j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Review Article

Research challenges, quality control and

monitoring strategy for Wire Arc Additive
Manufacturing

Mohd Rozaimi Zahidin a, Farazila Yusof a,b,c,*,

Salwa Hanim Abdul Rashid a,d, Safwan Mansor a, Sufian Raja a,
Mohd Fadzil Jamaludin b, Yupiter HP. Manurung e,
Mohd Shahriman Adenan e, Nur Izan Syahriah Hussein f
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
b
Centre of Advanced Manufacturing and Material Processing (AMMP Centre), Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
50603, Malaysia
c
Centre for Foundation Studies in Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
d
Centre for Sustainable and Smart Manufacturing, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
e
Smart Manufacturing Research Institute (SMRI) and School of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA
(UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia
f
Centre of Smart System and Innovative Design (CoSSID), Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka, Melaka, Malaysia

article info abstract

Article history: Metal additive manufacturing is a high-growth process owing to the capability of pro-
Received 25 January 2023 ducing parts with complicated geometries and custom facets for various applications. The
Accepted 27 March 2023 low material input ratio to final part output, in which minimum raw materials are needed
Available online 31 March 2023 to produce complex parts and thin-walled components with a large volume envelop-to-
volume ratio, is advantageous compared to the conventional method. The Wire Arc Ad-
Keywords: ditive Manufacturing (WAAM) method has undergone significant research and advance-
Metal additive manufacturing ment because it can be utilised to produce large metal components at high deposition rates
WAAM as well as low cost and with better mechanical and microstructural properties than other
Defects AM techniques. Because of the significant amounts of processing temperature, various
Quality improvement issues and defects arise during the process, hampering high-quality component
In-process monitoring manufacturing in WAAM. In addition, these components often have an insufficient and
Systematic literature review poor surface, affecting the metal components' quality. This article reviews common defects
and research challenges associated with manufacturing different metal and alloy com-
ponents using the WAAM process. Various control strategies in WAAM methods, which are
essential to reduce or minimise defects to form high-quality metal parts, are summarised.
Recent research on implementing artificial intelligence (AI) in quality improvement is
discussed. The strategy for quality control using the multi-sensor-based closed-loop sys-
tem is proposed in conclusion. This strategy could serve as a roadmap for ensuring the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: farazila@um.edu.my (F. Yusof).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.200
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2770 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4

deposit efficiency and quality of WAAM components under complex, high-volume

manufacturing circumstances.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

material to melt and deposit layer-by-layer either in the gas

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) differs significantly from con-
ventional formative or subtractive manufacturing. In accor-
dance with the ASTM F2792-12 standard terminology for AM,
this process is the most similar to the ‘bottom-up’ approach of
manufacturing, in which deposited materials are joined layer
by layer to form a structure into its near-net-shape shape than
casting, forging or machining technology [1]. The AM pro-
duction process is adaptable, dynamic and highly custom-
isable, making it perfect for various industrial applications
[2,3]. The commercially available technology restricts the in-
dustrial choices for AM. There are four distinct types of metal
AM, and they are referred to as; Binder Jetting (BJ), Powder-Bed
Fusion (PBF), Sheet Lamination (SL), and Direct Energy Depo-
sition (DED). For AM of metal structural components, the PBF
and DED technologies hold the most significant promise [4].
Metal AM components are extensively employed in the auto-
motive, aerospace, and marine industries. It is estimated that
more than 50% market share of AM is comprised of these
sectors. The reason behind this high market share is that
these sectors need components with specific characteristics
such as a large volume envelope-to-volume ratio, large buy-
to-fly ratio, difficulty in machining parts, and a high degree
of performance. The AM fulfils these specific characteristics,
making it suitable for application in these sectors at a large
volume production rate [5e7].
In the DED method, the feed material, which may have the
shape of wire or powder, is introduced straight into the
molten pool produced by a heating source, which causes feed
environment or in the vacuum [8]. Dense parts with regulated
microstructural characteristics can be produced using DED
techniques [9,10]. WAAM is a wire-based DED method that
uses an electrical arc as a source of heat to melt the wire feed
material and deposit it layer-by-layer., as depicted in Fig. 1
[11]. WAAM method's utilisation of the electric arc results in
a more efficient fusion source than other AM methods [12].
Employing wire as feedstock in the WAAM process improves
operational conditions for workers by eliminating the
requirement for powder recycling [13,14]. Using wire as feed-
stock in the WAAM process results in a significant price
reduction compared to powder for several engineering mate-
rials, as presented in Table 1 [15].
The need for research in this area is being prompted by
WAAM's applicability in numerous industries. Fig. 2 illustrates
the number of published papers for BJ, PBF, SL, and DED
methods by searching through Google Scholar from 2010 to
2023. From the chart, most papers were published after 2016,
with over 14,400 articles on metal additive manufacturing in
2022 focused on parameter optimisation, microstructural
evaluation, mechanical properties, heat treatment and tem-
perature evaluation, and post-processing for additive
manufacturing. The most published articles are related to PBF
compared to BJ, SL and DED.
Owing to WAAM's extreme complexity, it is necessary to
study a wide range of topics, such as process optimisation,
material properties, process monitoring, layout and pro-
gramming of path and model development. Researchers have
authored many WAAM review articles that address cutting-
edge systems, design, utilisation, real-time monitoring,

Fig. 1 e (a) Illustration of WAAM process (b) WAAM Fabricated component (c) Cross-section of fabricated component [11].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Table 1 e Estimated cost of powder and wire in Pound (£)
per Kg [15].
Feedstock Material Powder
Tie6Ale4V 280
Inconel 718 80
Inconel 625 80
Stainless Steel 316 L 40
sensing and process control [11,16e18]. The characteristics of
numerous WAAM-fabricated components, the defects and
challenges, control strategies, and an overview of future
research objectives aimed at quality improvements are still
required for systematic reviews.
This study reviews various quality control and monitoring
strategies of components fabricated through various metal
WAAM techniques. The most prevalent defects discovered in
various materials are also highlighted. Finally, there is a dis-
cussion of enhancing the integrity of WAAM-manufactured
parts via process monitoring and quality control, as well as
various future research possibilities.
2. Metal additive manufacturing methods
Among all AM methods, metal AM is regarded as the most
challenging cutting-edge technology; moreover, it is the
shaping technique that greatly benefits the manufacturing
industry. The metal additive method is classified into four
categories [19]. Fig. 3 illustrates the classification of metal
additive manufacturing methods used mostly. Fig. 4 demon-
strates the various metal AM techniques schematically, which
are used to manufacture parts [20].
The two AM subcategories that get the most significant
interest are DED and PBF methods. PBF has advanced quickly
Fig. 2 e A comparison between the number of published papers on four methods in metal additive manufacturing through
Google Scholar between the years 2010 and 2023.
2771
in recent decades. High geometrical precision may be ach-
ieved when fabricating a product, but capital and operational
costs are pretty high. In addition, since PBF feedstock uses
Wire
metal powder, which is hazardous to humans, further pro-
120 cessing is required to safeguard the harmful powder atmo-
58 sphere. In PBF, the fabricated component's size is also often
49
constrained.
12
2.1. Direct Energy Deposition (DED)
DED is a metal AM process wherein the deposited materials
are melted and fused by controlled thermal energy, including
an electron beam, laser or gas tungsten arc. The utilisation of
thermal sources is different for distinct DED processes. For
instance, Laser Engineering Net Shape (LENS) and Laser Metal
Deposition (LMD) processes employ a laser beam as a source
of heat [21,22]. In contrast, WAAM employs an arc as a source
of heat to deposition of metal in a layerwise fashion [23]. The
process of DED includes a nozzle head capable of focusing the
thermal source and feeding material into a single unit,
providing a more economical additive manufacturing
method. The DED method may also be divided into sub-
categories based on the mechanism of material feedstock:
powder-fed and wire-fed DED, as depicted in Fig. 5 [24].
The primary mechanism of a DED process involves the
orientation of a nozzle head navigating around a fixed object
and depositing the required materials in targeted locations
[25]. Since DED processes are not constrained to a powder bed,
the powder-fed DED method has demonstrated distinct ben-
efits in repairing damaged or worn metallic components. It is
fascinating that DED methods can produce functionally
graded components because of their adaptability to change
the composition of materials at each layer. This can be
accomplished simply by switching the materials fed into the
process and adjusting the parameters [26]. Table 2 gives an
2772 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
overview of the major AM techniques' materials, applications,
advantages, and disadvantages.
2.2. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
It has been shown that WAAM is an effective technique for
component manufacturing using various engineering mate-
rials, including steel, titanium, aluminium, and nickel alloys.
When compared to traditional subtractive manufacturing,
the WAAM will reduce the amount of time needed for
fabrication by 40e60%, and the amount of time required for
post-machining will be reduced by 15e20% [32]. WAAM is a
deposition technique to develop metal parts by printing
layer-by-layer fashion utilising an arc as a thermal energy
source and wire made of metallic materials as feedstock, as
outlined in ASTM F3187-16 standard [33]. This effective
method can develop parts with complex geometry and
shapes with minimum involvement of other manufacturing
processes [15]. WAAM uses fundamental principles of
welding methods, including gas metal arc welding (GMAW),
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and plasma arc welding
(PAW) for manufacturing components using the robotic arm
[34e36].
In GMAW-based WAAM, heat energy is produced when an
arc of electricity is struck between the substrate (considered a
negative terminal) and feedstock wire electrode (considered a
positive terminal) [37,38]. In this process, the wire electrode is
protected by a shielding gas provided externally. In GMAW-
based WAAM, the mechanism of metal transfer is a signifi-
cant factor since it affects the mechanical characteristics,
microstructural characteristics, and surface quality. GMAW-
WAAM, based on CMT, is effective at delivering a
Fig. 3 e Classification of metal additive manufacturing methods.
controllable metal transfer and provides excellent control
over the weld's morphology and microstructure [39].
In GTAW-based WAAM, heat energy is produced when an
arc of electricity is struck between the substrate and the
tungsten alloy electrode. Due to the stable electric arc, this
method has good performance in producing parts with defect-
free and high precision. GTAW used inert gas, for instance,
helium or argon, for shielding purposes of the working envi-
ronment [36,40].
Arc is established between a nozzle cooled with water and
the electrode in PAW-based WAAM. A plasma jet is created
when an inert gasdoften argondpasses through the arc zone
and ionises. The plasma jet is directed onto substrates via a
narrow nozzle orifice, forming a molten pool on the surface of
the substrate. The feed wire is drawn into this pool by a wire
feeder, where the filler wire is melted and deposited [41]. Ac-
cording to Table 3, particular types of WAAM methods
demonstrate specific characteristics.
An industrial robot arm commonly provides welding mo-
tion to GMAW or GTAW torch to develop an additive manu-
factured workpiece on the substrate. Fig. 6 shows a 6-axis
robot consisting of a WAAM system (Make- KUKA model
KR16-KS). The following are the key elements of the WAAM
system illustrated in Fig. 6.

It includes a computer as a data acquisition system to
collect and process experimental data.

A KR-C2 controller is utilised to manage the movement of
the robot and process parameters.

The Megmeet Artsen Plus 350QR robotic welding power
source generates welding power into the welding torch.

Supply of shielding gas to protect the workpiece.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4 2773

Fig. 4 e Schematic illustration of (a) Laser metal deposition- DED (b) Electron beam - DED (c) WAAM (d) Laser -PBF
(e) Ultrasonic consolidation (f) Binder jet [20].

gathered. Therefore, research questions for the systematic

3. Systematic literature review methodology
The systematic literature review approach has been used to
identify, evaluate, and interpret the literature published dur-
ing the last five years from 2018 to 2023 using the Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis
(PRISMA) methodology [49]. In order to fully address a spe-
cific research question, it is essential to compile all relevant
works and papers that meet our pre-defined inclusion criteria
[50,51]. In its most basic form, the process of conducting a
systematic literature review is comprised of several essential
components, some of which include determining the research
questions, selecting, and analysing the articles that have been
literature review were devised and reported in Table 4, along
with their respective rationales.
The Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases have been
searched using the search strings provided in Table 5 using the
Boolean operator OR and in the title-abstract-keywords. From
2018 to 2023, articles on monitoring and defect detection in
WAAM have significantly increased yearly in WoS and Scopus
databases starting from 2021 and expected more publications
in 2023 due to the publication trends as shown in Fig. 7 with a
total of 82 from WoS and 97 articles from Scopus were extracted
from the search string. Both databases contain a tremendous
amount of material, including journal articles, conference
2774 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Fig. 5 e Schematic of DED method (a) Wire-fed DED (b) Powder-fed DED [24].
proceedings, and books, as the most prominent scientific
research databases directly relevant to this study's subject.
3.1. Articles selection process
Research selection and screening of the chosen articles are
necessary to identify pertinent articles for review. Using the
article inclusion and exclusion criteria, the articles that fulfil
the inclusion criteria are considered for further investigation
and content evaluation [52]. Table 6 contains the inclusion
and exclusion criteria that are used in the course of con-
ducting this systematic literature evaluation.
Based on the research questions, the inclusion criteria are
implemented during the primitive phase of the article selection
procedure. During the screening and review step, the exclusion
criteria are established in order to exclude irrelevant articles
while selecting relevant articles. The selection process of arti-
cles started with searching publications from WoS and Scopus
databases based on search strings with a total of 179 from both
databases. The final selection of 81 articles qualified for review
from this approach, and the flow diagram for the overall pro-
cess of research methodology is illustrated in Fig. 8 to show
every step in the article selection process.
3.2. Co-occurrence and cluster analysis in the literature
review
Keywords are represented in the network visualization by
label, and the label and circle of the selected keyword grow in
size in proportion to its weight. The label may not be visible
due to overlapping with higher-weight labels. The circle's
colour determined the keyword cluster, with lines between
keywords representing links. The network representation of
keyword co-occurrence based on 5 clusters is illustrated in
Fig. 9, where a closer keyword with another keyword explains
a more substantial relation between each keyword.
The process to generate network visualization on the
clustering outcomes established on the co-occurrence of the
keyword. Where title, abstract and keywords from selected
database articles are analysed for the co-occurrence and
clustering to determine the current research focus and do-
mains, as shown in Fig. 10. Different colours represent the five
main clusters where the research domain in Cluster 1 (red
cluster) is defined as monitoring technologies with related
keywords: deep learning, deposition, laser, monitoring, opti-
misation, technologies and width. Testing in detection appli-
cations is another research domain in Cluster 2 (green colour),
where the keywords are defect detection, inspection, spectral
analysis, testing application and ultrasonic testing. This
cluster represented approaches or methods which apply to
detection applications. The keywords displayed in Cluster 3
(blue colour) are mechanical properties, microstructure, pro-
cess monitoring and system to present material analysis as a
research domain. The keywords in Cluster 4 (yellow colour)
are behaviour, porosity and residual stress. Meanwhile, the
keywords in Cluster 5 (purple colour) are defects and robotic
welding, defined as both research domains related to main
types of defects and automation in defects detection. All
cluster keywords presented in Fig. 10 with general keywords
such as WAAM and welding are removed from the table.
Fig. 10 shows the link and total link strength for primary
occurrence keywords that represent the connection with
other keywords stronger with higher total link strength. The
link existed when two keywords appeared together in an
article. The microstructure commonly attracts most
researcher attention, while deep learning, defects, defect
detection and monitoring keywords will be the main focus for
researchers in the near future towards automation of the
WAAM system. Based on the systematic literature review
methodology presented, it appeared appropriate to summa-
rise the existing research findings due to the growing interest
in various defects associated with its detection method and
monitoring of components fabricated by the WAAM method.
4. Common defects and materials-related
challenges in WAAM
Defect generation inside components fabricated by AM is a
significant challenge for structure and applicability. If flaws
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4 2775

are not corrected, they might deleteriously affect an AM

References
component's performance throughout service. Therefore, it is

[27,28]
essential to have a firm understanding of the defect genera-

[29]

[30]

[31]
tion mechanisms in fusion-based techniques in order to be
able to prescribe the most optimal process parameters, taking
into account both the alloy system and the processing tech-
nique that is used. The rapid heating, cooling, and solidifica-

challenges to deposit sharp corners

post-processing requirement, poor
Multistep process, post-processing

tion processes fabricating additively manufactured parts

residual stresses and anisotropy,

and thin walls, require support

result in complex microstructural characteristics. The arc

Low part quality and accuracy,

Expensive in mass production

surface quality and accuracy

welding method is the foundation of WAAM. Droplet transfer

high cost of raw materials,

roughness, low resolution,
Disadvantages

might be used to carry out the deposition of metal materials.

Slow process, Expensive
required, higher surface

However, it is challenging to precisely manage the droplet's

energy [53]. Additionally, since WAAM is a multiphysics
interfacing process, the complex, transient, imbalanced
physical, chemical, and metallurgical features may readily be

structures
impacted by inappropriate process factors. Furthermore, It
may also affect the integrity of deposition [54]. During the
manufacturing of a component, variations in process condi-
tions may often lead to the development of internal defects.
Table 2 e An overview of the materials, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of the major AM techniques.

During the additive manufacturing process, impurities might

Able to produce complex part geometries,
Several structural powders can use dense
parts with homogeneous microstructures

get trapped within the component, which could lead to de-

Reduction in the raw materials stock and
Economically stable when printed in low

experiencing thermally induced stresses

rate, no support structures required, not

high building speed, low cost, accessible

fects. Because of these flaws, the component's mechanical

and intermediate volumes, high build

functionally graded materials, In-situ

characteristics might be compromised [55].

reduce material wastage, deposit

Excessive heat input causes significant residual stress in

the manufactured structures, which is a concerning issue for
Advantages

WAAM-based manufacturing techniques. A fundamental

problem for geometric compatibility and early structural
and fine resolution,

damage is the poor surface quality of WAAM-fabricated

material handling
and distortions

components caused by excessive heat input [56].

4.1. Gas porosity

wastage

alloying

Gas porosity is a typical defect that arises during the WAAM

process and must be addressed since it affects the mechanical
properties negatively [57]. Initially, gas porosity causes the
part to decrease mechanical strength due to damage from
Electronics, Foundry
Structures building

microcrack formation. Next, it often causes the deposited

industries, Smart
Application

Repair, Cladding,
Ceramic parts,

layer to have inferior fatigue properties by the spatial distri-

Lightweight

Biomedical,
Electronics,

Retrofitting

bution of varied shape and size patterns [58,59].

Biomedical
Aerospace,

Aerospace,
structures,

structures

Another factor contributing to the formation of porosity in

the layered structure is the prevalence of surface contami-
nants in the raw material, such as moisture, impurities, and
grease. Gas pores are typically trapped at the uppermost layer
of the fusion zone, causing them to be distributed towards the
top of the solidified molten pool. When oxide thin films form
Metal foil, metal roll

Metal powder and

quickly on the molten pool's surface, they easily absorb mo-

ceramic powder,
Feedstock
materials
Metal powder,

lecular hydrogen and moisture from the air, which then raises
Metal powder

metal wire

the amount of hydrogen present in the top layer of each layer.

polymer

As a result, there is usually more trapped hydrogen and small

micropores at the fusion line zone of each layer, which can
grow and combine into larger pores during exposure to high
temperatures. Consequently, the larger pores are frequently
observed along the fusion line zone between layers. The op-
tical microscopic images have revealed that during exposure
Powder Bed Fusion

Sheet Lamination

to high heat input, the proportion of pores bigger than 5 mm

per 100 mm2 rises from 512 to 1667, indicating a threefold
Binder Jetting

Direct Energy
Deposition

increase. However, the pore's average size enlarges from

Methods

13.5 mm to 15.5 mm [60].

The degree of heat input also affects the occurrence of
porosity, in which researchers demonstrated that higher heat
 2776
Table 3 e Types of WAAM methods with characteristics.
Type of WAAM Schematic diagram Source of Energy Characteristics Reference
GTAW-based GTAW Electrode- Non-consumable; Deposition rate e 1 to 2 kg/h; [17,36,40,42]
Wire feedstock provides separately; Torch and rotating wire are required.

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
GMAW-based GMAW Electrode- Consumable wire; Arc stability- Poor; [17,37,38,43]
Deposition rate e 3 to 4 kg/h
Cold metal transfer (CMT) Electrode- Consumable wire; Arc stability- Good; [39,44]
Deposition rate e 2 to 3 kg/h.
Tandem GMAW Electrode- Two Consumable wires; Deposition rate e 6 to 8 kg/h; [45,46]
External cooling is required.

PAW-based Plasma Electrode- Non-consumable; Deposition rate- 2 to 4 kg/h [17,47,48]

Wire feedstock provides separately; Rotating wire and torch are required
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Fig. 6 e Systematic diagram of 6-axis robot WAAM system in Universiti Malaya, Malaysia.
input leads to a larger amount of porosity. Since in pulsed-
MIG, greater arc energy yielded a more prominent, warmer,
and delayed cooling of the melt pool, which became more
susceptible to hydrogen accumulation. As a result, pulsed-
MIG embraced more hydrogen than CMT. Compared to CMT,
pulsed-MIG constituted a larger proportion of pores with
moderate-sized ranging from 0.21 mm to 0.30 mm and
substantial-sized greater than 0.31 mm. Despite the fact that
the bulk of the pores is tiny, pulsed-MIG indicated a more
extensive volume fraction for moderately sized pores
(0.21e0.3 mm) [61]. Fang et al. [62] reported similar findings for
the CMT-Pulse compared to other modes (CMT and CMT-
Advanced) of arc supply since it received the most heat
input and caused the most pore development. The develop-
ment of large columnar grains also prevents pores from
escaping the melt pool. The CMT-Pulse specimen had pores
with a mean size of 30.87 mm, the greatest of which had a size
of 129.16 mm. The CMT specimen's mean pore size and
greatest pore diameter were 32.96 mm and 108.42 mm, corre-
spondingly. The CMT-Advances sample had smaller mean
pore sizes of 29.42 mm with a maximum of 85.17 mm than the
specimen formed by the two other modes of arc. The CMT-
Advanced, CMT, and CMT-Pulsed specimens exhibit area
percentages of pores of 0.36, 0.63, and 0.85, respectively.
Table 4 e Systematic literature review research questions and their rationale.
Research Question
RQ1 Which type of defect usually occurs in WAAM fabricated
components?
RQ2 What is the application of monitoring and defect
detection for the quality control of WAAM fabricated
products?
RQ3 What monitoring and defect detection methods are
applied to tackle the challenges?
2777
As shown in Fig. 11, gas-entrapped pores have a spherical
form. Pores develop and evolve throughout process time due
to gas entrapment, supersaturation of dissolved gases, and
chemical reaction inside the molten pool, resulting in gaseous
products [20,63]. When the equilibrium pressure of gas ex-
ceeds the summation of its hydrostatic, atmospheric, and
capillary pressures, a greater probability of nucleating
imprisoned gas holes exists. Nucleated pores result in va-
cancies, allowing supersaturated gases to permeate a molten
pool. When fast cooling occurs, pore nucleation sites can get
trapped in the molten pool. On the other hand, slower cooling
rates enable these pores to enlarge and occasionally combine
with the neighbouring pores [63].
4.2. Residual stress and distortion
The remaining stress in any metal part, even with no external
loading or thermal gradients, especially the welded compo-
nent, is called residual stress. Residual stress significantly
affects the development of plastic deformation, item warping,
and distortion of the metal component, leading to fracture
and fatigue susceptibility, as shown in Fig. 12 [64].
The WAAM has intrinsic residual stress and distortion,
much like other AM processes. The fabricated product
could become geometrically inaccurate, distort, induce
Rationale
To address the several defects that are related to WAAM
fabricated components
To outline the numerous defect detection and
monitoring strategies used in prior studies to ensure the
quality of WAAM fabricated components. By providing
the answer to this issue, investigators will better
comprehend and identify an effective defect detection
and monitoring strategy according to requirements.
2778 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4

the intrinsic component than at the interfaces of the sub-

Table 5 e Search string for literature review.
strate, which causes the component to bend and deform. The
Database Search string residual stress recorded with clamping was more than
Web of ((“monitoring” OR “defects 400 MPa throughout the deposition, significantly reduced once
Science (WoS) detection” OR “defect detection”) the clamps were removed.
Scopus AND (“wire arc additive
manufacturing” OR “WAAM"))
4.3. Crack and delamination

Components fabricated using WAAM undergo fracture of

delamination during material deposition, and lose its fatigue
grain boundaries along with solidification cracks on a large
resistance due to residual stress [65,66].
scale [71]. Grain boundary cracks appear due to differences in
Parts made by WAAM exhibit a variety of deformations,
precipitate production and boundary shape. Meanwhile, so-
including rotational distortion, angular distortion, bending
lidification cracking is encouraged by severe solute segrega-
distortion, and longitudinal and transversal shrinkage [67].
tion because of high residual stresses and increasing grain
For large, thin-walled constructions, the deformation is
size [72,73]. Seow et al. [74] investigated the consequences due
brought on by the part's temperature increases and shrinks
to the presence of cracks on the fracture toughness of 718
throughout repetitive melting and cooling operations. The
alloy that was manufactured via WAAM. With adverse cir-
residual stress was maximum and found to be 600 MPa in the
cumstances of deposition, WAAM-manufactured Alloy 718
longitudinal direction for GMAW-WAAM fabricated compo-
was likely to produce defects that resembled cracks and had a
nents near the rolled steel substrate. As the substrate received
planar shape. According to the dye penetration test images,
repetitive heating and cooling effects throughout the WAAM
cracks may be as large as 16 mm in the through-thickness
process [68]. The amount of longitudinal residual stresses in
direction and appear at regular intervals of 12 mm in the
the deposition structure is significantly affected by the sub-
wall lengthways. As illustrated by the metallographs in Fig. 13,
strate dimension and the accompanying clamping tech-
the cracks are as large as 53 mm in the build direction. The
niques. The longitudinal residual stress, which was found to
fracture toughness of WAAM-fabricated components with a
be 125 MPa and was compressive, tends to the tension in na-
notch parallel to cracks was found to be almost one-half that
ture due to substrate high stiffness substrate as the substrate
of base 718 wrought alloys. Undesirable deposition circum-
dimension increased significantly [69]. According to the ob-
stances were blamed for the existence of these fissures.
servations, curved deposition tracks have the greatest defor-
mation and residual stress intensity, whereas short track help
4.4. Anisotropy
in reducing the residual stresses [70]. Ding et al. [66] discov-
ered that the residual stress is evenly distributed throughout
WAAM solidification promotes the production of morphology
the deposited structure and that the residual stress in one
with big columnar grains instead of an equiaxed morphology.
layer does not affect the succeeding layers. The internal
Columnar grains occur due to solidification that stimulates
stress, on the other hand, is reallocated once the clamps are
grain growth in an epitaxial fashion involving meagre nucle-
released, resulting in a significantly lesser value at the tips of
ation spots at the solid-liquid interface. Columnar grain shape

Fig. 7 e Number of research papers published in Scopus and Web of Science databases under “monitoring”, “defect
detection”, and “WAAM” keywords from the year 2018 till 2023.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4 2779

Table 6 e Inclusion and exclusion criteria in the articles selection process.

Articles Inclusion criteria Articles Exclusion criteria
Published in reputable journals and scientific databases Articles that are written in other than the English language
Written in the English language Articles that are not related to monitoring and defect detection in WAAM
Presented new approach or technique of monitoring and defect Articles that focused on methods other than WAAM
detection Duplication in both databases

Fig. 8 e The flow diagram of the research methodology.

2780 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4

Fig. 9 e Keyword co-occurrence based on clustering for the selected articles.

is favoured by a more significant temperature gradient and a
lower rate of growth at the phase boundaries, as shown in
Fig. 14 [75,76]. The grain's mean size was 200 mm and columnar
in shape, as revealed by the grain aspect ratio [75].
Compared to the equiaxed morphology, such microstruc-
ture has reduced strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance [76]. Despite this, the components fabricated in this
manner are appropriate for use in environments with high
temperatures [77]. Sun et al. [78] observed anisotropy in high-
strength steel parts manufactured using CMT-based WAAM.
They found that the mechanical characteristics were worse in
the longitudinal direction than in the transverse depicting

Fig. 10 e Clustering results with primary occurrence keywords by links and total link strength from selected articles to
identify current research focus and domains.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4 2781

Fig. 11 e Entrapped gas porosity located in a directed-energy deposition Tie6Ale4V component [63].

anisotropy phenomena. They calculated the anisotropy per-

centage using Eq. (1). 5. Quality control strategies for WAAM

Anisotropy percentage ðPÞ 5.1. Process parameter optimisation

Properties of transvers specimen  longitudnal specimen (1)
¼
Properties of longitudnal specimen Wire feed rate, wire feed angle, travel speed, arc voltage,
working distance, and deposition technique are numerous
The percentage (P) was found to be 21.4% and 4.2% for
input parameters addressed in the WAAM process to deter-
elongation and tensile strength, respectively.
mine optimal material properties.
Because anisotropy is the reason for the adverse conse-
A deposition pattern is essential to develop a WAAM
quences that arise in practical applications, this issue has to
deposition layer with a minimum rate of defects. This plan-
be resolved for WAAM to be employed extensively in the
ning can produce more accurate metal parts in dimensions
industry.
closer to the desired geometry. An adaptive path planning
approach was presented for manufacturing thin-walled
4.5. Other defects
components with variable thicknesses utilising robotic
WAAM with weaving technique deposition, as illustrated in
Busachi et al. [59] listed the cause of defects as porosity, un-
Fig. 16 [80].
dercutting, and humping. Undercutting is the concavity of the
Developing a second-degree regression model investigates
weld bead and affects the tolerances. Causes of undercutting
the connection between process parameters and bead shape.
are possibly high travel speed, high current, inaccurate torch
B. Panda et al. [81] discussed measurement for optimisation in
angle, inadequate wire feed and the material's chemical
bead dimensions (bead height and width) that correspond
composition. The existence of humping defects is caused by
with three main parameters (wire feed, travel speed, and peak
high travel speeds of 70 cm/min and 85 cm/min, as shown in
current) in the GTAW method in WAAM. The more consider-
Fig. 15 (a) and (b) [79].
able variance and interaction consequence on the bead height

Fig. 12 e Distortion defect on WAAM metal components [64].

2782 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Fig. 13 e WAAM wall portions displaying defects along the
constructing direction [74].
(BH) than bead width (BW) for the three parameters is illus-
trated in Fig. 17. It demonstrates the cumulative influence of
maximal current with the speed of travel speed and wire feed
on BH and BW. This shows more variances and interaction
effects were seen in the BH than in the BW when all inputs
were incorporated. Also, it was revealed that the Percentages
indicating the contribution amount of three inputs, peak
current, travel speed and wire feeding speed, were found to be
45%, 36% and 19%, respectively, to BH. Whereas, in the case of
BW, percentages contributions of three inputs, peak current,
travel speed and wire feeding speed, were found to be 65%, 5%
and 30%, respectively.
H. Geng et al. [82] introduced the mathematical model to
estimate displacement to increase size accuracy by measuring
the wire flying length in the arc zone for the GTAW method.
Fig. 14 e Microstructure of IN718 with typical columnar
grains fabricated by WAAM [75].
Fig. 18 shows the wire feeding and melting arc zone with the
development of heat flux from the arc zone. The origin point
for wire melting is estimated from the heat accumulation
flight path, and the wire starts to melt into droplets when the
value of heat flux integration is equivalent to melting heat to
determine the wire flying length by the path of integration.
The initial position shift extended to 4.6 mm from 0.8 mm as
the wire feeding angle raised to 20 from 10 . A wire supplied
with a small angle of 10 and the ‘h’ value (distance between
substrate and wire) of 3.8 mm may ensure a layer with a
flawless look. By estimating the flying distance of wires, an
extended distance settlement value of 3.5 mm is intended to
settle for the initial position shift.
T. Artaza et al. [83] used Powermill® CAD/CAM software to
generate the tool path for the produced component. Addi-
tional beads or layers have developed in the bead joints to
guarantee extra thickness for the machining process. For the
best match for input parameters, 83 numbers of single beads
were formed using various combinations of process param-
eter values from 120 mm/min to 360 mm/min for feed rate, the
intensity from 100 A to 250 A, and the range of wire feed rate
between 1 m/min to 6 m/min. Wang et al. [84] proposed a
sequential water-pouring path planning method compared to
the conventional zigzag variable direction method compared,
as presented in Fig. 19. The presented path planning approach
for a tie-shaped specimen reduces the percentage of idle
strokes up to 0% from 10.8% as compared to the conventional
zigzag path planning method.
5.2. Monitoring, defect detection and AI application in
WAAM quality control
Real-time defect detection and feedback from online moni-
toring are compulsory to obtain accurate control of the WAAM
process. Fig. 20 shows various aspects of WAAM to overcome
several challenges to near-net-shape outcomes of WAAM
workpieces. Deposition strategy and tool path planning are
the primary research related to process parameters for opti-
misation. Meanwhile, microstructure and mechanical prop-
erties determine the quality of WAAM products. Towards
automation of WAAM through the involvement of robots or
automatic machines, online monitoring and quality control
are necessary for real-time defect detection and deposition
feedback [17].
5.2.1. Monitoring
Present research in online monitoring systems is essential for
automation to ensure the quality and accuracy of the WAAM
process during the deposition. Some researchers deployed a
Support Vector Machines algorithm to generate welding
parameter modules from the modelling, and others applied
temperature evaluation or thermal imaging to analyse the
impact of interlayer temperature during the WAAM process,
used the pyrometric camera for melt pool size measurement
and determining heat accumulation with in-situ inter-pass
temperature [36,85e87].
J. Xiong et al. [88] developed deposition height control by
previous and current layer visual inspection. Deposition
height deviations are automatically adjusted using a Pro-
portional, Integral, Derivative (PID) controller by changing the
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Fig. 15 e Hump defect due to high deposition speed (a) 70 cm/min (b) 85 cm/min [79].
wire feed speed. A helpful software interface to investigate
the automated detection and closed loop control system is
created in the Visual Cþþ environment and increases the
possibility of achieving accurate height control in WAAM.
The root mean square (RMS) error for the control system by
incorporating the preceding layer and ongoing depositing
layer height detection method is 0.247, which is constantly
lower compared to 0.3 with the control system applying the
ongoing depositing layer height detection method.
5.2.2. Defect detection
Defects continue to concern the structural integrity of mate-
rials produced by additive manufacturing, especially for parts
Fig. 16 e Schematic of (a) Weaving parameters for
deposition control (b) Model of weaving bead [80].
2783
used in fatigue-loading applications, and internal defects will
lead to part waste, economic losses and unrepairable work-
pieces. Defect detection is essential to eliminate or reduce the
occurrence of bulges, dents, geometry, pores, cracks, and
collapse defects during the production process. Implementing
in-situ 3D laser profiler inspection for surface defects detec-
tion, which can detect minor pore defects, widespread bulge
and collapsing defects, is a way to detect defects. The support
vector machine (SVM) model was used to categorise the 3D
laser profiler topographical picture to identify the defects. The
training of the model utilising the retrieved characteristic
from neighbouring picture's pixels can provide an accuracy of
up to 99.8% [89]. The development of Non-Destructive Testing
(NDT) systems capable of detecting defects while manufac-
tured components will be a critical step in ensuring the quality
of WAAM parts. Bento et al. [90] compared the result of
experiment analysis and the result from numerical simulation
in defect inspection for the aluminium WAAM sample, as
shown in Fig. 21.
Due to the enhanced inductance of the sensitive coils, the
probe IOnic #3 could identify the smallest tested defect, with a
breadth of 350 mm and a depth of 2 mm below the surface, by
analysing the WAAM walls. This investigation is to prove the
Eddy Current Testing (ECT) potential to play an important role
by providing the inspection of both ferromagnetic and non-
ferromagnetic materials at high speeds and without material
contact.
5.2.3. Artificial Intelligence (AI) application in WAAM
Several industrial practices, including welding, heavily
depend on quality control. Quality control techniques using a
manual approach are unreliable and time-consuming. Effec-
tive visual inspection techniques are becoming essential in
production lines to fulfil the increased demand for high-
quality products. WAAM process has vast potential from AI
application in the monitoring system. Machine learning can
offer the best-operating conditions for the new structure with
enough training data from the databases regarding operating
and parameter conditions, materials and precision in opti-
misation. Convolutional neural network (ConvNets or CNNs)
is one of the main categories in Neural Network (NN), a sub-
stance in Machine Learning (ML) of Artificial Intelligent (AI)
and widely used in image categorisation, image recognition
2784 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4

Fig. 17 e Connection of bead height and bead width with wire feed, travel speed, and peak current [81].

and object detection [91,92]. Yuxing Li et al. [93] proposed
YOLOv3 object detection architecture in the image processing
system with little moderation on anchor settings for better
precision than the previous YOLO of surface anomaly detec-
tion version.
Moderate adjustments to the anchor settings (one to two
modifications) provide prediction models that enhance pre-
diction mean average precision (mAP) by around 5%. The 1-
anchor-change model attains 100% accuracy in part recogni-
tion and 53% accuracy in irregularity prediction. Gradient-
weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) is used to
validate the CNN model training. This validation shows that
the evaluated model based on basic CNN for metal transfer
proficiently recognises the required characteristic area in the
picture with 99.9% of the under-the-receiver operating char-
acteristic curve and 100% sensitivity for metal transfer ab-
normality. Meanwhile, the effectiveness of classifying
irregularity for basic CNN in weld-pool or bead scored 99.5% of
the under-the-receiver operating characteristic curve and
97.7% sensitivity [94].
M. Ferguson et al. [95] proposed a feature extraction mod-
ule by neural network architecture and functioned as a defect
detection system, as shown in Fig. 22. The proposed defect
detection system is suitable for a variety of defect detection
purposes since it carries out segmentation on input pictures
and defects recognition of casting defects in X-Ray images
using the Mask Region-based CNN architecture.
Training the network to execute defect detection and
defect instance segmentation can achieve higher defect
detection accuracy. Fig. 23 proves that the defect detection
system is able to perform higher accuracy of detection from an
X-ray image of a jet turbine blade. The training scheme
assessed on the GDXray Castings test dataset does not employ
transfer learning, resulting in a low mAPbbox of 65.1% on the
GDXray Castings test dataset. With a training method in
which the feature extractor is initialised with pre-trained
ImageNet, it achieves an improved mAPbbox of 87.4%. With
full optimisation, the training approach produces a system
with a mAPbbox of 95%.
Due to the extensive usage of welding processes in wide-
spread manufacturing utilisation, the development of effi-
cient and reliable welding monitoring systems is a very
prominent field of research. Fang Li et al. [96] developed a
novel flexible multi-point support fixture (FMSF) comprising
nine vertically aligned support pins. The support pins can
move independently with a maximal stroke, speed and force

Fig. 18 e (a) Schematic diagram of wire feeding and melting zone and (b) heat flux distribution from the partially enlarged
view [82].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Fig. 19 e Illustration of (a) Water pouring path-planning method and (b) zigzag path-planning method with sample and 3D
surface topography [84].
of 50 mm, 12 mm/s, and 1000 N, respectively, with the dis-
tance between neighbouring support pins being 100 mm. Ex-
periments showed an improvement in angular and
longitudinal bending distortion of 96.3% and 86.5%, respec-
tively. Raven Reisch et al. [97] performed experiments to
determine how the welding flame lead and the tilt angle
positioning affect the height and width of deposited layers.
Considering process stability, the optimal tilt and lead angles
were 0 , 5 , and 15 . Fernando Veiga et al. [98] have pro-
posed a new analysis of the wall produced using WAAM
technology based on GMAW. This wall was fabricated using
optimum deposition parameters established on the model in
zero beads, with the melt pool monitoring based on the el-
lipse's control. In most experimental settings, a bead sym-
metry coefficient near the pure symmetry value is obtained by
a maximal gain of 0.99. The wall's geometry was determined
using a passive macroscopic picture of the transversal ge-
ometry. Its computed symmetry is exceptionally In the vi-
cinity of perfect symmetry, with an average symmetry
coefficient of 0.998.
Other than monitoring, many researchers put their efforts
into evaluating and detecting defects using various techniques.
Chunyang Xia et al. [99] designed a visual sensing system to
acquire a picture of the melt pool with an accuracy greater than
98% based on the validation dataset after 20th iterations.
ResNet18 was used as the base model in this experiment and
2785
demonstrates significant categorisation accuracy for welding
images. The categorisation accuracy for undercut, misalign-
ment, burn-through, incomplete penetration and excellent
weld was 0.985, 0.990, 1.00, 0.950, and 0.955, respectively. This
result demonstrates that deep learning is applicable to actual
K-TIG welding production. Yuxing Li et al. [100] developed a
defect detection technique for WAAM, which was established
on the incremental learning model. During the deposition of
the test component, data on 60 different weld beads were ac-
quired to evaluate the model. In order to increase the general-
izability of the entire dataset, data from a distinct welding
experiment with 15 weld beads and 3 varying process param-
eter settings were included. According to experimental data,
the defect detection technique can detect defects with a greater
than 90% of reliability after training.
A detailed summary of monitoring and detection methods
available for the WAAM application is listed in Table 7. This
list shows recent or primary research for monitoring and
defect detection in WAAM, with a brief explanation of the
specific area of study and applicable WAAM method.
6. Proposed strategy for quality control
WAAM has emerged as the dominant production technique
for complex parts with promising future growth. However,
2786 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4

Fig. 20 e Various aspects of WAAM to decide near-net shape additive manufactured products.

Fig. 21 e Result of (a) experiment analysis (b) numerical simulation (c) comparison graph using ionic probe [90]
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4 2787

Fig. 22 e Defect detection system built from 4 CNN: ResNet-101 feature extractor, region proposal network, region-based
detector, and mask prediction network [95].

the vital area that demands great quality and accuracy is
where its broad applicability is restricted. The sensor-based
system is widely employed for industrial uses because of
the rapid evolution of intelligent and automated technolo-
gies. Several sensors may be mounted near the depositing
materials to monitor each depositing layer concurrently.
Several researchers have successfully used sensor-based
technology in the additive manufacturing process [107,108].
A closed-loop quality control system based on multiple
sensors has been presented to assure both the productivity
and the quality of the manufacturing process. This technique
offers a highly workable solution for complex and unfamiliar
detecting scenarios. Fig. 24 presents a schematic representa-
tion of the system, which may be approximately segmented
into three distinct steps [109e111].
In the first step, the modelling of the parts is performed in
3D and sliced with a trajectory for path planning. The second
step comprises the execution of laboratory research to select
appropriate sensors. The third step combines laboratory
and industrial results to realize the manufactured
components.
Based upon the aforementioned closed-loop system, a
strategy has been proposed to control the quality of manu-
factured parts in the WAAM process. This strategy of quality

Fig. 23 e Defect detection algorithm correctly identifies 4 from 5 defects in the X-ray image of the jet turbine blade [95].
 2788
Table 7 e Major research on the WAAM technique regarding process monitoring and defect detection in chronological order.
No Authors Year Area of Study Specific area of study WAAM method
1 Bintao Wu et al. [36] 2017 Monitoring Infrared pyrometer to measure in-situ interpass temperature to determine heat GTAW
accumulation. A high-speed camera monitors arc stability and metal transfer behaviour.
2 Fang Li et al. [96] 2018 Monitoring A novel flexible multi-point support fixture (FMSF) with a reconfigurable working surface GMAW
and controlled restraint force is created for in-process distortion correction.
3 Romali Biswal et al. [101] 2019 Defect detection Changes in the defect shape were detected through intermittent fatigue testing GMAW
combined with sporadic X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning.
4 Joao B.Bento et al. [90] 2019 Defect detection Customized Eddy Current Testing (ECT) for detection of defects in aluminium WAAM GMAW

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
sample layer by layer. Able to detect depths up to 5 mm, and thicknesses as small as
350 mm.
5 Chunyang Xia et al. [99] 2020 Defect detection Vision-based defects detection with visualization methods, including guided Grad-CAM, GTAW
feature map and t-SNE
6 Adam M. Pringle et al. [102] 2020 Monitoring Current and voltage monitoring to monitor and control complexities of the arcing GMAW
process using open source arc analyser.
7 Takeyuki Abe et al. [38] 2020 Monitoring The temperature of the built structure, as determined by a radiation thermometer, is GMAW
/modelling used to manage the voltage or heat input condition delivered from the welding power
source.
8 C. Halisch et al. [87] 2020 Monitoring A WAAM procedure based on GMAW employs a high dynamic range two-coloured GMAW
pyrometric camera (Pyrocam) to measure the size of the melt pool.
9 Raven Reisch et al. [97] 2020 Monitoring A framework for a completely integrated monitoring system in hybrid manufacturing is GMAW
/modelling presented to improve data processing.
10 Donghong Ding et al. [86] 2021 Monitoring Three crucial components comprise the bead modelling system: the data generating GMAW
/modelling module, the model construction module, and the welding parameter generation module
using the novel algorithm by Support Vector Machines.
11 Khushal Parmar et al. [103] 2021 Monitoring software and hardware interfaces were generated to drive the robot as the first step GMAW
/modelling towards this goal, object-manipulated WAAM by integrating automated and welding
technologies.
12 Christian Wacker et al. [104] 2021 Monitoring Applying an upgraded Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with geometry and deformation GMAW
/modelling from the previously deposited layer has shown positive results.
13 Lennart Vincent Holscher et al. 2021 Monitoring The development of a sensing technique that enables users to identify the WAAM GMAW
[105] contact tube to working distance (CTWD).
14 Yuxing Li et al. [93] 2022 Defect detection The YOLOv3 architecture, based on the image processing system, has undergone some GMAW
significant anchor setting adjustments.
15 Fernando Veiga et al. [98] 2022 Monitoring Based on the constructed wall's symmetry, a method for analysing its geometry is GMAW
offered.
16 Yuxing Li et al. [100] 2022 Defect detection The system uses a support vector machine (SVM) learning method to monitor the GMAW
welding arc current and voltage signals generated by the WAAM process and to detect
changes in the welding signal that might be signs of possible defects.
17 Daniel Baier et al. [85] 2022 Monitoring During the production process, thermal imaging was used to analyse the impact of GMAW
various interlayer stay periods on interlayer temperatures.
18 Cheng Huang et al. [89] 2022 Defect detection A non-contact 3D laser profilometer inspection system (3D-LPI) that continuously tracks GMAW
visible surface defects.
19 Raven Reisch et al. [106] 2022 Defect detection Defects were found in-process with a context-aware monitoring system with a higher GMAW
sensitivity than typical welding defect detectors.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4 2789

Fig. 24 e Schematic representation of the multi-sensor-based quality control system.

control system consists of a liner laser, thermal imaging
camera, liner laser surface profiler, spectrometer, CCD cam-
era, and hall sensor to accomplish real-time monitoring dur-
ing the WAAM process. This strategy is depicted in Fig. 25.
7. Future prospects and conclusion
This review article presents a detailed discussion on metal
additive manufacturing, focusing on research challenges and
control strategies related to the WAAM process. WAAM is
commonly used in aerospace, automotive, medical industries,
construction repairs, and marine base structures because of
its various unique attributes, such as manufacturing high-
quality near-net shape (NNS) fully dense parts.
Through time, WAAM demonstrated various advantages
and niche benefits for cost reduction with optimal time con-
sumption. Furthermore, mass reduction for components is
made possible with this manufacturing technique. However,
utilising the WAAM process has encountered various diffi-
culties, such as unique quality control characteristics, post-
processing problems and the potential of poor mechanical
properties for the NNS product. Nonetheless, hitherto WAAM
has shown some promising synergistic factors for its
advancement in industries albeit the challenges present. It
consists of continuation in the modification and improvements
of computational methods, making all the heat sources
involved affordable such as lasers, ease to automate for mass
production, grasping the working principle and theory crafting
behind the fundamentals of both metallurgical perspectives.

Fig. 25 e Strategy for quality control in the WAAM process based on closed-loop multiple sensors system.
2790 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
Many open-end discussions and research remain to be
solved with underlying opportunities towards an enhanced
understanding of ideas or concepts that could be answered by
further development in the near future. With advanced
technologies and knowledge available nowadays, combining
multiple manufacturing techniques to enhance the delicate
monitoring process and quality control management of
WAAN is possible. A quality control strategy has been pro-
posed in this review paper based on previous research. How-
ever, there have been a lot of promising areas that could be
explored to achieve such development, for example.

Optimisation of data collection and analysis using artificial
neural network (ANN) in machine learning.

Developing a new type of material, such as superalloy,
suitable for use with WAAM while retaining increased and
durable mechanical properties.

Integrated with artificial intelligence (AI) sensors that can
predict and plan proper algorithms for each component's
complexity.

A remote-control system could be used from software or
program designed to perform the AM process remotely.

Utilising in situ process monitoring to optimise component
performance and enable predictive maintenance within
the WAAM process with an accurate error reduction rate.

Design computer simulations and mathematical modelling
to identify risk heuristically to avoid waste of resources
while maximising the outcome.
WAAM components must have a high-quality finish and
precise tolerances. The improved component geometries are
also optimised for quality control optimisation to improve the
surface quality and reduce surface flaws, reducing the
requirement for support structures or overhanging geome-
tries. Manufacturers have used numerous approaches and
optimisation tactics to get smooth and delicate surfaces
directly after the WAAM process with minimal errors. This
inspired using a hybrid manufacturing system that integrates
electronics and sensors with the AM process to assess
boundary constraints accurately. Enhancing process sensors
and adaptive system control in the WAAM process would also
help regulate the process effectively and quickly to maximise
production and minimise flaws and imperfections.
In conclusion, many unique attributes and capabilities
could be potentially obtained by improving and modifying the
current WAAM working principle. As mentioned previously,
the main advantage of metal AM is reducing overall cost and
lead time for a one-cycle process. These and many other
benefits of the metal AM process in various application areas
possess an infinite amount of unknown potential to expand
the adaptability of this technology, which will pioneer the
future methodology to solve an insurmountable problem.
Data availability
The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings
cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an
ongoing study.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The Authors would like to acknowledge the University of
Malaya, Malaysia, for providing the necessary facilities and
resources for this research. This research is supported by the
Konsortium Kecemerlangan Penyelidikan Grant Scheme
(Large Volume Additive Manufacturing/LVAM) from the Min-
istry of Higher Education (MOHE) in Malaysia (No. KKP001A-
2021).
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Mohd Rozaimi Zahidin is a research scholar in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia. He received
his B.Eng and M.Eng from Keio University, Japan. Currently, he is
pursuing his PhD at Universiti Malaya with a main research in-
terest in metal 3D printing, mainly related to wire arc additive
manufacturing (WAAM). Other relevant areas that interest him
2794 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 4 : 2 7 6 9 e2 7 9 4
are welding line detection and quality control of welding using
Machine Learning / Deep Learning applications. He is also a
certified Professional Technologist registered with the Malaysia
Board of Technologists (MBOT). Besides that, he is a graduate
member of the Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) and the Insti-
tution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM).
Dr Farazila Binti Yusof is an Associate Professor in the Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Malaya. She
received her Engineering Doctorate from Nagaoka University of
Technology, Japan. She currently holds the position of Director,
Centre for Foundation Studies in Science, University of Malaya.
Her research interests are in advanced materials joining (laser
welding, friction stir welding, soldering, brazing), powder metal-
lurgy, and additive manufacturing. She has more than 135
research publications in internationally referred journals and
conferences to her credit.
Dr. Salwa Hanim Abdul Rashid is an Associate Professor in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaya. She obtained her Doctorate Degree in 2010 from
Cranfield University, United Kingdom, in Sustainable
Manufacturing Management. She also holds Master's and Bache-
lor's degrees in Manufacturing Management from Loughborough
and Salford University respectively. Her current research focuses
on factors that drive, inhibit and enable manufacturing companies
to implement circularity and sustainable strategies in design and
manufacturing activities. She has published more than 80 repu-
table academic journals, articles, and conference papers.
Mr. Muhammad Safwan bin Mohd Mansor is a fellow research
student from the Department of Mechanical engineering and a
Graduate Research Assistant at Center of Advanced Manufacturing
and Materials Processing (AMMP) at the University of Malaya. He
has completed a BSc and master's degree from the University of
Malaya. His research expertise covers the fundamental concept of
manufacturing processes and material science prospects.
Currently, he is pursuing PhD in the field of wire arc additive
manufacturing revolving around duplex stainless steel (DSS).
Dr Sufian Raja has recently graduated with a PhD from the
Department of Mechanical engineering, University of Malaya. He
has completed B.Tech and M. Tech degrees from ZHCET, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh. His resolute research niches are in
friction stir welding, friction stir processing, Metal matrix com-
posite and additive manufacturing. He has to his credit, One Pat-
ent and 15 research publications in internationally referred
journals and conferences.
Mr. Mohd.Fadzil bin Jamaludin is a research officer at the Center
of Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Processing (AMMP
Centre), University of Malaya. His research areas are mainly
focused in the field of precision joining, metal forming, and ad-
ditive manufacturing.
Prof. Dr.-Ing Yupiter HP Manurung is a Full Professor in the School
of Mechanical Engineering at Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM),
Shah Alam, Malaysia. His research activities are mainly focused
on simulation and experiment of metal additive manufacturing,
generative design, welding technology and Artificial Neural
Network.
Dr Mohd Shahriman Adenan is a Senior Lecturer at Universiti
Teknologi MARA's School of Mechanical Engineering. Currently
serving as the Head of Virtual, Advanced & Additive
Manufacturing at the Smart Manufacturing Research Institute
(SMRI), his research interests include additive manufacturing
design and simulation, as well as surface engineering.
Dr Nur Izan Syahriah Hussein is an Associate Professor in the
Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering, at Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka. She holds a PhD in Manufacturing Engineering
with a thesis titled ‘Direct Method Deposition of Waspaloy Wire
Using Laser and Arc Heat Sources' from the University of
Nottingham, United Kingdom. She is actively involved in research
and development in the Manufacturing Engineering field,
especially Welding Technology and Wire and Arc Additive
Manufacturing (WAAM). She has written extensively on the topic.