Materials Today: Proceedings 50 (2022) 1971–1978

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Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Wire arc additive manufacturing: A brief review on advancements in

addressing industrial challenges incurred with processing metallic alloys
Rajat Kawalkar a,⇑, Harrsh Kumar Dubey b, Satish P. Lokhande b
a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Uppsala University, Sweden
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Priyadarshini College of Engineering, Nagpur, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Whenever there is a need for manufacturing products with higher deposition rates (usually more than
Received 5 August 2021 10 kg per hour) with different alloys of primary metal materials such as titanium, nickel, aluminum, steel
Received in revised form 12 September and other superalloys, wire arc additive manufacturing is often considered the best AM (additive manu-
2021
facturing) technology from the state of art technologies around practice. This practice usually incorpo-
Accepted 18 September 2021
Available online 12 October 2021
rates usage of wire as a feedstock material with standard tools used for arc welding. The perks
associated with higher deposition rates of material, low wastage and higher equipment costs combined
with structure intactness makes it an irresistible process to override traditional billeting and forging
Keywords:
Additive manufacturing
methods ranging from low to medium complex manufacturing products. Large applications can be seen
Microstructural properties in existence with the help of this technology such as manufacturing assembly line for automobile sectors,
Mechanical properties wing ribs in aerospace industry, wind tunnels in hydraulic sector. This paper discusses the usual com-
Alloys plexities faced with managing residual stress in manufactured product, also with prime focus on improv-
Material deposition ing mechanical properties as compared to traditional methods while eliminating defects such as porosity
Post processing and distortions are widely discussed in detail. Finally, the prospects of post machining operations carried
over product such as non-destructive testing, in-situ process and monitoring are assessed.
Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Con-
ference on Functional Material, Manufacturing and Performances This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction cesses, wherein EBM have higher deposition rate of material

Additive Manufacturing usually coined with the term ‘3D-
Printing’ is a growing technology with wide applications globally
residing on its bench mark traits of minimizing wastage of material
and logistics in the supply chain [1]. With the flexibility of playing
around with design freedom, conceptual applications of techniques
such as topology optimization have great influence in saving mate-
rial therefore reducing weight of component and manufacturabil-
ity of complex components with need of subcomponents
[2].Figs. 1-3Table 1
Usually, carried across on wide scale, the basic components of a
WAAM comprises of a feedstock material supply system, heat
source and motion system. Due to changes incurred and nature
of its application, the system can be changed as per needs of
dependent applications. This can widely be recognized with selec-
tive laser melting (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM) pro-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rajatkawalkar123@gmail.com (R. Kawalkar).
comparatively and part size is usually larger with higher area of
workspace whereas SLM can be used in applications for higher
infill density and net shape products with higher resolution [3].
However, these processes seem to be better suited for manufactur-
ing small components with higher complexity. Hence, the business
with adoption of this kind of technology are widely governed with
flexibility with product design, customization and reduce depen-
dence on logistics (sometimes irradicated with nature of manufac-
turing) [1]. However, material wastage minimization cannot be
elaborated in any situations despite confirming the low mass with
reduced wastage. Despite the need of topological optimization of
many components manufactured with this technology, require-
ment with this application still emphasis on reducing material
wastage due to the following reasons: (a) Primarily the switch
from aluminum to titanium for aircraft designers, due to high per-
centage of carbon fiber in titanium making it suitable electrochem-
ically [4], (b) The demand for parts manufactured with titanium in
aerospace industries is forecasted to grow increasingly [5] and
lastly (c) Titanium is a highly expensive material for both sources

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.329
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Functional Material, Manufacturing and Performances
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Kawalkar, H. Kumar Dubey and S.P. Lokhande Materials Today: Proceedings 50 (2022) 1971–1978

Fig. 1. Principles of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing using (a) Metal Inert Gas Welding, (b) Tungsten Inert Gas Welding, (c) Plasma Arc Welding [27].

and to delivered machines [6]. With above factors combined, the 2. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
aerospace industry highly focuses on developing processes which
can replace existing methods of manufacturing large sized compo- Often termed as an combination of electric arc as a heat source
nents such as cruciforms, stiffened panels, wing ribs, and other with feedstock material being feed in the form of a wire is referred
components that are machined from billets or large forgings with to as WAAM has been spreading globally with its usage since early
unsustainable buy/fly (BTF) ratios [7]. The mass of the beginning
workpiece divided by the mass of the end product; in the aero-
space industry, values of 10 or even 20 are fairly uncommon. Till
date, largely alloys of all existing materials are made by using
one of the following methods.

Fusion based Manufacturing: Mixing different grade of ele-

ments in requisite proportion and fusing them subsequently
in a melting pot. Element having comparatively lower melting
point is added later as per phase change diagram so as to main-
tain a certain eutectic temperature of the melt. Carbon content
avoids oxidation of melt and thereafter the melt is allowed to
cooled (sometimes quenching maybe carried out as per the
needs of alloy designed) [8,9].

Electro-Deposition Method: This process comprises of action
of an electric current on a conductive substance submerged in
a solution containing a salt of the metal to be deposited pro-
duces electrodeposition, a well-known process for producing
in situ metallic coatings. Usually Copper, Zinc, Magnesium, Alu-
minum and Nickel super alloys use this technology [10–13].

Reduction Method: Existing metals in different compound can
be separated from undesired existing state to desired state
undergoing chemical process in an electric apparatus setup
(usually pure metal is final product). Moreover, final products
can also comprise of oxides, carbides and salts which are resid-
uals from the reaction can hinder the final properties of the
metal resulting in contamination [14,15].

Powder Metallurgy: creating products out of individual metal
powders or alloyed metal powders is the technique of produc-
ing fine metal powders and then making articles out of individ-
ual metal powders or alloyed metal powders. [16,17].

Fig. 2. A Robotic WAAM System Assembly [28].

1972
R. Kawalkar, H. Kumar Dubey and S.P. Lokhande
Fig. 3. Systematic Layout of WAAM application in different domains based on its characteristic of application [27].
900 s despite the fact that it was patented back early in 20th century
[18,19]. Hardware system in this manufacturing technique often
involves welding strategies and equipment’s such as welding
power source, torches and wire feed system, substrate clamping
device for holding at precise deposition normally carried by Cold
Metal Transfer or Plasma Transfer Method [20,21]. The operation
is usually CNC/robot controlled. The thickness of wall deposited
is typically around 1–2 mm followed by machine build to flat out
the surfaces [22]. Usually, the materials included in manufacturing
comprises of Titanium, Steel, Bronze, Tantalum, Nickel, Copper and
Aluminum Alloys. Most often than not, MIG (sometimes modified
in CMT application with controlled dip transfer deposition mecha-
nism) is the preferred choice due to (a) wire being an expended
electrode and (b) the coaxial nature of electrode with torch eases
tool path movement. The advantages reside by using CMT include
beads formation of high quality and less heat input with mini-
mized spattering [23]. However, this anticipation of proper mate-
rial deposition can sometimes go absolutely wrong especially
with titanium causing arc wandering which results in primary
cause for surface roughness as compared to steel and aluminum
[24]. Hence, usually TIG and Plasma arc welding is preferred for
titanium material [25,26]. Despite this, TIG and Plasma arc welding
are heavily dependent on wire feed rate controlled externally, its
deposition precision, direction of feed which requires rotation of
torch and thus complexes the robotic movement [26].
3. Materials and their respective practices conducted in WAAM
In this section, we discuss the behavior of material undergoing
changes with respect to WAAM process parameters. This can be
attributed to changes made to heat source, wire feed, rolling, pro-
cessing conditions, heating techniques for enhancing and optimiz-
ing the manufacturing process. Hence, this section provides a clear
idea of perspectives of current research and developments happen-
ing around the world, advanced tools applications and standards of
materials used.
1973
Materials Today: Proceedings 50 (2022) 1971–1978
3.1. Ti-6Al-4V alloy
Widely used in aerospace industry, more work is done in
enhancing the performance of the alloy over the years. When laser
is used as source, the typical behavior of the alloys illustrates grain
size and width have direct relation to laser power and wire feed
rate while it also depicts indirect relation to weld speed. However,
equiaxial growth of grains along the direction of thermal gradient
resulting I columnar microstructure have shown larger width.
Moreover, mechanical properties usually show anisotropic trends
while horizontal build show higher fatigue and creep strength
along with tensile strength with low ductility as compared to
wrought materials. Anisotropy of columnar grains microstructure
is along the build direction. Coarsening of grains occur results in
fine equiaxed structure resulting in rain growth with increased
nucleation [29]. Wit plasma as heat source experiments have
shown an increase in 1/10th of tensile strength with increased wall
width. With continuous plasma heat source in WAAM, equiaxed
rectangular grid consisting of martensitic nature of alpha plates
with basket weave structure along with forming alpha colonies
in horizontal bands showing low hardness [30]. Furthermore,
impact of cooling at higher elevated temperatures for variation of
temperature needs further enhancement. With increased interpass
temperature, hardness increases due to less and finer dendritic
structures in top areas compared to middle areas showing aniso-
tropy. Surface cladding occurs with formation of hardened TiN
layer on Titanium substrate while adding nitrogen as shielding
gas causing modification of arc shape. This also increases friction
coefficient and wear resistance of the material. TiN layer so formed
shows coarse dendrites caused by moisture formation. With
increased shielding gas flow rate, hardness increases [31]. With
increased dwell time, hardness and yield strength have increased
with reduced layer of width in band region. Formation of equiaxed
b grains and titled layer band with two dimensional travel mode
[32]. Titanium alloys have the tendency to undergo dual wire arc
AM with controlled feed rate to obtain different phases and
R. Kawalkar, H. Kumar Dubey and S.P. Lokhande
Table 1
Detailed Description for Obstruction and it’s consequent characteristics in WAAM Processes with different materials.
Constraints Observed in WAAM
Processing
Use of Raw Material as Feedstock
Feedstock wires are limited in
nature.
Parts manufactured which are
hybrid in its state which are
sensitive to cracking.
Method for Deposition of Material
For freeform manufacturing
collision can be a hinderance slicing and strategies to develop
causing obstruction in
deposition and overlapping
at intersection of material
layers.
With find, deposition precision Can be achieved with displaced
is important.
For similar layer height,
residual stresses need
controlling.
Incurred Stresses and Distortion
Presence of residual stresses
that might lead to
distortions.
Porosity is high, microstructure
observed is usually coarse in
nature resulting in low
mechanical efficiency.
Induced stresses which show
tensile behavior.
Distortion can be caused in
manufactured part.
Designing Heat Sources
Accumulated Heat can be a
significant Issue.
High feed rate and
inhomogeneous alloy
composition can cause
surface cracking.
Dimensional inaccuracies are
also observed.
Processes can generally be
instable in its nature leading
to inaccurate geometries.
Thermal gradients are one of
the primary factors for
causing inaccuracies to build
structures.
Cooling Techniques so
incorporated in process can
impact manufacturing
speed.
Addressed Solution for Constraint
Friction Extrusion can be used for
production of AA6061.
Suitable for Ni, Al, CuSn-SS parts to be
manufactured.
Controlling geometry with on-line
deposition methods can avoid branch
intersections.
compensated as well as feeding wire
at an angle.
For T cross builds, deposition paths
are usually defined.
in Alloys
Can be addressed with inter pass
rolling.
Can be addressed with vibrations in
workpiece
Can be addressed with inter-pass
rolling and thermal stress relief.
Inter-pass cooling can be used with
compressed carbon dioxide. However,
formulating path strategy can
improve geometric compatibilities.
Heat dissipation can be propagated
with using air jets from a vortex with
amplified speed
Mechanical properties, heat input
sources and compositional influence
are widely studied.
Laser assistance for trail/leaded
WAAM beam can substantiate this
issue.
This can be eliminated with magnetic
arc oscillation.
One method known as multilayer
laser assisted WAAM is used to study
lead angles and interlayer
temperature impacts which can lead
to varied drag and push for WAAM
processes.
Aerosol cooling technique is usually
applied during manufacturing.
Observed influence in mechanical and
microstructural properties
Mechanical properties such as
strength and hardness are
comparable with WAAM as substrate
being AA6061.
Fine a dendritic equiaxed structure
with good surface properties is
observed.
Proper skeleton branching at
intersection. In-situ process also helps
in finding gaps and adjust weld torch
orientation.
Affects droplet positioning and
achieve flat layer deposition.
Deposition is carried out efficiently,
which increases failure rate and
utilization subsequently.
Wall width is widened, achieving
consistent layer height.
Dendrites are broken causing refined
granular structure leading to reduced
porosity and enhanced mechanical
properties.
Adhering to Hall Petch theory of
strengthening, mechanical properties
are enhanced with reduced grain size.
Enhances geometric precision.
Allows inter-pass temperature
control, however molten pool size
might be increased.
Can be very influential to predict
racking during solidification which
further enhances hardness and
reduces crack propagation suspicion.
Densified materials without porosity
content and improved surface finish
is usually observed.
Thin walls wit homogeneous material
deposition is usually observed. Traits
such as low power density, shrink
volume, reduced weight of melt pool
contributes to reduced solidification
times.
Melt pool is widened, usually 10O lead
angle is optimum for better track wet
on substrate.
No observable porosity or weld
defects, weld seam and dendritic
structure shape are nearly similar
with smaller dendrites causing higher
hardness as when compared to
normal weld.
1974
Materials Today: Proceedings 50 (2022) 1971–1978
Limitations Incurred References
There are observed voids and cracks [26]
in feed wires. This can be taken care
with drawing wires avoiding
twisting.
Formation of Inter metallic state [54]
causing penetrated of NAB along HAZ
cracks in material. Also, toughness
and ductility get affected due to
dilution caused by particles.
– [55]
Twisting of wire might incur within [56]
arc column.
Proper balance is maintained [57]
between production and material
utilization.
Lead times are subsequently [58]
increased.
Can cause anisotropic nature with [59]
higher elongation yields.
Thermal profile of alloy is enhanced [60]
which invariantly shows no
difference in final residual stress
value.
Carbon Dioxide gas flow rate might [61]
give rise to stresses and lead to
distortions further. Shrinkage in
material can help in avoiding
distortions.
Complex configurations are still not [62]
validated with this aspect.
If feed material is not adequately [63]
distributed in area/volume, it
initiates cracking phenomenon.
Experiments with simulations are [64]
still an ongoing process with due
attention on not causing excess
melting due to laser input which can
cause unwanted deposition.
Varied arc position can cause surface [65]
inaccuracies.
An other lead angle apart from 10O [66]
makes the WAAM process
drag/pushed at high interlayer
temperatures.
Temperature drops, weld seam shape [67]
cannot be certain in its nature.
R. Kawalkar, H. Kumar Dubey and S.P. Lokhande
microstructures (Ti-45Al and Ti-55Al) [33]. Finally, hardness, yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength also decrease with increased
Al composition without change in elongation.
3.2. Al alloys
With aluminum alloys, tensile properties are governed by iso-
tropic build direction characteristics and anisotropic texture orien-
tations. With 5A06 alloy, during axial loading experiments which
acts perpendicular to texture orientation have proved that grains
tend to resist deformation. However, if the loading is parallel to
texture orientation, the grains tends to slide along the boundary
predicting a decrease in tensile strength [34]. With AA5183 alloy
as wire feed and AA6082-T6 substrate plate, WAAM operation
indicates that tensile and hardness were in accordance to plane
orientation and deposition direction. Also, hot cracks have been
identified in parts with higher temperature zone showing homoge-
neous distribution of equiaxed grains. This dilution of mixing two
alloys, produces the hot cracking which an be reduced by adding
an Inoculant in the wire. The grain refinement has a great impact
on tensile and ductile properties which influence on resisting
cracking phenomenon [35]. Another new alloy Al-6.3Cu was mixed
with Mg as Inoculant to improve mechanical properties. Results
have shown that tensile strength and elongation are isotropic in
nature along both directions. Microstructure analysis have shown
that non columnar and equiaxed unidentical grains distribution
in inner layers while inert layer grains were widely occupied with
equiaxed grains [36]. Hybrid WAAM was also analyzed as a
method to control porosity and optimize the governing parame-
ters. It was noticed that with increased rolling load, tensile
strength is increased with alterations in elongation. When passed
through heat treatment and subsequent quenching, voids in the
sample increase the micropores in sample [37]. With Al-7Si-
0.6 Mg with increased heat input in CMT process, the dendritic sec-
ond arm spacing was found to be increased. Therefore, the layer
thickness and its corresponding height increased with combination
of heat input and decreased welding speed causing size increment
of a primary Al and eutectic Al-Si grains. Also it was found out that
with increased heat input it has direct implications on yield and
ultimate tensile strength along with elongation [38]. With
AA2024 of 12 mm thickness alloy undergoing double wire WAAM
with samples heat treated initially followed by natural and artifi-
cial aging were found out to changes its dendritic morphology from
alpha Al + Al2Cu + Al2CuMg to alpha Al + Al2Cu. Fillers include
wire feed of Al-6.3Cu and Al-5 Mg. Initially, it is observed that
hardness and strength have increased with heat treatment while
elongation was found to be increased in only horizontal direction
giving indication of tensile properties increment along that partic-
ular direction. More often, intergranular and trans granular frac-
tures were also observed [39]. Experimentations with alloy EN
AW 6016 were conducted to produce porosity less than 1% without
lack of fusion. Hardness could not be compared however due to
heat treatment impact. However the results encourage compar-
isons with even harder material For initial layer deposition, heat
input was controlled for accurate deposition post which weld
velocity was controlled to vary heat input [40]. With investigations
carried over alloy Al-Cu-Sn, it was observed that with increased
heat input pores are developed in material due to pool widening
and increased grain size. This can also be attributed to the fact of
rise in hydrogen solubility in aluminum solution. Furthermore,
mechanical properties were seen altered with decreased uniform
grain size with respect to temperature and increase in h phase
remani8ng undissolved post solution treatment [41]. Moreover,
in case of AZ31 alloy undergoing CMT manufacturing with WAAM
tensile properties were found to be enhance along the direction of
material deposition. This are heavily dependent on dendritic direc-
1975
Materials Today: Proceedings 50 (2022) 1971–1978
tion and volume composition of eutectic dendrites which can cause
anisotropic nature along deposition direction due to epitaxial
columnar dendrites. Microstructure depicted a change of vertical
dendrites and aligned columnar grain structure to equiaxed gran-
ular structure in top layer. Walls comprised of columnar dendritic
arrays which composed of Mg matrix, dendritic eutectics and Al-
Mg phases [42].
3.3. Chromium
With 2Cr13 undergoing CMT based WAAM it is observed that
liquid metal transfer is developed. Microstructure also depicts
non austenitic regions without any defects in adjacent layers with
top layer consisting of ferritic grains. Also, presence of decomposed
martensite region and ferrite blocked structures due to undergoing
heated cooling cycles. Ferrite content was less near the base due to
observed change in microstructure in middle region. Ultimate ten-
sile strength was comparatively high with reduced ductile nature
due to presence of dislocations and fine martensite laths resulting
in pilled up dislocations at grain boundaries [43].
3.4. Nickel
With alloy IN718 aging response was observed while undergo-
ing WAAM process and it was found out that weld strength was
lower than as compared to material. Inter-pass rolling was attrib-
uted to enhance the mechanical properties by increasing strength
and reducing material anisotropy. In macrostructure, it was
observed that post rolling process, columnar grains were aligned
to wall with duple granular structure with core that stretch up to
half of wall thickness. The microstructural analysis after solution
and aging treatment depicts less dendrites in random direction
as compared to unrolled sample illustrating enhanced tensile prop-
erties with elongation and ductile properties [44]. Furthermore,
phase formation such as laves phase and inert dendritic regions
along with micro-segregation issues were studied with IN718 with
heat treatment being modified. This method helped in dissolving
laves phase by diffusion within matrix which can potentially result
in enriching Nb-regions wherein delta phase may precipitate.
Additionally, this helps in reducing anisotropic nature as well as
elevating tensile properties at higher temperatures with undergo-
ing processes of heat treatment, solution treatment and air cooling
and lastly homogenized treatment. With gamma particles precipi-
tated, hardness can be further enhanced. However, developed
coarse grains could hinder hardness so developed with tensile
properties subjected to modifications in heat treatment process
[45]. Effects of torch speed are further studied on IN625 alloy
undergoing CMT based WAAM process. This work illustrated mod-
ified microstructures in different layers with deposition direction
reversals after each layer deposition resulting in better bead and
layer interfaces. Low heat dissipation can give rise to secondary
dendrites in middle region while coarse dendritic structure is
observed in top layer with accumulated heat in the pool. Hence,
fine microstructure is achieved with increase in hardness corre-
sponding to increased torch speed. Moreover, ultimate tensile
and yield strength along with elongation was found to be increased
with increased torch speed [46].
3.5. Tungsten
Usual troubles while processing WAAM components made with
Tungsten involves high recrystallization temperature with low
fracture toughness. Hence, the study of process parameters of
WAAM on linear structure of tungsten in unalloyed state was car-
ried out. With the help of substrate orientation and clamped design
system lateral cracks could be avoided in deposition process. When
R. Kawalkar, H. Kumar Dubey and S.P. Lokhande
side wire feed system is compared to front wire feed system, cre-
ation of splatter, voids, cracks and fusion lack is observed in great
proportion. Kelvin Helmholtz instability was also observed due to
difference in density of (W) liquid in addition to plasma (He) lead-
ing to creation of fine droplets with broken melted surface partic-
ulates. Comparatively, quick solidification and higher thermal
gradient in tungsten resulted in formation of equiaxed grains.
Large structures in upper part were observed due to decreased
thermal conductance on higher temperatures [47].
3.6. Tantalum
In one of the works with tantalum, unalloyed tantalum parts are
created with 2 different wire feeds ensuring high wall stiffness and
no distortion with local plastic deformation near substrate wall
interface. TIG was used for single bead deposition and unidirec-
tional deposition was carried with side wire feed to weld pool.
Growth of epitaxial columnar grains was observed along direction
of deposition in solidification. Macroscopic bands were formed in
each layers causing change in alpha grains in each layer thereafter.
However, sub grain structures were not observed in reheating pro-
cess due to dispersion of Ta oxides. Variation in hardness was also
observed along build due to thermal cycle which introduced hard-
ening effect in lower part of build. The deposited structure was
segregated by high yield strength due to O2 content and reduced
elongation attributed to different granular sizes and shapes
between substrate and samples. This technique helped in reducing
cost and time [48].
3.7. Copper
CMT based WAAM process was carried out with different wires
namely, CuSi3, AlSi5-ER4043. Wire feeder machine was used to
feed wire into the melt pool. Percentage of component deposition
is controlled via varied feed rate of both wires. Si addition proved
critical in establishing uniform intermixing between metals and
reducing intermetallic phase formations. With Cu, Al solubility
being solid in nature, Si gives fluidity of molten metal. Addition
of aluminum caused increase in yield and ultimate tensile strength
while addition of Si in Cu-Al alloy increased hardness, tensile
strength and offset yield strength. The bonding between layers
and substrate is governed by thermal heating and cooling cycles
along with developed stresses. Thermal gradient is useful in estab-
lishing control of wall width along build direction in spite of layer
height getting vanished. Solid solution strengthening effect caused
by Al as Inoculant increases hardness and forming intermetallic
phases is driven by Si addition. Interlayer structure have shown
presence of coarse columnar, fine lamellar crystals along with
twinned mixed and distorted structure. Heat dissipation rates
along deposited layers is usually seen along build direction and
structure [49].
3.8. Steel alloys
WAAM over the period of years has established as a driving
technology. Many research works have been conducted in idealiz-
ing its technological advancements in nonferrous materials. One
such work studies the mechanical properties in SS304 and ER70S
achieved with WAAM. In SS304, mechanical tensile and yield prop-
erties were isotropic in nature along the direction of material
deposition while for ER70S anisotropic nature is observed in both
vertical and horizontal directions. Refined grain process was also
observed in SS build as Hall-Peth strengthening occurs under wear.
Yield strength is also observed to increase along weld and Z-
directions. Microstructure analysis depicts variation from austeni-
tic to mixed ferritic phase domination due to influence from local
1976
Materials Today: Proceedings 50 (2022) 1971–1978
thermal gradients in SS304. However, with no major changes,
ER70S shows typical ferritic microstructure with dominant pearlite
regions at grain boundaries [50]. In another of works, bead appear-
ance, deposition rate, mechanical properties and microstructure
are found to be enhanced for the weld when plasma heat source
is induced with double wire feed in WAAM. Macroscopic analysis
indicates reduced wall height, formation of wavy surface due to
increase in deposition speed of material. Ferrite phase is also
formed under austenite matrix. With increase in deposition speed
of material, equiaxed ferrite granular structure and mechanical
properties associated with it have been improved. This setup is
widely used with Chromium Nickel Steel Superalloys [51]. Addi-
tionally, in another work influence of pulse speed and arc speed
is studied on WAAM manufacturing of SS316L. Initially, the mor-
phology showed no defects (either cracking or porosity traits).
However, microstructural analysis revealed austenitic distribution
in entire build. Vickers hardness was hardly recognized in bottom
layer. However, this can be increased with speed arc based WAAM
method in which due to increased heat in deposited layers which
propagates slowly, spacing in secondary dendritic arm is reduced
significantly. Ultimate tensile strength and elongation seemed to
be more than conventional method using this approach [52]. In
another study, impact of rolling and reduced surface waviness with
deposited material for ER70S-6 using WAAM is studied. It reported
that fatigue life is increased with reduced surface waviness and
residual stress accumulation in layers due to build up of compres-
sive stresses done by impact of rolling which increases with
increase in load. Tensile load and hardness are also found to
increase with increasing rolling load. However, it also means that
with max. rolling load, we have a maximum tensile strength with
least elongation differences. Elongation reduction caused due to
plastic deformation supports the ideology of work hardening
effect. Rolling on the deposited materials surface causes dislocation
movements which are primary reason for work hardening effect
which further reduces grain size. This also promotes austenitic
nucleation which can cause grain size reduction [53].
4. Conclusion
With major recent developments cited in this paper, this article
lays a strong foundation for the scientific community who are
keenly interested in exploring challenges associated with wire
arc additive manufacturing. To enhance the acceptance rate for
production of large size components through WAAM depicting
similar properties to casted parts while using different materials
such as Titanium, Steel, Tungsten, Nickel, Chromium and etc. much
more experiments and advancements with respect to technology is
needed. However, taking into consideration maintenance and ser-
vice costs incurred for large metallic structures, WAAM seems to
be highly advantageous. Presently, lack of standards with respect
to WAAM fabrication is evident but in spite of all, the advantage
suggested with digital fabrication as compared to traditional man-
ufacturing is evident. Quality production with larger quantity is
highly achievable with WAAM given issues relevant to high heat
input are sorted. Despite this, residual stress and distortion pretty
much remain the higher limiting factor obstructing the acceptabil-
ity of WAAM around the world. Additionally, computational meth-
ods are explored for data learning suitability for improvising
further advancements with respect to WAAM. With possibility of
incorporating quality processes such as in-situ monitoring, non-
destructive evaluation and etc. this favors the proposition of pro-
ducing large prototype components. With perks of minimized
material wastage and reduced costs, higher design for freedom,
customization with respect to complexity, the future for WAAM
is highly significant for industrial marketability. Accuracy wit
R. Kawalkar, H. Kumar Dubey and S.P. Lokhande
design and path strategies has proven to be efficient for customiza-
tion of product while different wire feed and strategies with differ-
ent material for deposition helps to apply research with multi
material modelling and its optimization. Implementing machining
platform along with WAAM makes fabrication of product easier.
Current state of WAAM resides with continuous development with
materials, shapes and applications with respect to manufactured
products. It is due to be noted that presently not completely net-
shaped or automated process are developed due to lack of suitable
CAD/CAM software’s and algorithms implementing completed
developments. Need of skilled engineers are highly in demand to
accomplish the cycle from designing products to actual manufac-
turing operations to have real product. However, as compared to
traditional welding, cladding, and etc. manufacturing procedures,
the WAAM process offers great perks with flexibility in process
and design, economic efficiency with respect to materials and tech-
nology, and a higher rate of material use. Finally, the capacity to
produce massive metal 3D printed components while using lighter
materials compared to wat is used in conventional manufacturing
methods has increased industry’s business in the WAAM process.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rajat Kawalkar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing –
review & editing. Harrsh Kumar Dubey: Formal analysis, Investi-
gation, Resources, Data curation, Supervision, Project administra-
tion. Satish Lokhande: Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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