INTRODUCTION

The use of plant fibre composites has increased at a very fast rate.[1] This is due to their
appealing characteristics, which include high specific strength and modulus, widespread
availability, low cost, and good environmental credibility. Plant fibres are employed as
reinforcements in polymer matrix composite.[2] Plant fibres are elongated plant cells that
support sclerenchyma and have thick cellulose walls and a well-organized structure. The
following is the morphological hierarchy: Cell walls are made up of layers. macro fibrils,
microfibrils, and lastly finer elementary fibrils make up the structure. [2, 3] Plant fibre is
predicted to continue to grow in the future at a fast rate. There is an improved understanding
of processing-structure property interactions in biobased composites is necessary to improve
the design and performance of such composites. As the fibres are the most important
component of the composites, they must perform well.[3] This is because the constituent
plant fibres are sensitive to mechanical stress, temperature, water, and other conditions. [3,
4]Biobased composites are a novel type of material with a combination of high technical
performance and low environmental impact.[4] Cellulose fibres produced from plants have
the most promising potential for composite reinforcement in structural applications. [4]In this
article, we will cover the structure and relationships of plant fibres.[1] We will discuss their
effects on the properties of biobased composites as well as their applications.[1]

Bio fibres -based composites are materials that are obtained from a biological origin, for
instance, crops, plants or further viable farming, or forestry materials. [5]The manipulation of
polymer composites fabricates from fibres procured from nature in present years, is
increasing swiftly caused of their lightweight, ease, and biodegradability. The most repeated
matrix stuff is thermoset or flame retardants such as polyester, epoxy and vinyl ester. And the
most repeated reinforcement agents are carbon, aramid, and glass fibres. [6]Composite
materials are customarily fabricated with fibre reinforcements and the nearly repeated
reinforcement agent is carbon. [7] Bio composites are largely composed of two or more
organic and/or inorganic ingredients. The innumerable variety of natural (i.e., biological)
polymers, by way of illustration, polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose, alginate, chitosan),
proteins (e.g., keratin, silk fibroin, collagen), sugars (e.g., glucose), and lignin, and synthetic
polymers, for example, poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly (lactic acid), poly(aniline), and
polypropylene, are used as organic components.[6] The matrix material is an essential
limiting factor for mechanical and chemical ingredients of the composite material product
and the better the matrix materials are Petrochemical grounded materials. diminish of fossil
sources is a fault-finding issue for composites.[8] One of the majority used polymers in
Additive Manufacturing is Polylactic acid (PLA, or polylactide), an environment-friendly and
metal-containing thermoplastic aliphatic polyester, obtained from sustainable and natural
fount such as sugarcane, chips or starch, corn starch, and tapioca roots.[9, 10] PLA is besides
depicted by good mechanical parcel equating to traditional bio composites. Bio-based
composites are further precious as the nature of their ecological side, high mechanical and
electrical production, lightweight, and low production costs. [10]

Natural Fibres- Natural fibres (NFs) are used in biocomposites in a variety of forms,
including rope, strands, and reinforcing agents, and their biodegradability, low cost, high
specific strength, and good physical properties make them useful in a variety of industries,
including aerospace, automobiles, sports, home appliances, and building and construction.
Plant base fibres, animal base fibres, and mineral base fibres are the three basic types of NFs.
Because asbestos (the principal element of mineral base fibres) is important for one's health,
little research has been done on them. Researchers are concentrating their efforts on plant
base fibres because of their potential traits such as low cost, biodegradability, abundance, and
good physical and mechanical properties.[11]

Figure 1- Classification of natural fibers.[11]

PROPERTIES OF BIOCOMPOSITES-

The most significant feature of selecting materials for varied applications depends upon their
properties. [12]Material characteristics are frequently influenced by the material's isotropic
and anisotropic nature. The most relevant properties of bio composites include- [12]

1) Mechanical properties-The impacts fibre surface modification on the features of jute

fibre and mechanical properties which started with a bio composite made of
biodegradable polymer PBS and jute fibre.[13] Surface modification can eliminate
surface contaminants and lower the diameter of jute fibres. The majority of plastics
are chosen because they have acceptable mechanical qualities at a low cost.[14] In
order to determine the stability at high temperatures, the fibre-reinforced polymer
composites are subjected to thermal measurement.[13]

2) Thermal properties- The fibre-reinforced polymer composites are exposed to high or

low heat. These fibres have various applications. They are used to make Automotive
engine components, Aerospace and military products, Electronic and circuit board
components, oil and gas equipment, etc. [14]The thermal characteristics of new bio
composites made from a modified starch matrix and natural vegetable fibres were
investigated. TGA (thermal degradation) and DSG (transition temperature
crystallinity) were used to evaluate the thermal behaviour of bio composites. [15]Due
to the compatibility of the filler matrix, these materials have good mechanical
qualities. The effects of filler content, filler size, and fraction nature have all been
studied.[15]
3) Biodegradation properties-Petroleum-based synthetic polymers, such as polyolefin,
are commonly utilized in packaging, bottle, and moulding products. Globally, about
150 million tonnes of petrochemical plastics are discarded each year, posing major
environmental issues.[16]This property is based on several biodegradable polymers.
Recently the critical conversation about the preservation of natural resources and
recycling has led to the increasing interest in biomaterials with the concentration on
renewable raw materials. [16]
4) Optical properties-PMMA and ZnO composites with light transmittance and UV
absorption were made in two phases. To begin, acid-catalysed esterification of zinc
acetate dihydrate with pentanol was used to nucleate surface-modified
 ZnO nanoparticles with an average diameter of 22 nm.[17] Monolayer coverage was
used to modify the surface of developing crystalline particles with tert-
butylphosphonic acid (tBuPO3H2) in situ. [17]

Comparison of properties of natural biobased fibres with synthetic fibres

Sr. Properties Comparison Reference

No.

Natural fibres Synthetic fibres

1 Mechanical properties Mechanical properties Mechanical properties [18]

Of natural fibres is of synthetic fibres high
Moderate

2 Thermal sensitivity Thermal sensitivity of Thermal properties of [18]

natural fibres is high synthetic fibres is low

3 Biodegradation properties Biodegradation Synthetic fibres are [19]

Properties in natural non-biodegradable
Fibres have low density and have high density

4 Moisture sensitivity Moisture sensitivity of Moisture sensitivity of [18]

Natural fibres is high synthetic fibres is low

5 Production Production of natural Production of synthetic [18]

Fibres is low fibres is high

6 Resource Resource of natural resource of synthetic [18]

fibres is infinite fibres is limited

7 Recyclability Recyclability of natural Recyclability of [18]

Fibres good synthetic fibres is
moderate
Table-1 Average chemical composition of natural fibres
Type of cellulos hemicellulos Ligni Pecti Wa As Moistur Other Reference
fibre e e n n x h e s s
Abaca 56-64 25-29 11-14 __ __ _ __ __ [20]
_
jute 64.4 12 0.2 11.8 0.5 0.5- 10 __ [20]
2.1
sisal 65.8 12 0.8 9.9 1.2 0. 10 __ [20]
3
kenaf 44.4 __ 20.1 __ __ 4. __ __ [20]
6
Coconu 37-43 24-28 26-28 __ __ _ __ 7 [20]
t _
Bambo 78.83 __ 10.15 __ __ _ __ __ [20]
o _

Table- 2 Mechanical and Physical properties of natural fibres.

Type of Diameter(micrometr Density Tensile Young’s Referenc
fibre es) (g/cm^3) strength Modulus e
(MPa) (GPa)
Abaca 250-300 1.5 717 18.6 [20]

Jute 250-2500 1.3- 393-800 13-26.5 [20]

1.46

Sisal 205-230 1.41 350-370 12.8 [20]

Kenaf 83.5 1.2 282.60 7.13 [20]

Coconut 396.98 1.2 140-225 3-5 [20]

Bamboo __ 1.2-1.5 500-575 27-40 [20]

SYNTHESIS OF BIOBASED COMPOSITES

1) Synthesis of bio-based polymer composites-

The bio-based polymer composite industry is growing rapidly leading to various
economic concerns over rapid use of non-renewable feedstock. The research has now
developed from simpler systems, which contain thermoplastics reinforced with
natural fibres. [21]

Processing of bio-based polymer composites-From medical uses to cosmetics,

polymers have become profoundly ingrained in practically every facet of life.[21]
Because of their capacity to break down and disintegrate without harming the
environment, [22]biodegradable polymers have been a hot topic in recent decades.
Pharmaceuticals, mechanical support, artificial tissue, and organs are some of the
applications for such polymers.[23] The polymer chains in thermoplastic polymers
interact with one another by non-covalent interactions, whereas in thermoset
polymers, these interactions are covalent, forming cross-links and resulting in a solid,
linked structure.[21] Currently, the majority of thermosetting polymeric materials are
non-biodegradable and generated from crude oil. Thermosets and thermoplastics
made from bio-renewable resources frequently have flexible, long-chain polymer
properties such high elongation at break, low glass transition temperatures, and low
stiffness.[21] Chemical treatment of the fibers can improve fiber–matrix interactions.
Alkaline treatments are widely used. In such treatments, sodium hydroxide is utilized
to transform cellulose lattices into more stable conformations [24]. Alkaline treatment
of flax/epoxy polymers, for example, resulted in significantly improved mechanical
characteristics as compared to non-treated samples [22]. When the fibers are not
stretched during the NaOH/water treatment, however, the alkaline treatment causes
shrinking.To counteract this effect, ethanol might be used instead of water. Another
frequent chemical alteration strategy is the use of coupling agents, such as organ
silanes[25].
 Figure 2 Processing of bio-based polymer composites

[25]

2) Synthesis of biobased composites from agro-industrial waste-

Bio- composites are synthesized from agro-industrial waste and certain by-products.
These are low-cost raw materials made from renewable resources that are generally
biodegradable and would otherwise be thrown away. [26]Bioplastic is defined as a
plastic substance that is biobased, biodegradable, or has both qualities.
Biodegradation is a chemical process in which a material is transformed into water,
carbon dioxide, and compost through the action of naturally occurring
microorganisms under typical environmental circumstances.[26] These materials are
used for the synthesis of biobased composites. Bioplastics are classified as-
 Figure 3Bioplastics are classified as (Precisely withdraw from biomass, Synthetized through biobased monomers,
Synthetized through petrochemical, Composed aside microorganism)

[26]

3) Synthesis of biobased composites from natural oils-

Biobased composites can also be synthesized from natural oils. The polymers
obtained from natural oils are biopolymers [27]There are various natural oils that are
used to synthesize biobased composites for example Soya bean oils. Soyabean oils are
a biodegradable vegetable oil that can be purchased in bulk. The triglyceride structure
of natural soybean oil has highly unsaturated fatty acid side chains. These oils'
unsaturation makes them good monomers for the production of different polymers.
[27]Soybean oil polymers are a type of polymer that is generated from soybean oil
have been looked into Polymers derived from various soybean oils have diverse
characteristics. The thermophysical characteristics of bulk polymers are influenced by
their cross-linking density.[27] On the modified ATP–Fe3O4 substrate, a highly oil-
absorptive Poly (methyl methacrylate-butyl acrylate)/ ATP–Fe3O4 magnetic
composite resin was prepared using methyl methacrylate and butylacrylate as
monomers, N, N-methylenebis acrylamide (MBA) as a crosslinking agent, and
ammonium persulfate (APS) as an initiator.[28]

Synthesis of composite resin -In a 250-ml round bottomed flask fitted with a stirrer
and a reflux condenser, a known amount of gelatin glue was dissolved in a known
volume of distilled water at 30°C . Butylacrylate, methyl methacrylate, and ethyl
methacrylate were then put to the flask above.ATP–Fe3O4 with a modification After
a 6-hour suspension reaction at the 200 rpm stirring speed in a nitrogen environment
at 90°C.Filtration was used to collect the prepared composite resin. [28]The solution
was chilled before being rinsed in 60°C hot water.then dried at 60°C in a vacuum
until a consistent weight was achieved.[28]

Figure 4 Synthesis of biobased composites from natural oils- (from resin)[28]

4) Synthesis of nano-bio composites from cellulose and graphene

oxide-

Nano-bio composites are synthesized with the help of cellulose and graphene oxide.
In situ and immersion procedures were used to create bacterial cellulose/graphene
oxide (BC/GO) nano-bio composites. [29]SEM analysis revealed that a lesser amount
of GO resulted in a stronger composite with fewer holes. The in situ approach
resulted in a nanostructured composite with a fine particle size distribution. X-ray
 diffraction peaks revealed that GO was consistently integrated in the BC network. In
comparison to pure BC, the Young's modulus of the manufactured composites rose
for both procedures.[29]

Green Synthesis of graphene oxide-To achieve complete dissolution of cotton linter

pulp and good dispersion/reduction of GO nanosheets, the cellulose/graphene oxide
(GO) networks as the scaffold of free-standing aerogel electrodes are constructed
utilising lithium bromide aqueous solution as the solvent. In-situ polymerization of
aniline monomers produces polyaniline (PANI) nanoclusters, which are then coated
onto cellulose/GO networks.[30] The ternary cellulose/GO3.5/PANI aerogel film has
well-defined three-dimensional porous structures and a high conductivity of 1.15
S/cm, contributing to its high areal specific capacitance of 1218 mF/cm2 at 1.0
mA/cm2 at the current density of 1.0 mA/cm2.[30]

Figure 5 Synthesis of nano-bio composites from cellulose and graphene oxide- (Green synthesis of graphene oxide)

[30]

5) Synthesis of bio composites from bamboo fibers-

Bio composites are also synthesized from bamboo fibers and palm oil based thermosets.
There is also seen development of highly biobased and thermosetting matrices using
renewable feedstocks. [31]From a PO vinyl monomer and natural phenolic (NP) cross-linkers,
a series of palm oil (PO)-based thermosets were created. The PO fatty acid-ethyl acrylamide
(POFA-EA) was made by trans esterifying PO with N-(2-hydroxyethyl)acrylamide in a
simple way (HEAA). Through a solvent-free and ultrasonic-assisted esterification, NPs such
as eugenol, methyl gallate, and tannic acid were employed to create aromatic rings-containing
cross-linkers.[31] One of the major synthesis of biobased composites include synthesis from
bamboo fibres. Bamboo fibres (BF) are a renewable and sustainable alternative to synthetic
fibres and have a lot of potential as reinforcement for polypropylene (PP)-based composites.
[25]Their considerable flammability, on the other hand, severely limits their industrial
applicability.[25]

Synthesis of bamboo fiber and polypropylene composites- Non-woven air paving

technology was used to combine 50 percent BF and 50 percent PP fibres to create BF/PP
fibre mats. The BF/PP fibre mats were then soaked alternately in CS/HNT and PA/HNT
suspensions. The produced mats were cleaned with water for 2 minutes after each dip and
dried at 70 C for 30 minutes.[25] The immersing and rinsing steps were repeated until the
necessary number of constructed bilayers was obtained. Finally, the decorated BF/PP mats
were dried in a convection oven at 70°C until the water content was less than 2.0 wt%. Then
the BF/PP mixture was taken in a lay-up method and given a pressure of 10Mpa.[25] After
sometime the components were cooled under same pressure and removed from the mold.
This is how bamboo fiber and polypropylene composites were synthesized.[25]

Figure 6 Synthesis of bamboo fibres and polypropylene composites[25]

 6) Synthesis of Chitosan-based silver nano-bio composites-Chitosan-
based silver nano-bio composites are synthesized by a solution of plasma process
and their potential antimicrobial efficacy. This is done by facile synthesis. The
one-step solution plasma procedure was used to make silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) in a chitosan matrix with various AgNO3 (1, 3, 5 mM) and chitosan (1, 3

Figure 7 Synthesis of Chitosan-based silver nano-bio composites-

percent) concentrations (SPP).[32] Using unipolar power at 800 V and a

frequency of 30 kHz[23]

plasma was discharged for 3 minutes in the AgNO3 and chitosan solutions. UV–Vis
spectroscopy revealed prominent peaks with maximal absorbance at 415–440 nm, confirming
the synthesis of AgNPs in chitosan, with peak height increasing as the precursor, AgNO3,
concentration rose. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to confirm the chemical
interaction between AgNPs and chitosan (FTIR).[32]

Preparation silver nano-based Chitosan composites- Chitosan (0.2 g, dissolved in

10 mL of 1% v/v CH3COOH solution) and 2 percent 10 mL AgNO3 were mixed for
30 minutes with steady stirring, yielding an AgNO3 –chitosan combination solution.
[33]Using a syringe pump, the AgNO3–chitosan mixture solution was then put into a
20 percent, 30 percent, or 40 percent, 25 mL NaOH solution, accordingly. Yellow-
brown hue spheres (example, silver nanoparticles–chitosan composite spheres) were
obtained after 15 minutes.[33]

7) Synthesis of metal-organic framework composites-There are many

advances in the rational synthesis of metal-organic framework bio composites.
 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a new type of extremely porous materials
that are coordinated by inorganic metal-containing nodes and organic ligands self-
assembly. [34]MOFs have become an attractive alternative for immobilizing
numerous biomolecules due to their benefits, such as adjustable porosity, diverse
functional locations, and high surface area. The inclusion of biomolecules such as
enzymes, nucleic acids, antibodies, peptides, and phages on the surface or in the
cavity of MOFs, on the other hand, allows for greater sensitivity, specificity, and a
wider range of targets in sensing applications.[34]

Preparation of nano-particles/MOF composites- The "ship in bottle" strategy, the

"bottle around ship" approach, and catalysts are the three primary established
approaches for immobilizing functional molecules or nanoscale objects in MOFs.
[35]Furthermore, the development of precursors and products on the exterior surface
of the A double-solvent approach (DSM) was successfully devised to rationally
introduce precursors into MOF pores, followed by additional treatment to avoid
NPs@MOF composites, in order to avoid NPs aggregation on the exterior surface of
MOFs. [35]The DSM is built on a solvent that is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic,
and Some MOFs have huge cages with hydrophilic surroundings and enormous pore
volumes. [35]

Figure 8 Preparation of nano-particles/MOF composites-

[35]
 8) Synthesis of biobased copolyether polyols- New environmental rules
requiring the use of biobased monomers in the creation of biobased products are
forcing the polyurethane (PU) market to adopt more sustainable techniques.[36]
For this reason, the value of polyols derived from nature, such as chemical
platforms based on vegetable oils, is being investigated as a potential replacement
for petroleum-based polyols.Biobased polyols have several advantages over
traditional polyols, including sustainability, reduced petroleum dependence, and
potential cost savings. Furthermore, they are frequently characterised by greater
thermal stability and reduced hydrolysis sensitivity.[36]

Figure 9 Synthesis of biobased co-polyether polyols

[36]

Surface modification and functionalization of plant fiber

composites and bio-based composites and their effect on
mechanical performance
Surface modification is defined as the act of changing the outer layer of a material by
bringing physical, chemical changes not the same as the ones initially brought on the outer
layer of a material.[37]
Natural fiber modification- Fiber addition in a matrix significantly alters the properties of the
matrix due to the dependency of bio-composites properties on the fiber/matrix interface.
[37]Strong interface bonds must be ensured to achieve the majority of desired mechanical
properties. Many physical properties are considerably improved with strong fiber/matrix
adhesion [38, 39] To improve fiber/matrix adhesion, a variety of approaches (such as surface
treatments) have been used. Surface treatments improve fiber/matrix adhesion while also
lowering moisture sensitivity.[37] Solvent extraction, physio-chemical treatments, corona
discharge, plasma discharge, laser, gamma-ray, and UV bombardment, and chemical changes
by the condensation of coupling agents on a surface. Physical properties alter the surface to
improve matrix and fibre adhesion by increasing interface bonding.[40] There are various of
surface modification in natural fibers which include-

Reducing Moisture Absorption in natural fibers-

Natural fibres are more hydrophilic because of their strong polarised hydroxyl groups. They
absorb the majority of the moisture from their surroundings. [37]There are a lot of hydrogen
bonds in the fibre cell wall. When water comes into contact with the fibre, old hydrogen
bonds dissolve and new hydrogen bonds form between hydroxyl groups and water molecules,
allowing the fibre to absorb more water.[41] In natural fibres, hemicelluloses are primarily
responsible for moisture absorption. Natural fibre that is hydrophilic absorbs moisture,
changes mechanical characteristics, causes dimensional instability, and creates internal
tensions.[42] Capillary action and water intake fill gaps in the composite, causing it to be
dimensionally unstable. Swelling and microcracks are caused by moisture absorption. Fibers'
hydrophilic nature includes the usage of bio-composites in a variety of applications.[42]
Because a hydrophobic matrix and hydrophilic fibres are involved, water absorption in bio-
composites is a complicated process. The two basic modes of water intake are diffusion and
percolation. [43]Diffusion transports water molecules from higher concentration areas to
lower concentration areas through random motion, whereas percolation transports water
through the pores of the composite. Fiber thickness and size are directly proportional to
moisture absorption and composite swelling. [44]Water absorption reduces the Young's
modulus, the stress at maximum load, and a variety of other mechanical parameters in
composites.[44] Hydrothermal treatment enhances cellulose crystallinity and removes
hemicellulose content in natural fibre, substantially lowering moisture consumption. The
Duralin method is also used to minimise the composite's moisture content and swelling.
[45]Natural fibre acetylation is a well-known esterification process that was first employed to
protect the cell walls of wood cellulose from water. As a result of acetylation, the acetyl
functional group (CH3COO-) is introduced.[45] Acetic anhydride replaces the hydroxyl
groups responsible for fiber's hydrophilic characteristic in this process. This approach is
effective for reducing the composite's moisture absorption qualities. Fibers that have been
treated with acetyl have a higher resistance to tensile strength loss during treatment.[46]
Another way for improving fiber/matrix adhesion, thermal stability, and decreasing
hydrophilic nature is benzoyl treatment. Benzoyl chloride is used to treat fibres.[47] This
approach exposes reactive hydroxyl groups at the surface by removing the majority of lignin
and waxes, as well as greasy components. Benzoyl groups replace hydroxyl groups in natural
fibres, making them hydrophobic and enhancing adhesion.[47] Triazine treatment reduces
moisture absorption in fibres by using triazine derivates containing multifunctional groups.
Chlorine in multifunctional groups undergoes esterification with hydroxyl groups, forming a
bond between cellulose and the coupling agent that improves the fiber's hydrophobic
characteristics.[48] Fibers are often treated with fatty acid derivates to improve their water
resistance. Oleoyl chloride is a fatty acid derivative that undergoes esterification with the
hydroxyl group. This process removes hydrophilic hydroxyl groups from fibres, giving them
hydrophobic properties. [49]One of the most effective ways to strengthen a fiber's water
resistance is to treat it with fungus. It is an environmentally friendly and green method.
Specific enzymatic processes remove non-cellulosic components of fibres, as well as lignin
and hemicellulose. [50]

They are different research studies done bio-composites and their modification methods-

1) A bio-based composite Abaca-Roselle/Cardanol formaldehyde composite is

fabricated by Compression molding methods. Natural fibres increased the composite's
thermal, wear resistance, and mechanical properties, as well as the matrix material's
hardness, density, and tensile strength.[51] Carbon and silica increased the tensile and
flexural characteristics of the material. Alkali treatment has increased the fiber
adhesion because of the removal of impurities and increased mechanical properties.
[51]
2) Areca fibers which include Pine resin properties of composites are fabricated by
solvent casting methods. The adhesion of the fiber/matrix affects the composite's
tensile strength; 10 wt.% areca fibres and 90 wt.% pine resin had improved
mechanical properties due to efficient stress transfer between fibres and matrix.
Tensile strength and impact strength are also increased by alkali treatment.[52]
3) Banana fibers/PLA composites are fabricated by Melt blending method. The addition
of nanoclay and PLA to a composite increased its stability, flame resistance, and
thermal properties. Nanoclay formed a protective coating on the surface to keep
flames at bay and served as a thermal barrier to keep the material from deteriorating.
By increasing the contact area of fibers, the silane treatment improved the fiber and
matrix adhesion.[53]
4) Flax/epoxy composites are fabricated by Vacuum infusion. They are capable for water
absorption due to high void content. The elimination of contaminants in sodium
bicarbonate-treated fibres resulted in a lower void content. The flexural, tensile, and
flexural moduli of fibres improved as the sodium bicarbonate content in the treatment
increased.[54]
5) Hemp fibers are fabricated by twin screw extrusion method. The composite's flexural,
tensile, and impact characteristics have all been improved. Water absorption increases
as the aspect ratio of hemp fibre increases. The flexural strength of the this material is
increased by 169 percent. Hemp fibres improved their aspect ratio to 26. Hemp fibers
also increased the stiffness of the composite material.[55]
6) Jute fibers that include unsaturated polyester resin, epoxy biocomposites are
fabricated by Hand lay and compression molding method. Jute fibres improved
tensile, flexural, and flexural modulus qualities, as well as interlaminar shear strength.
Fibers that have not been treated have a low density and volume fraction. Because of
greater fiber/matrix adhesion, alkali-treated fibres had higher tensile, flexural, flexural
modulus, and interlaminar shear strength. Alkali treatment eliminates hemicellulose
from fibres and enhances interlocking sites for improved adhesion and stress transfer.
Alkali treatment led to an increase in cellulose content after removing pectin, lignin
and other impurities.[56]

Moisture Absorption-Hemicellulose and lignin were removed from the flax fibre
during chemical treatment, and cellulose was used for the biocomposite. The moisture
absorption of flax fibres should be reduced before making the composite. Figure 10
depicts the moisture absorption of untreated and treated flax fibres under various relative
humidity conditions. [57]Chemically treated flax fibres have a lower moisture absorption
rate than untreated flax fibres. It shows that chemical treatments can reduce fibre moisture
absorption, and we anticipate that this will lead to low moisture absorption properties in
biocomposites.[57]
 Preparation of biopolymer Composites-

First in this the decomposition temperature and the amount of natural fillers of inorganic
phase was examined. Thermal degradation was measured with a TGA2 equipment
utilising thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) (Mettler Toledo, Greifensee, Switzerland).
Samples were heated at a rate of 10 °C min-1 from 50 to 600 °C in a N2 atmosphere and
then from 600 to 800 °C in an O2 environment. At 5% mass loss, the beginning
decomposition temperature was found. At 263°C, cellulose decomposes.[58]

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to determine the chemical
composition of the ash at room temperature (23 °C). A Nicolet iS10 FTIR spectrometer
(Nicolet, Rhinelander, WI, USA) with a DLaTGS (deuterated lanthanum alanine doped
triglycine sulphate) detector and diamond attenuated total reflection was used to capture
FTIR spectra of cellulose fibres and their ashes (ATR).[58] The spectra were recorded
using a total of 64 scans at a resolution of 4 cm1 in all cases. minutes with a vacuum of
0.8 bar to a residual moisture content of 0.025 percent.[59]

Factors affects the mechanical properties of natural fibers

composites-
The effects of surface treatments on flexural, tensile, and impact properties of NFCs are
investigated under mechanical properties. [60]Noncellulosic substances such as
hemicellulose, lignin, waxes, pectin, and other elements on the surface of NFs limit
interfacial bonding between the reinforcing and matrix phases, hence their removal affects
the mechanical properties of NFCs. [60]The key elements that control the mechanical
properties of NFCs are interfacial bonding and crystallinity index (CI). It is therefore crucial
to discuss the words interfacial bonding, crystallinity of cellulose or CI, and surface
treatments.[11]

Interfacial bonding-Interfacial bonding is the interaction of the reinforcing and matrix

phases at the interface. The compatibility of the matrix phase with the reinforcing phase, as
well as the surface conditions of the reinforcing phase, are the most important factors in
interfacial bonding. [11]Because NFs and matrix materials are polar and nonpolar,
incompatibility develops during NFC production, and the smoothness of NFs surfaces
produces poor interlocking between the matrix and reinforcing phases. As a result, NF
surface treatments are recommended to improve NF compatibility with matrix phase and
surface conditions. Interfacial bonding can be divided into four categories: Inter diffusion
bonding, mechanical interlocking, electrostatic bonding, and chemical bonding are the four
types of bonding. (shown in fig 11)[60]

Crystallinity Index- Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin are the key elements of any
plant base fibre, however cellulose plays a critical role in improving mechanical qualities,
hence cellulose digestibility must be determined. CI stands for relative quantity of crystalline
material in cellulose, and it may be determined using two methods: X-ray diffraction and
solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectra.[61]

Physical treatment- Laser treatment, heat treatment, plasma treatment, and argon treatment
are all common physical treatments. Physical treatments alter the surface properties of NFs
without changing their chemical makeup. [62]These treatments have mechanical, physical,
and thermal qualities that are superior to chemical treatments. Physical treatments, on the
other hand, are more expensive than chemical ones. As a result, scientists are favouring
chemical treatments over physical ones.[63]

Chemical treatment-Chemical treatment of NFs using alkali, silane, oligomeric siloxane,

TiO2, grafting, and other methods alters the chemical composition, surface topography, and
other properties. NF morphology and morphology NFs are chemically treated. Noncellulosic
chemicals must be removed from NFs to enhance NF compatibility with(iii) enhance surface
roughness of matrix material NFs,(iv) increase their thermal stability. [64]Major 18 Chemical
therapies have a limited number of advantages. As a result, it is critical to consider the cost
and ease of implementation. investigate the impact of various chemical treatments on the
NFC interfacial bonding of NFC’s.[65]

GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF BIO-BASED COMPOSITES-

Advanced processing capability and automation are being advanced to produce bio-
composites at a lower cost. essentially, bio-composites are nearly new in non-constitutional
and non-load-address applications. although the asset of these bio-composites, a few threats
like cost reduction, reliable performance, and inferior mechanical properties are closed to
being forward for mass management.[66] Bio-composites are ecological, sustainable, and
natural composites with the least possible impact on the environment and appreciable lower
carbon emissions. developing attention among people and new laws for environmental safety
will promote important development for bio-composites. also, developments in agricultural
sciences will benefit to yield of fibers with many sympathetic properties for these bio-
composites. [67]The efficiency required to produce bio-composite is much less than that of
synthetic fiber. The production of synthetic composites is efficiency considerable, while bio-
composites recover energy. distinctive governments are supportive of industries using
ecological materials to overthrow waste and pollution-related issues. The automobile,
construction, textile, and packaging industries are the elementary industries to employ bio-
composites.[68]

1- Automobile Industry-
Typical composites have glass and carbon fiber reinforcements that have up to now
influenced the automobile industry. different natural fibers such as flax, hemp, kenaf, jute,
coir, and sisal are nearly new to producing bio-composites for automobiles. Bio-composites
are also worn in automobiles to diminish overall weight, diminish production costs, and
improve fuel efficiency. [69]Bio-composites are helpful to produce various components, such
as bumpers, door panels, seat pads, cup holders, trunk covers, armrests, headrests, and seat
pads. additionally, bio-composites are known to diminish vibrations and noise through
drowning.[70] The benefit of bio-composites led to a diminished weight of around up to
10%, and an energy conceit up to 80%, equal to synthetic composites. Toyota uses kenaf
fibers in tire covers, and soy foams for vehicle seats, toolbox areas, and package trays.
furthermore, Volkswagen uses bio-composites to make door panels, flap linings, door inserts,
and package trays.[71]

2- Construction and Textile Industry-

In the construction industry, bio-composites are nearly new to manufacturing windows,

doors, window frames, ceilings, floor mating, and roof tiles. Timber-frame applications carry
the manufacturing of floor slabs, beams, pipes, and tanks. similarly, bio-composites are
occupied in the reconstruction and overhaul of various structural components.[72] Due to
exceptional thermal and acoustic properties, natural fiber composites are worn as isolate and
soundproofing materials. natural fiber composites have excessive potential to be used in the
textile industry to manufacture ropes, sacks, bags, and clothes.[73]

APPLICATIONS -
1- Natural fibers composites applications-
The Analysis of the aptness of natural fiber composites has displayed more concern in
arrangement and base applications where bearable strength, lower cost, and Biodegradable
properties are required. [74] Natural fibres have becoming increasingly popular in
composites. Bast fibres (jute, flax, hemp, ramie, and kenaf), leaf fibres (abaca, sisal, and
pineapple), seed fibres (coir, cotton, and kapok), core fibres (kenaf, hemp, and jute), grass
and reed fibres (wheat, corn, and rice), and all other varieties are the six major forms of
natural fibres (wood and roots).[75]

2-Coir fiber-reinforced composite applications

coir – polyester composites are nearly new to assemble helmets, roofing, and post-boxes,
Coir reinforced bio-composite material panels have good endurance because the composite
blocks were not distressed by the acid or sulfate climate. Hence, these coir reinforced
material panels can be recycled as formed material lumps for slight packing structures.[76] It
was constructed that, coir particles with sepiolite as a damper has high thermal decomposition
which benefits the electrical conductivity of the fragment, and this marks away desirable
applications in electrical and sensor devices.[77] Coir fibers are nearly new in the extensive
private sector for composing a wide variety of floor-furnishing materials, for mattress/sofa
beds, and in gardening, while in the automotive sector it is recycled as a backing for seats and
seat covers. [78]
3-Kenaf fiber-reinforced composite applications
Kenaf fiber-reinforced composite is a substituted bio-composite material nearly new
exceptionally in applications including building and construction, as it is featherweight and
has a low cost.[79] Kenaf composite panels are formed applying a one-step steam-injection
compelling method and a two-step compelling method (the fragment panel is steam acute
first, followed by the coat.[80]
4- Roselle fiber-reinforced composite applications
their low weight-high durability, low thickness, low coastline, and high different properties,
roselle fiber-reinforced composites have a very good presumption in various applications .
[81]
5-Ramie fiber-reinforced composite applications
Ramie fiber composites have a higher possibility to be another industrialized as an alternate
material for socket prosthesis if it is provincially applicable, biomechanically applicable, as
incompetent as available, appropriate, and psychosocially applicable.[82]
6-Flax fiber-reinforced composite applications
Flax fiber composites are further used in the improvement of ecological brake friction
composites as these composites maintain the friction coefficient and further expansion the
abrasion rate at high temperatures. [22]Flax fiber composites are nearly new in the
manufacturing of low-cost constitutional composing particularly cellular beams and panels
established on renewable resources for load-bearing applications and this consequence is an
extreme benefit for current and future structural applications. These composites are nearly
new as crude materials for particleboard, which is a limited alternative to wood.[83]
7- Jute fiber-reinforced composite applications
Jute fiber-reinforced composite materials have constructed their application in the trenchless
recovery of covered pipes, so the reinforcement poised of inner jute mats and outer glass fiber
was endorsed for the configuration of the reinforcement for the imminent work of trenchless
recovery of covered pipes. The gain of natural fiber nonwoven composites for the function of
car internal for noise domination is deep.[84] As natural fiber composites are a noise-
absorbing medium, sustainable and biodegradable nonwovens were advanced for the
automotive inside to reduce noise. The other functions that advocate for the developed
nonwovens carry the audile wall coverings for auditoriums, theatres, generator rooms, and
floor mats.[85]

8 -Hemp fiber-reinforced composite applications

Hemp-based natural fiber-reinforced thermoplastic material was considered to learn the
indirect performance calibrating carbon storage likely and CO2 emissions, and it is being
correlated with economically applicable glass fiber-reinforced composites. [86]

9- Sisal fiber-reinforced composite applications

Sisal/glass hybrid-reinforced polymer composites and sisal/silk fiber hybrid composites were
approved for chemical resistance, and it was advised that they can be nearly new in
composing water and chemical depot tanks[87], these composites have for low-cost
habitation and automotive internal component functions.[88]

10-Silk fiber-reinforced composite applications

Silk fiber-reinforced composites have developed into a bright biomaterial for engineering and
biomedical application. The crashworthiness distinctive of woven essential silk-reinforced
epoxy composites piping was considered and the intensity consumption response of
generated and non-generated woven essential silk-reinforced epoxy composite rectangular
piping was examined by carrying out the fundamental quasi-static difficult analysis. [89]The
four-piece generation does not edge to excellent progressive breakdown; though, this
generated system increases the crashworthiness distinctive of composite tubes and
development the division of breakdown from catastrophic to progressive.[90]
11- Banana fiber-reinforced composite applications
Banana pseudostem fiber-reinforced epoxy composites are nearly new in arrangement and
friction of a multiuse. Banana fiber is worn as a crude material to produce a reinforced
composite for everyday appliance applications, and this composite may change wood, plastic,
and conventional metallic, and non-metallic materials for some duration. banana fiber is a
waste commodity, it is used as a different and new material for household furniture utilization
at a low cost.

12-Bamboo fiber-reinforced composite applications

Sugarcane bagasse fiber-reinforced polymer composites were assembled, and the
consequence of maleic anhydride and press temperature on their mechanical properties
similarly static bending, modulus of elasticity, internal bond, and physical properties,
similarly thickness swelling, water, and steam absorption, was considered. bagasse fiber
composites have the possibility to be used in the manufacturing of medium-density
fibreboard.

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