Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-023-01666-5

RESEARCH PAPER

Properties oriented WAAM—microstructural and geometrical control

in WAAM of low‑alloy steel
Kai Treutler1 · Tobias Gehling1 · Maxim Scheck2 · Andreas Richter2 · Christian Bohn2 · Rüdiger Ehlers3 ·
Christian Rembe2 · Volker Wesling1

Received: 22 August 2023 / Accepted: 13 December 2023 / Published online: 20 December 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Today, arc-based additive manufacturing has great potential for industrial application due to new developments in robotics,
welding technology, and computer-aided manufacturing. Two issues are currently the focus of research. One is the accurate
generation of geometry with respect to the design, e.g., geometry fidelity, defined roughness, and shape deviations within the
tolerances. Here, there are still open questions, particularly with regard to path planning and the dependence of the geometry
on the selected process variables. The second topic is the adjustment or determination of the achievable mechanical and
microstructural properties, as these are of crucial importance for the use of the technology in industry. The combination of
both areas into a geometry- and property-oriented approach to additive manufacturing has been little discussed in the litera-
ture for arc-based welding processes. The correlations between cooling conditions and emerging properties can serve as a
starting point for such a consideration. The temperature history depends on three key factors: the energy input, the interpass
temperature (which in additive manufacturing is determined by the time to over-weld), and the heat transfer conditions, which
are determined by the part geometry. The melt pool size or volume also depends on these three constraints. In this study,
an approach is presented to realize property-oriented additive manufacturing from the interaction of property-oriented path
planning and a melt pool size control system. By controlling the melt pool size, the cooling of the material can be adjusted
within certain limits, and consequently, a local adjustment of the microstructure can be achieved, which greatly influences
the local mechanical properties. This work demonstrates this approach for a low-alloy filler metal (DIN EN ISO 14341-A G
50 7 M21 4Mo/A5.28 ER80S-D2). Gas metal arc welding was carried out using an M21 shielding gas (82% Ar, 18% ­CO2).
Finally, microstructural characterization will show that different microstructural morphologies and properties can be achieved
in a component by combining property-oriented path planning and the use of a control loop to regulate the melt pool size.

Keywords WAAM · Microstructure · Control · Low alloy steel · Weld pool

1 Introduction

Modern additive manufacturing approaches have the poten-

Recommended for publication by Commission IX - Behaviour of tial to add significant flexibility to manufacturing processes.
Metals Subjected to Welding
In additive manufacturing, an object is built up step by step
* Kai Treutler from raw material. While 3D printing is well established for
treutler@isaf.tu-clausthal.de plastics, additive manufacturing is more complex for metals,
* Volker Wesling resulting in a plethora of manufacturing approaches with
office@isaf.tu-clausthal.de different characteristics.
A well-established approach is wire arc additive manu-
1
Clausthal University of Technology, Institute of Welding facturing (WAAM), where a metal object is welded from
and Machining, Clausthal‑Zellerfeld, Germany
scratch onto a metal ground body using wire filler [1]. Using
2
Clausthal University of Technology, Institute for Electrical an industrial welding robot, this approach allows relatively
Information Technology, Clausthal‑Zellerfeld, Germany
large quantities of metal to be processed in a short period
3
Clausthal University of Technology, Institute for Software of time [2–6]. WAAM is based on arc welding, where an
and Systems Engineering, Clausthal‑Zellerfeld, Germany

13
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248 Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257

electric current induces the heat necessary to melt both the

wire and the surface to which the wire material is attached.
Various shielding gases are used to protect the weld from
interaction with the air. In addition to solid wires, cored
wires are also increasingly used in wire-based additive man-
ufacturing [7–9]. A typical manufacturing system is shown
in Fig. 1.
Arc-based additive manufacturing offers great potential
for industrial applications today due to new developments
in the fields of robotics, welding technology, and computer-
assisted manufacturing [6, 11–13]. Two core topics are cur-
rently the focus of research, in addition to others. One is the
production of geometry, geometry errors, etc. There are still
open questions here, particularly with regard to path plan-
ning and the dependence of the geometry on the selected
process variables. The second issue is the adjustment or
determination of the achievable properties, as these are
crucial for the use of the technology in industry. For low-
alloy steels in particular, the mechanical properties that can
be achieved depend on the thermal history of the material
[14–18].
The combination of both areas into a geometry and prop-
erty-oriented additive manufacturing has so far been little
discussed in the literature for arc-based welding processes.
Some work has been done by Chaurasia et al. [19–21], Rich-
ter et al. [22–24], and others [25] on the usage of camera sys-
tems for tracking the temperature field of the weld pool. The
main outcome of these works is that tracking the temperature
field can lead to increased geometrical and microstructural
homogeneity.
The correlations between cooling conditions and emerg-
ing properties can serve as a starting point for such a con-
sideration, and therefore, the production of components with
locally adjusted properties, such as strength and toughness,
is the overreaching goal Fig. 2.
The correlation between the material properties and the
selected energy input and the number of thermal cycles is
already known for a number of materials [26]. In particular,
Fig. 2  WAAM part idea of different localized properties
for low-alloy steels, which have an allotropic phase transfor-
mation, the course of the temperature history is of decisive
importance for the properties generated in the component.
The temperature history is dependent on three central fac-
tors: the energy input, the interlayer temperature (in additive
manufacturing determined by the time until over-welding),
and the heat conduction conditions, which are determined by
the component geometry. The melt pool size or the melt pool
volume also depends on these three boundary conditions.
In the presented work, an approach is presented to realize
property-oriented additive manufacturing from the interac-
tion of property-oriented path planning and a system for
controlling the melt pool size. By controlling the weld pool
size, the cooling of the material can be adjusted within cer-
tain limits and a local adjustment of the microstructure, and
the mechanical properties can be achieved.
The first part of the work will briefly describe a new
approach to realizing property-oriented path planning,
Fig. 3. This is based on a rudimentary thermodynamic
simulation of the build-up process, which has been kept
simple enough to allow an execution in a very short time,
to obtain a path planning via an adapted SAT solver,

Fig. 1  Welding robot system at

Clausthal University of Tech-
nology [10]

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257
Fig. 3  Schematic of the process
steps that need to be taken to
realize property-oriented control
in WAAM
which takes into account defined cooling conditions in
certain component areas [10]. In this publication, the
results of the system identification are used for inves-
tigations of the material properties. The changes in the
microstructure that result, in a first approach, from the
step changes in the process parameters.
Finally, a microstructural characterization will show
that different microstructure morphologies and properties
can be realized in a component by combining property-
oriented path planning and the use of a control loop to
regulate the melt pool size.
1.1 Property‑oriented path planning method
One method for the realization of material property-ori-
ented path planning was suggested by Ehlers et al. [10].
In that paper, it was shown how to search for welding
paths with a satisfiability solver (SAT). The basic idea
is to discretize the object to be manufactured into blocks
and represent the connections between these blocks in the
form of a graph. Two blocks that can be produced con-
secutively are connected by an edge in the graph. For their
initial study of planning welding paths under cooling time
constraints in 3D, the discretization of the object parts
into cubes was performed, but the approach presented is
not restricted to cubes. A search was then performed in
the graph for a fragmented Hamiltonian path, i.e., one
consisting of several independent paths that together visit
all vertexes. Additional constraints on the paths encode
the process-related requirements. The approach was to
check whether the planned fragmented path satisfied the
required ­t8/5-times after finding a satisfactory assignment
to all variables. The cooling conditions were calculated
by a simplified simulator. Figure 4 shows a visualization
of the simulator state in the middle of a welding process
of a simple geometry.
Fig. 4  Temperature field in a
fast temperature simulation of a
simple WAAM part [10]
249
1.2 Microstructure and thermal history
Understanding the microstructure evolution during additive
manufacturing is key to realizing certain material proper-
ties. In the case of continuous cooling or heating, the cor-
responding CCT or CHT diagram describes the metastable
microstructure formation. In general, however, these data
cannot be directly extrapolated to additive manufacturing
conditions due to the, in many cases, different cooling condi-
tions between WAAM, multilayer welding, and the condi-
tions under which the CCT/CHT diagrams are generated.
Repeated thermal cycling around certain temperatures will
result in a different microstructure.
The influence of a cyclical temperature evolution on
microstructure formation during welding was analyzed by
Samardžić et al. [27] and Huang et al. [26] using a weld-
ing simulator and a quenching and forming dilatometer,
respectively. These physical simulators allow the applica-
tion of transient, particularly cyclic, temperature profiles.
The resulting dynamic transformation temperatures for mul-
tiple temperature cycles can be determined. Microstructural
investigations and hardness measurements were also carried
out. Celin et al. [28] investigated the microstructure devel-
opment in different areas of the heat-affected zone during
the multipass welding of a fillet weld for a high-strength
fine-grained structural steel. The multipass welding pro-
cess results in thermal cycles corresponding to those of the
WAAM process. The microstructure during the actual weld-
ing process was compared with that obtained from dilatom-
eter simulations using a temperature profile similar to that
during the welding process. It was concluded that dilatom-
eter studies are well suited to simulate the microstructure
evolution in the heat-affected zone under cyclic tempera-
ture conditions. Several working groups have investigated
microstructure evolution during the WAAM process. Some
results are published in [16, 29–35]. For low-alloy steels,
in general, they showed that at least four different types of
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250
microstructures could occur. In the top layers, a microstruc-
ture comparable to single run weld metal is present. Beneath
the microstructure changes and is comparable to multi run
welds. Due to the extensive reheating beneath this zone, the
microstructure changes again and forms a microstructure
comparable to a normalized steel sheet. The fourth zone is
the transition area between the weld metal and the substrate.
Here, again, a microstructure comparable to multilayer
welded joints occurs. The underlying relationships need to
be understood and are the basis of a local adjustment of
material properties. Afterwards, the temperature field distri-
bution can be controlled to achieve certain material proper-
ties. In the following, the realization of a measurement and
control system is presented, and the first results for local
adjusted material properties are presented.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Experimental setup
The experimental setup consists of three core components,
the welding robot, the visual detection of the melt pool size
and temperature, and the control system. These are presented
individually below, except for the welding robot (a common
kuka robot).
2.1.1 Visual detection of the melt pool size
and temperature
The determination of the melt pool expansion and the tem-
perature is the basis for a local adjustment of the mechanical
properties. Only on this basis is it possible to develop a con-
trol system for specific heat input as a function of heat dis-
sipation. The system presented below is based on work that
has already been published [22–24]. A two-color pyrometer
measures the temperature of an object via the ratio of the
light emission of several wavelength ranges. These wave-
lengths are used as reference points. Under the condition
that the object behaves like a black or gray radiator at the
Fig. 5  Result of the measure-
ment of the spectrum from
530 to 1000 nm with possible
wavelengths λ1 and λ2 for the
ratio pyrometer [22]
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Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257
selected wavelengths, the emissivity need not be considered
[36]. In our solution, two narrowband optical filters (central
wavelength of the narrowband filters: 680 nm and 860 nm)
are used in front of the cameras to block out the arc. The
spectrum of a low alloy steel with the corresponding filter
wavelength is shown in Fig. 5. The selection of the correct
filter must be material-dependent due to the different emitted
wavelengths of each material in metal vapor–based plasma.
The basic radiation of the argon plasma stays the same, but
in GMA welding, the metal vapor is dominant.
The emitted wavelengths of the metal vapor plasma
depend on its composition. In GMA welding, this in itself
depends to a large extent on the filler metal used. These
filters are matched to the emission spectrum of the plasma
generated by the arc and define the support points. This ena-
bles optical temperature measurements of the molten pool.
The jitter of the two triggered digital camera images used to
determine the surface temperature is much smaller than the
exposure time of the images. Therefore, with the temporal
resolution of the camera's exposure time, the synchronized
cameras capture the same instant. The general setup of the
measurement system is shown in Fig. 6. The data process-
ing is described in [22–24]. The results are gray images of
the weld pool and derived temperature field images, Fig. 7.
In combination with the solidification temperature, the melt
pool area can also be derived from the images.
2.1.2 Control of the weld pool area
Fig. 8 shows the experimental setup and the list of compo-
nents and used process variables. A hollow cylinder with a
diameter of 120 mm was manufactured for the initial study.
The process variables were chosen to give the control system
a sufficiently wide range of possible adjustments. In addition
to the melt pool, the temperature in front of the weld pool and
the interpass temperature were measured using a conventional
pyrometer. In this way, rising interpass temperatures can be
compensated or the process can be set on hold when the inter-
pass temperature exceeds certain limits to assure a stable and
controllable process. The mechanism for interpass control is
Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257 251

Fig. 6  Optical setup of the ratio

pyrometer. The two beams in
blue and red represent the imag-
ing paths of two points in the
weld pool on the cameras [22]

Fig. 7  Captured gray images,

resulting temperature field and
measured weld pool area [22]

Fig. 8  Experimental setup [38]

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252 Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257

described in further detail in [37]. The limits of the manu-

facturing process must be taken into account as additional
nonlinearities. It is possible to reduce the energy input over
a sufficiently large range without reaching the process limit
and without introducing nonlinearity. The fabrication of the
cylinder was chosen to have a stable observation on one point,
without any influences of changing the direction of welding
and/or observation. This allows a longer welding time without
additional ignition processes. Interruptions in the production
process led to the complex interrelationships of material and
energy input already mentioned and are therefore avoided. A
detailed description of the possibilities and the operation of
the system is given in [38].
The melt pool area can be used as the controlled variable.
The aim of the control system developed is to keep the melt Fig. 9  Typical weld metal microstructure of the filler (Le Pera etch-
ant) [39, 40]
pool area as constant as possible at a given set point. Initially,
only the wire feed rate was used as a setting variable. In further
work, the system will also take into account other manipulated 5.7s + 1
K(s) = (1)
variables, such as arc voltage correction and welding speed. 1.9s

2.2 Material and initial welding conditions

A low-alloy filler metal (DIN EN ISO 14341-A G 50 7 M21
4Mo / A5.28 ER80S-D2) using an M21 shielding gas (82% Ar,
18% ­CO2) was selected as the material for the investigations.
The chemical composition is shown in Table 1. The substrate
for the tests was 14-mm-thick plates of S355.
The typical microstructure in single pass welds of this filler
consists of acicular ferrite and grain boundary ferrite, Fig. 9
[39, 40].
In the presented results, the possibility of locally achieving
two different microstructures will be demonstrated by setting
two different set points of the wire feed speed. The first one for
a “small” weld bead with a wire feed speed of 4.5 m/min (heat
input ca. 330 J/mm) and the second one a “large” weld bead
with a wire feed speed of approximately 5.4 m/min (heat input
ca. 400 J/mm). The set points were synchronized with the rota-
tion of the substrate to match the same position in every layer,
Fig. 11. In a second step, the control loop was closed, and the
targeted weld pool area was set to 90 mm². The design and
boundary conditions of the controller have been described in
[37, 38]. There, it is shown that the controlled system can be
described as a quasi-linear system with a static nonlinearity
and can be described using a Hammerstein model. The block
diagram of the controlled system is given in Fig. 10.
The identification and design of the system leads to a
controller variable K of:
2.3 Microstructural characterization
Following the welding tests, the additively manufactured
hollow cylinders are cut, and the cross-section of the small
and large bead parts is made, Fig. 11. These were then
embedded in a polymer, abraded, and polished. The final
polishing was performed with a grain size of less than 1 μm
in the lapping suspension. When grinding, care was taken to
ensure that the area affected by cutting was reliably removed.
Subsequently, the samples were etched with Nital. The
microstructure images were taken after preparation of the
samples with a Leica CTR-6000 reflected light microscope
at different magnifications. Hardness testing was performed
in accordance with ISO 6507. A line of microindentations
was made to determine the average hardness distributed over
the cross-section.
3 Results
Fig. 11 shows one of the sample geometries. The surface is
uneven, typical of WAAM-made samples. The width of the
layers between the small and large beads are slightly dif-
ferent. The difference in width deviates between 0.2 and 1
mm. Especially in the upper layers, the difference between

Table 1  Chemical composition Filler Contents by mass in %

of the filler
DIN ISO 16834- A C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Cu Ti V

G 50 7 M21 4Mo 0.07 0.59 1.56 0.09 0.06 0.45 0.12 0.001 0.008

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257
Fig. 10  Block diagram of the
closed loop control for the
manufacturing process using the
Hammerstein structure [38]
Fig. 11  Manufactured cylinder with changing process variables
the two parts increases due to the different heat input to heat
dissipation ratios.
This change in the geometry leads to the assumption that
a different cooling behavior has been reached and that the
microstructure should be significantly different.
3.1 Microstructure
The microstructure of approx. the 30-mm high hollow cyl-
inder wall structures can be subdivided into four different
zones, Fig. 12. The bottom layer, which is just above the
substrate, will not be discussed in detail in this paper due to
the relatively large heat conduction compared to the wall-
like structure in higher layers and the dilution with the base
material. A microstructure typical of multilayer welds can
be seen in the bottom layers.
Fig. 12 shows an overview of the cross-sections of two
different heat inputs. In addition, Fig. 12 shows an over-
view of the resulting different microstructures of the four
zones. In the upper zone, the microstructure is typical for
a single-layer weld or cover layer typical of this filler, cf.
253
Fig. 9. Typically, this filler forms acicular ferrite with small
amounts of grain boundary ferrite in single pass welds.
Looking at the two heat inputs, there are clear differ-
ences in the microstructure in the top layer with regard to
the amount of grain boundary ferrite and the grain size of
the accicular ferrite. The microstructure from the area with
higher energy input, i.e., the larger the weld pool is, the
coarser the microstructure. This corresponds to the cur-
rent state of knowledge on the behavior of this group of
materials.
The coarser structure due to the increased energy input
also continues in the other two identified microstructural
areas. Below the top layers, the accicular ferrite initially
dissolves, and globular ferrite or bainite is formed. This
dissolution increases towards the bottom layers due to the
more frequent reheating, culminating in a ferritic-pearlitic
microstructure in the third zone in the high-energy input
region with significantly larger grains than the low-energy
input, Fig. 13. In the case of a lower energy input, a ferritic-
bainitic microstructure forms, Fig. 14.
In summary, it can be concluded that the formation of the
microstructure corresponds to the current state of knowledge
[16, 41–45]. Moreover, the small difference in energy input
leads to significant changes in the microstructure morphol-
ogy. This is especially true in regions with a high number
of reheating events.
3.2 Hardness
Figure 15 shows the distribution of the hardness over the
cross-section of the additively manufactured material. The
different microstructures in the specimen result in different
hardnesses of the material. First, a reduction from the top to
the middle of the specimen can be seen. This is due to the
dissolution of the ferritic ferrite and the formation of ferritic-
perlitic or ferritic-bainitic microstructures. From the middle
to the bottom, the hardness then increases again due to the
increased amount of bainite or perlite formed.
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254 Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257

Fig. 12  Microstructure comparison of three different zones and two heat inputs

Fig. 13  Microstructure comparison of the most reheated region for two heat inputs

Furthermore, due to different heat inputs, on average, the
hardness at the low-energy input side is approx. 20HV0.1
above the high energy input side. This behavior was also
expected and is in line with the current state of research
[15, 16].
3.3 Closed‑loop control
By closing the control loop and thereby regulating the melt
pool size to approx. 90 mm², the effects of an increasing
interpass temperature on the geometry expression could be
significantly reduced. Fig. 16 shows the comparison between
the cross-section of the sample geometry with and without
the control loop activated. Due to the closed control loop,
a reduction in the surface waviness and a reduction in the
deviation of the width of the specimen can be achieved.
Furthermore, it can be seen that due to the closed control
loop, the width of the component is almost constant over
the entire height.
Figure 17 shows the area of the weld pool, the welding
power used and the interpass temperature during the tests. A
hollow cylinder with 30 layers was produced in each case, and
manufacturing one layer took 40 s The closed-loop controller
with integral behavior reduces the welding power to 5% as the

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257 255

Fig. 14  Microstructure comparison of the most reheated region for two heat inputs, SEM images

Fig. 15  Hardness distribution within the additive-manufactured steel

interpass temperature rises, and after 20 to 25 layers, constant

temperatures are reached. Furthermore, the closed control loop
allows the weld pool area to be kept constant. Without closed-
loop control, this is not the case. To keep the area of the weld
pool constant, the welding power must be reduced. This also
lowers the measured interpass temperature.

4 Summary and outlook

The presented work reviews the first realization of a system

Fig. 16  Sectional view of the manufactured parts with open-loop for property-oriented arc-based additive manufacturing and
(left) and closed-loop (right) control. The red-dashed line shows the
measurement points of the micro-identification to determine the hard- shows the implementation on a first simple example. The
ness distribution [38] implementation of the system includes the following:

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256
Fig. 17  Comparison of distur-
bance response for open-loop
(black) and closed-loop (blue)
control [38]
• A fast calculation system for weld path planning
• The implementation of a monitoring system for the weld pool
• The setup of a control system for the size of the weld pool area
On the basis of the example produced, it was possible to
demonstrate that the possible controlled variables for the
welding process are sufficient to be able to set significantly
different microstructures and properties of the material. With
this basis, the geometric fidelity of WAAM components can
now be significantly improved in addition to the targeted
adjustment of the microstructure and properties. In conclu-
sion, it can be said that the results obtained so far make it
possible to locally adjust properties in the WAAM process.
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt
DEAL. The Clausthal University of Technology funded this work.
Data availability The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current
study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.
Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
13
Welding in the World (2024) 68:247–257
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