Mathematical Modeling and Optimization for

Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing

Markus Bambach, Armin Fügenschuh, Johannes Buhl, Felix Jensch, Johannes
Schmidt

To cite this version:

Markus Bambach, Armin Fügenschuh, Johannes Buhl, Felix Jensch, Johannes Schmidt. Mathematical
Modeling and Optimization for Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing. Procedia Manufacturing,
2020, 47, pp.1159 - 1163. �10.1016/j.promfg.2020.04.158�. �hal-03491075�

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23rd International Conference on Material Forming (ESAFORM 2020)

Experimental Investigation on the Forming of Additively Manufactured

Components with Regard to Forming Behavior and Component Properties
Pascal Colditza,*, Marcel Grafa, André Hälsigb, Sebastian Härtela, Birgit Awiszusa
a
Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute for Machine Tools and Productions Processes, Professorship Virtual Production Engineering, Reichenhainer
Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
b
Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute of Joining and Assembly, Professorship Welding Engineering, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-371-531-31167; fax: +49-371-531-831167. E-mail address: pascal.colditz@mb.tu-chemnitz.de

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing is an established process group that includes various technologies. In contrast to subtractive methods, complex
components can be produced by applying layers of construction materials. In accordance with the standard VDI Guideline 3405, additive
manufacturing technologies can be differentiated into wire- and powder-based technologies. The basis for these experimental investigations is a
Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) process with a high build-up rate (Cold Metal Transfer - CMT) to produce a rectangular thin-walled
component made of G4Si1 (1.5130). In order to analyze the influence of a subsequent forming process on the microstructural properties and the
forming behavior of the components, compression tests were carried out. Therefore, cylindrical specimens were made out of the additively
manufactured components by machining. To be able to take a possible anisotropy in the workpiece caused by the multi-layer welding into account,
the samples were taken both along and across the welding direction. To evaluate the inhomogeneous component properties, cast specimens with
a representative microstructure were produced by inductive melting of the filler material and subsequent a solidification with an appropriate
cooling rate. In addition to the cold forming of the additively manufactured components, the investigation also includes hot forming and the
influence of a corresponding heat treatment. The experimental examination was completed by the analysis of the microstructure of each material
state.
The aim of the research work was to prove the homogenization and optimization of the mechanical properties of additive manufactured
components due to a subsequent forming process.

© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 23rd International Conference on Material Forming.

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing; WAAM; Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing; CMT; Cold Metal Transfer

1. Introduction production of extremely complex components even in small lot

The additive manufacturing processes enable the production
of components by local melting or fusion of material and the
layer-by-layer application of the component geometry. Due to
the development and implementation of various technologies,
additive manufacturing processes can now also be applied for
metallic construction materials. Compared to conventional
manufacturing processes, additive manufacturing offers a high
degree of flexibility and the possibility of an economical
sizes [1].
The additive manufacturing processes can be subdivided
regarding to the process speed. A process with a high build-up
rate is the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). In these
processes, a wire-shaped material is melted by an electric arc
and built up layer-by-layer. WAAM systems consist of
commercially available welding equipment (power source,
welding torch and wire feeder) and a motion controller, for
example a robot or gantry system. Compared to other additive
manufacturing processes WAAM is characterized by low

2351-9789 © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 23rd International Conference on Material Forming.

© 2020 published by Elsevier. This manuscript is made available under the CC BY NC user license
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
2 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
investment and material costs, a large variety of materials,
simple handling and a high degree of design freedom [2,3].
Compared to conventional manufacturing methods,
however, the components have a lower geometrical accuracy
and surface quality as well as poorer mechanical properties. The
geometric inaccuracies and residual stresses can be eliminated
by a subsequent forming of the components [3,4].
Nomenclature
dw wire diameter [mm]
hw layer height [mm]
vwelding welding speed [cm/min]
vwire speed of the wire feed [m/min]
I amperage [A]
U voltage [V]
ϑ temperature [°C]
t time [s]
d specimen diameter [mm]
h specimen height [mm]
φ plastic strain [-]
φ plastic strain rate [s-1]
σf flow stress [MPa]
∆ϑ increase of temperature [K/s]
2. Experimental setup for the specimen production
The experimental investigations are based on a WAAM
process called CMT (Cold Metal Transfer). This is a gas metal
arc welding process (GMAW) developed by the company
Fronius International GmbH in which the wire is fed in
oscillating movements. As a result, the heat input can be
reduced compared to conventional GMAW processes. At the
same time, the component quality, the build-up rate
(1500 cm³/h) and the output rate (99%) can be increased [4,5].
A rectangular, thin-walled component made of G4Si1
(1.5130) was used as reference geometry, see Fig. 1. This
material is usually used as a welding filler for unalloyed
structural steels. The material was applied to a base plate made
of S235JR (1.0038) without pausing between the individual
layers. The layer-by-layer construction of the WAAM process
causes the remelting of 40% of the previous layer or base plate.
Due to this effect, the base plate and wire material can become
mixed up to the third layer [4].
Fig. 1. Reference component, 25 layers, G4Si1 (1.5130); including CAD
model to show the welding path and relevant dimensions.
Fig. 2. Temperature curve measured on an additive manufactured component
with 10 layers, measuring points in base plate (see Fig. 3) and layer 5
The following parameters were used for the component
manufacturing:
• Wire diameter 1,2
• Welding speed !"# 40 & / ()
• Speed of the wire feed !* 3 / ()
• Layer height , 1,7
• Amperage . 130 /
• Voltage 0 18 2
• Inert gas 15 l/min, 82% Argon and 18% CO2
• Arc correction +20%
To be able to analyze the microstructural changes of the
welding filler material during the additive manufacturing, the
temperature level of the base plate and that of layer 5 were
measured, see Fig. 2. Several thermocouples type K were used
for the measurement. The diagram clearly shows a temperature
peak of 3 1370°5 shortly after welding of the wire material
and a subsequent cyclical reheating of the welded layer.
2.1. Initial material state - additive manufactured
The cyclical reheating during the WAAM process is similar
to a repeated heat treatment of the layer material. While a cast
structure is formed immediately after the melting and the
application of the wire material (see Fig. 3a), the microstructure
is strongly influenced by the following heat treatment. This can
be seen in the microscopic analysis of the different layers of the
reference component, see Fig. 3. Due to the process, the fifth
layer is subjected to 20 heat treatments and the tenth layer to
15 heat treatments and causes a partial transformation of the
cast structure. On the other hand, the uppermost layer retains
its cast structure, as it does not get an additional heat treatment
(see Fig. 3a).
In order to be able to investigate the forming behavior and
mechanical properties in detail, cylindrical upsetting samples
were taken from the additively manufactured components by
machining processes (see Fig. 4). Sampling was limited to
welding layers five to ten. On the one hand, this guarantees that
no material is mixed with the base plate material. On the other
hand, the microstructure between the layers five and ten is
similar (see Fig. 3).
 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
Fig. 3. Microstructure of (a) the top layer; (b) the tenth layer and (c) the fifth
layer in an additive layer structure of 25 layers
Fig. 4. CAD model of the reference geometry to illustrate the orientation of
the cylindrical upsetting samples
The geometry for the sample orientations X and Z has a
sample diameter of 4 and a sample height
of , 8 . Due to the low wall thickness of the reference
components, the geometry of the samples in the Y-direction
was reduced to 3 and , 6 .
2.2. Initial material condition - cast material
In order to compare the mechanical properties of the
additively manufactured components with those of
conventionally manufactured semi-finished products, cast
specimens were made from the existing wire material. For this
purpose, wire cuttings were inductively melted, poured into a
steel mold and cooled down under representative
conditions [6,7].
The microstructure achieved (see Fig. 5) is similar to the
microstructure of the top layer in WAAM as shown in Fig. 3.
In addition, this type of sample production allows the
evaluation of the pure welding filler material without
contamination by oxides or similar caused by the additive
production process.
3
Fig. 5. Microstructure of a cast specimen made of G4Si1
The wire material itself cannot be used for this purpose, as
it loses alloying elements during the welding process and
changes its chemical composition.
The cast specimens produced in this way were then
processed into cylindrical compression test specimens with the
dimensions 5 and 10 by machining.
3. Experimental simulation
In the following, the investigation of the influence of cold
forming, heat treatment and hot forming associated with
additive manufacturing is described.
3.1. Cold forming of the initial material condition
To characterize the forming behavior of the material, the
cylindrical upsetting samples were continuously upset between
two parallel panels at a forming speed of 8 0.01 : ;< and at
room temperature (see Fig. 6). During the tests, the upsetting
force and height reduction of the specimen were measured.
Taking into account the specimen geometry as well as the
friction and temperature influence during forming,
corresponding flow curves could then be calculated, see Fig.
7 [8].
The steady progression of the flow curves suggests a
homogeneous, isotropic material state without any directional
dependence caused by manufacturing. Thus, the forming
behavior of the components is similar to that of conventionally
manufactured semi-finished products. As Fig. 7 shows, the
flow curves of the WAAM specimens are at approximately the
same level, regardless of their orientation in the reference
component. The minor difference in the flow curves is
probably due to production-related material defects such as
micro pores, minimal oxide layers and the different specimen
geometries.
Fig. 6. Used test arrangement; testing machine Galdabini Quasar 50
4 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

The following parameters were used for the heat treatment:

• Heating rate ∆ϑ = +20 K/s

• Hold temperature at 3 1150°5 for = 15 :
• Cooling rate ∆ϑ = −10 K/s

Analogous to the test procedure described in chapter 3.1 and

Fig. 7. Flow curve G4Si1 additive manufactured; depending on the specimen
orientation in the component; comparison with cast specimen of G4Si1
using the same test arrangement, the heat-treated specimens
were subsequently upset and corresponding flow curves were
determined, see Fig. 10.
Compared to the initial state, the formability of the additive
samples could not be significantly increased by the heat
treatment. However, the superposition of the flow curves for
the three different sample orientations shows a homogenization
of the material. The influence of the heat treatment on the
forming behavior of the cast specimen is considerably higher.
The yield stress σf required for the plastic deformation of the
cast material could be significantly reduced. This suggests a
transformation of the cast microstructure into a globolitic,
ferritic structure. This could be confirmed by the analysis of the
microstructure after heat treatment (see Fig. 11).
By heat treatment above the recrystallization temperature,
the microstructure of the additively manufactured specimen
could be significantly refined (see Fig. 3c and Fig. 11a).

Fig. 8. Microstructure of cold formed upsetting specimens; ϕ = 0.7; additive

manufactured (a), representative from Z-direction; cast material (b)

In addition, the formability of the additively manufactured

specimens was compared with that of the cast specimens. The
flow curve of the cast material is significantly higher than that
of the WAAM material. This suggests that the multiple heat
treatment of the material during the additive manufacturing
process and the resulting globular transformation of the
microstructure (see Fig. 3) lead to a difference in the strain- Fig. 9. Used test arrangement for heat treatment and hot forming, testing
hardening behavior. In order to be able to analyze the machine DIL 805 A/D - Bähr Thermoanalyse GmbH
microstructure of the cold-formed upsetting specimens,
corresponding longitudinal microsections were prepared.
Compared to the initial state, both the WAAM samples and the
cast samples show a clear elongation and a slight grain
refinement of the microstructure, see Fig. 8.
The measured hardness values show a slight improvement
in the mechanical properties due to the work hardening
accompanying the cold forming process (see Fig. 8). As in the
initial state, the hardness of the cast specimen is higher than
that of the specimens produced using WAAM. This confirms
the results of the flow curves.

3.2. Cold forming after a heat treatment of the initial material

condition
Fig. 10. Flow curve G4Si1 additive manufactured and after previous heat
The mechanical properties of additive manufactured treatment at 1150°C; depending on the specimen orientation in the
components can be further improved in terms of their forming component; comparison with cast specimen of G4Si1
capability by subsequent heat treatment. To prove this, the
cylindrical samples were inductively heated to 3 1150°5 in
a vacuum atmosphere and then cooled down to 3 50°5 in
an inert gas atmosphere. Therefore, the Dilatometer DIL
805A/D from Bähr Thermoanalyse GmbH was used. The test
arrangement is shown in Fig. 9.
 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
Fig. 11. Microstructure of heat-treated upsetting specimens; additive
manufactured (a), representative from Z-direction; cast material (b)
The grain diameter of the cast specimens is larger than that
of the WAAM specimens. According to Hall-Petch, this results
in lower strength and therefore also lower yield stress, as
clearly shown in Fig. 10 [9].
Due to the heat treatment carried out, it was possible to
approximate the WAAM and the cast specimens both in terms
of microstructure and mechanical properties, measured on the
hardness values (see Fig. 11).
3.3. Cold forming after a hot forming of the initial material
condition
In order to allow a representative comparison with
conventional semi-finished product manufacturing processes,
such as extrusion or rolling, both the WAAM samples and the
cast samples were hot formed. For this purpose, the forming
dilatometer DIL 805 A/D used in chapter 3.2 was used again.
The specimens were heated to 3 1150°5 and upset to a
plastic strain of 8 0.7. Therefore, the following parameters
were used:
• Heating rate ∆ϑ = +20 K/s
• Hold temperature at 3 1150°5 during forming
• plastic strain rate constantly 8 0.01 : ;<
• Cooling rate ∆ϑ = −10 K/s
The cooled specimens were then upset using the Galdabini
Quasar 50 testing machine and under the test conditions
described in chapter 3.1. Due to the existing deformation of the
specimen, only plastic strains of 8 0.5 could be achieved
during the compression test (see Fig. 12).
Forming at temperatures well above the recrystallization
temperature results in a highly advanced dynamic
recrystallization of the material. In addition, metadynamic
recrystallization takes place during the cooling process so that
a completely recrystallized microstructure is present at the
beginning of cold forming.
The microstructure (see Fig. 13) of both the WAAM
specimen and the cast specimens shows a similar structure to
that of the heat-treated samples (see Fig. 11 and Fig. 13). The
measured hardness values are also in the range of the heat-
treated specimens. As the cast sample has a slightly coarser
grain structure, recrystallization is going faster here. As a
result, the flow stress level of the cast specimen is just below
the level of the WAAM specimen (see Fig. 12).
5
Fig. 12. Flow curve G4Si1 additive manufactured and after previous hot
forming process at 1150°C; depending on the specimen orientation in the
component; comparison with cast specimen of G4Si1
Fig. 13. Microstructure of hot formed upsetting specimens; ϕ = 0.7; additive
manufactured (a), representative from Z-direction; cast material (b)
4. Conclusion
The aim of the investigation was to prove a forming induced
homogenization and optimization of the mechanical properties
of components made of the welding filler material G4Si1 using
WAAM. For this purpose, cylindrical samples were taken from
the additive-manufactured components, cold- and hot formed
and the forming behavior was determined on the basis of flow
curves. To be able to consider the temperature influence during
hot forming separately, a corresponding heat treatment at
3 1150°5 was also investigated. The experimental
investigation was completed by the analysis of the
microstructure of each material state.
To be able to compare the mechanical properties of the
additively manufactured components with those of
conventionally manufactured semi-finished products, casting
specimens were made from the existing filler metal and also
cold formed, hot formed and heat treated.
Investigation of the cold forming of the additive produced
specimens showed an increase in hardness from 195 HV to
272 HV due to work hardening during the cold forming. Apart
from the elongation of the microstructure, cold forming had no
significant influence on the material structure.
In contrast, the analyses of the microstructure both after heat
treatment and after hot forming of the additive specimens show
a recognizable microstructural transformation towards a fine-
grained globular microstructure. The microstructure
transformation is caused by temperature-induced
recrystallization processes. With both processes it was possible
6 Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
to achieve mechanical properties similar to those of
conventional semi-finished products. Thus, the hardness could
be increased to 184 HV compared to the initial state.
In further investigations, the influence of subsequent
forming on additively manufactured components is to be
investigated using more technically relevant materials, such as
316LSi (1.4430). Additionally, the investigation of hot forging
is to be adapted in such a way that the upsetting samples are
machined again after hot forging and brought back into a
cylindrical form.
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