u fa c tu rer,
wh o s e da ta in dic a ted th a t fo r 220 v is c o s ity o il a n d a b ea rin g dia m eter o f 185 m m (a t th e ro llin g s u rfa c e)
th e ro ta tio n a l s p eed s h o u ld b e a t lea s t 25 rp m . F o r th e tes ts des c rib ed, a ro ta tio n a l s p eed o f 65 rp m wa s
s elec ted. T h is wa s well with in th e h y dro dy n a m ic reg im e, th e h y dro dy n a m ic lu b ric a n t la y er b ein g o f th e o rder
o f 10!6 m th ic k . T h e effec t o f lo a din g o n th e b ea rin g is to redu c e fu rth er th e fi lm th ic k n es s , s o effo rts were
m a de to k eep a n y b ea rin g lo a ds to a m in im u m .
T h e two b ea rin g s were in s ta lled in a tes t rig b a c k -to -b a c k , in s u c h a wa y th a t c u rren ts c o u ld b e c o n du c ted
th ro u g h o n e o r th e o th er. F o r th es e s eries o f tes ts , o n e b ea rin g wa s tes ted wh ils t th e rig wa s ro ta tin g a t
65 rp m a n d th e s ec o n d wa s tes ted im m edia tely a fterwa rds wh ils t th e rig wa s s ta tio n a ry . T h e s a m e c u rren ts
were a p p lied fo r b o th tes ts . T h is p ro v ides a direc t a s s es s m en t o f th e effec ts o f ro ta tio n o n b ea rin g da m a g e.
T h e ro ta tin g b ea rin g wa s fed c o n tin u o u s ly with lu b ric a n t du rin g ea c h tes t.
No da m a g e wa s v is ib le o n th e s ta tio n a ry b ea rin g du rin g th es e tes ts a t lev els u p to a m a x im u m tes t
o f c o m p o n en t A o f 70 k A (0Ð25 M J !1 ) o r c o m p o n en t C o f 85 0 C . V is ib le da m a g e o c c u rred to th e
ro ta tin g b ea rin g a t a rela tiv ely lo w lev el o f 41 k A (0Ð04 M J !1 ). M u c h m o re s ev ere da m a g e o c c u rred
a t 67 k A (0Ð24 M J !1 ) a n d c o n s is ted o f s ev era l p its fa irly ev en ly s p a c ed a ro u n d th e ra c e. T h e c o n tin u ed
ro ta tio n o f th e b ea rin g c a u s ed fu rth er n u m ero u s tin y in den ta tio n m a rk s o n th e ra c e, p res u m a b ly b ec a u s e o f
th e p ittin g da m a g e o n th e ro llers ‘p rin tin g ’ its im p res s io n o n th e ra c e. F ig u re 16 s h o ws a n ex a m p le o f th e
ty p e o f da m a g e fro m th e fi n a l 200 k A (2 M J !1 ) tes t.

Implication of Test R esults for Wind Turbine Bearings

C o m p o n en t A (h ig h -en erg y ) c u rren ts c o n du c ted th ro u g h a la rg e s ta tic b ea rin g will p ro du c e n eg lig ib le da m a g e.
If in s u la tin g la y ers (s u c h a s th o s e wh ic h m ig h t b e p res en ted b y a h y dro dy n a m ic lu b ric a n t la y er) a re p res en t
b etween th e b a ll a n d th e ra c e, th en da m a g e is en h a n c ed. T es ts s h o wed th a t a ro ta tin g b ea rin g c o u ld b e
s u s c ep tib le to s ig n ifi c a n t p ittin g da m a g e ev en a t rela tiv ely lo w c u rren t lev els .
C o m p o n en t C (lo n g -du ra tio n ) c u rren ts will b e c o n du c ted th ro u g h a s ta tic b ea rin g with n o da m a g e
wh a ts o ev er. H o wev er, a c o n tin u o u s in s u la tin g la y er c o u ld c a u s e v ery s ev ere da m a g e. Du rin g th e ro ta tin g
b ea rin g tes ts , n o da m a g e o c c u rred fro m th is c o m p o n en t. It is a s s u m ed th a t fo r th is p a rtic u la r b ea rin g th e
lu b ric a n t la y er did n o t c o m p letely is o la te th e ra c es fro m th e b a lls a n d th a t s o m e m eta l –m eta l c o n ta c t wa s
ta k in g p la c e.
T h e tes t res u lts in dic a te th a t th e p ro v is io n o f lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n is des ira b le fo r c o n tin u o u s ly ro ta tin g
b ea rin g s . L ig h tn in g p ro tec tio n o f b ea rin g s c a n , h o wev er, b e diffi c u lt to a c h iev e o win g to th e lo w-in du c ta n c e
p a th p res en ted b y a b ea rin g to lig h tn in g c u rren t.11

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36 I. C o tto n N. J en k in s a n d K . P a n dia ra j

F igu re 1 6 . C lo s e-u p o f b ea ring da m a ge c a u s ed b y a h igh -c u rrent tes t

C o n clu sio n s
B la de lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s h a v e dev elo p ed in to relia b le m eth o ds o f lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n fo r b la des
15 –20 m in len g th . Wo rk rela ted to th e p erfo rm a n c e o f lig h tn in g rec ep to rs a n d th e h y dra u lic c y lin der in
a s ta ll-reg u la ted b la de h a s h elp ed im p ro v e th e relia b ility o f in tern a l lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s . Ex tern a l
lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s h a v e tra ditio n a lly n o t b een u s ed o n win d tu rb in e b la des o win g to th e p erc eiv ed
a dv a n ta g es o f a n in tern a l s y s tem (m a in ly ea s e o f m a n u fa c tu re). A s b la des c o n tin u e to in c rea s e in s iz e, it
is p o s s ib le th a t th e u s e o f ex tern a l lig h tn in g p ro tec tio n s y s tem s o r m u ltip le lig h tn in g rec ep to rs will b ec o m e
n ec es s a ry to dec rea s e th e ris k o f s idefl a s h .
With reg a rds to b ea rin g s , wh ile fi eld ex p erien c e h a s n o t c o n c lu s iv ely c o n fi rm ed th e n eed fo r b ea rin g lig h t-
n in g p ro tec tio n , th e tes ts rep o rted in th is a rtic le h a v e c o n fi rm ed th a t s o m e win d tu rb in e b ea rin g s m a y req u ire
it. In p a rtic u la r, b ea rin g s th a t ro ta te a t a s p eed s u ffi c ien t to p ro du c e a h y dro dy n a m ic in s u la tin g la y er b etween
th e ro llers /b a lls a n d th e ra c ewa y s a re v u ln era b le to lig h tn in g da m a g e. In c o n tra s t, la rg e b ea rin g s th a t c a n b e
c o n s idered s ta tio n a ry o r th a t ro ta te s lo wly en o u g h th a t th ere is n o in s u la tin g la y er b etween th e ro llers /b a lls
a n d th e ra c ewa y s c a n p ro b a b ly b e c o n s idered im m u n e fro m lig h tn in g da m a g e. Giv en th a t th ere is diffi c u lty
in a c h iev in g effec tiv e b ea rin g p ro tec tio n , c a refu l c o n s idera tio n m u s t b e g iv en to b ea rin g s in th e lig h tn in g
p ro tec tio n s y s tem des ig n .

Ack n o w led g em en ts
T h e a u th o rs wis h to th a n k th e Eu ro p ea n C o m m is s io n fo r c o -fu n din g th is wo rk u n der th e No n -Nu c lea r
En erg y P ro g ra m m e J OU L E (R& D p a rt) o f th e F o u rth F ra m ewo rk P ro g ra m m e fo r res ea rc h , tec h n o lo g ic a l
dev elo p m en t a n d dem o n s tra tio n (c o n tra c ts J OR3-C T 95 -005 2 a n d J OR3-C T 98-0241) a n d th e Dep a rtm en t o f
T ra de a n d In du s try (ET S U ) fo r p ro v idin g rem a in in g fu n ds fo r th e fi rs t o f th es e two p ro jec ts . T h e a u th o rs a re
a ls o g ra tefu l to M r S tep h en H a ig h o f C u lh a m Elec tro m a g n etic s a n d L ig h tn in g a n d M r M a rk H a n c o c k fo r
a s s is ta n c e with th is wo rk .

C o p y rig h t  2001 J o h n Wiley & S o n s , L td. Wind Energ. 2001; 4:23–37

L ig h tn in g P ro tec tio n fo r Win d T u rb in e 37

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C o p y rig h t  2001 J o h n Wiley & S o n s , L td. Wind Energ. 2001; 4:23–37