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Fishponds14 DEF
Fishponds14 DEF
f i s h a n d l i v e l i h o ods
FAO Diversification booklet 13
Diversification booklet number 13
Farm ponds
f o r w a t e r, f i s h
and livelihoods
James W. Miller
© FAO 2009
Table of contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Servicing smallholders 1
Lessons from the past 1
Understanding the situation and context of smallholders 2
Returns from improved services 4
Purpose of the booklet 4
Annexes 47
Selected further reading 51
Sources of further information and support 61
Table of contents
Preface
v
each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and
website addresses.
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vi
Acknowledgements
vii
Servicing smallholders
1
other resources. Some of the farmers in not foster direct dependence.
these programmes saw opportunities
to earn profits and their farming Understanding the situation
models became the forerunner of and context of smallholders
more recent systems that combined Aquaculture has been recognized
the objectives of producing fish for as an important component of
home consumption as well as for rural development strategies aimed
the market. The few viable farms at improving food supply and
that survived now serve as a positive generating more income for poor
lesson in sustainable smallholder farming households. To understand
farming systems. However, the their circumstances better, the
majority that failed, caused by pitfalls categorization ‘commercial’ and
in programmes, lack of planning, and ‘non-commercial’ has been devised.
badly targeted technical support have To clearly define the target group for
also provided instructive lessons on support programmes, it is necessary
rural development strategies: they to understand non-commercial and
in particular taught the lesson that commercial fish farming. Experience
projects need to be sustainable and over the past decades has shown that
2
few farmers make the transformation Smallholder farmers have a
from non-commercial to commercial poorly developed non-commercial,
farming. Those who do, expand or non-market oriented value chain. In
intensify their operations and their contrast, commercial fish farmers
experiences, and the drivers that made require and usually have extensive
them undertake the transition need to and generally reliable support
be examined and promoted. Figure from upstream input suppliers and
2 illustrates the value chains of each downstream handlers, processors and
category. marketers.
Transport of live
A few fish are & dead fish
Live fish Dead fish
Barter of fish in processed
markets markets
informal market by drying
saving cash to be or smoking
Fish processing,
used elsewhere,
drying, smoking
hence indirect
income Consumers
Consumers
Restaurants
Auto consumption
3
Returns from improved services smallholder farm ponds. Its aim is to
Appropriately targeted assistance to promote ponds as a diversification
smallholder farmers can provide high enterprise. It describes what should be
returns. Planned and implemented considered to make pond-based farm
interventions can facilitate assistance enterprises successful and sustainable
that, above all outcomes, makes as a business. Information is provided
farmers self-reliant rather than on the role of organizations, public,
dependent on the public sector, NGOs private and donor, in promoting farm
and donors. The ultimate pay-off can ponds, opportunities for and pitfalls
be: organized and better informed to providing assistance, direct and
farmers; progressive farms that are not indirect support required, and the
abandoned when grants or external strategic and technical challenges
assistance terminate; higher and of making farmers self-reliant or at
sustained productivity; marketable least less dependent. It suggests ways
surpluses; and higher family earnings. by which smallholder farmers can
Desirable effects of these gains participate in the market economy
would be the private sector seeking through better market access and
profitable business opportunities outlines strategies to attract the private
with smallholders and the public sector to do business with them.
sector providing better services and This Diversification booklet is
capital goods such as roads and not a ‘how to’ manual, numerous
energy supply. Smallholders, then, publications are available providing
could contribute more, rather than detailed farm pond rearing
being seen as a hindrance, to national techniques, many of which are
development. cited in the further reading section.
This booklet is based on and is a
Purpose of the booklet continuation of the FAO publication
This booklet provides basic and ‘Small ponds make a big difference’,
practical information on multiple-use published in the year 2000.
4
Farm ponds
and livelihoods
Ponds add value to other farming family diet, as well as other aquatic
activities: water from ponds can serve organisms. Fish is an important
domestic and livestock water supplies source of protein for the family.
as well as irrigation for high-value Fish alleviates protein deficiency
crops and vegetables. Farm ponds contributing to improved growth
5
small farm ponds. With higher yields, 1
supply to local markets can become It can draw more support
an income generating activity for the from public agencies for rural
household. infrastructure and services
Improved, as well as more efficient
Added value and sustainable, water use is one
A well-managed integrated of the most important impacts of
farm system comprising several programmes promoting farm ponds.
enterprises including fish culture Improved smallholder livelihoods
in ponds produces more products. can lead to an increased pressure
The pond serves as a water storage on public agencies to increase their
structure and, as such, becomes support. Infrastructure development
a key asset of smallholder farms, in these areas has generally been
supplying water to crops and very slow. Participation in decision-
animals. Crops can be integrated making by the rural poor has been
with the ponds in a multiple use limited and local governments have
system. Wastes accumulated in pond been slow to improve infrastructure.
muds can be spread over gardens. However, when smallholders have
Fish ponds in irrigation schemes a voice, and their farm production
add value to the scheme and serve brings increased revenues to the
as a back-up source of water when communities, the people can begin
water shortage occurs or supply is to demand greater investments in
temporarily cut off. There are mutual infrastructure and services.
benefits to integrated and associated
farming systems, such as wastes 2
from gardens being fed to fish and It can lead to
water from ponds for irrigating the farmer empowerment
crops. Annex 1 provides examples of There is need for political processes
integration in Nigeria and Viet Nam that ensure access and resolution
and Figure 3 shows illustrations of land tenure, property rights and
of upland and lowland models of water use issues. Resource use
integrated farming systems. is a good introduction to a more
active participation of people in
Benefits to the community the processes of policy formulation
The community can benefit from the and development planning for rural
promotion of farm ponds in three areas. To better participate and have
ways: a stronger voice in these processes,
6
farmers need to be organized and direct impact on formal employment
the association needs to be run is small. However, as production
professionally. increases and farmers begin to link
3 to markets and require more inputs
It generates employment than are available from the farm,
Smallholder fish production and more economic activities and jobs
related activities are carried out by are generated in the community.
family members using a largely These would range from production
non-cash system in which there and supply of seed and feed and the
is little need for capital. Thus the processing and marketing of fish.
7
The contribution of fish
and other aquatic organisms to livelihoods
9
with surrounding activities and can assistance can thus expand to include
be seen as one of several part-time enabling smallholder farmers to
occupations that are undertaken with access markets and adopt more
little dependence from government productive and sustainable farming
support, as noted by the United practices.
Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) in 1987: “Traditional Asian Farming strategies
aquaculture is self-reliant and low cost, A number of farming systems have
representing an ideal for aquaculture been developed to enable smallholder
elsewhere in the developing world”. farmers to make optimum use of
Previously in Asia, with the many their limited resources and be more
rivers, lakes, irrigation channels, productive. Some farmers can
man-made reservoirs and often the integrate fish farming with other
proximity of a sea, people needed on-farm activities such as crops and
only to catch fish for the family’s animal husbandries. This integration
lunch or dinner; they did not have involves cost savings through use of
to dig ponds or set up cages and resources over several enterprises not
pens to produce fish for home to mention the advantage of having
consumption. Subsequently, with the multiple-use, water-harvesting and
marked reduction of these natural storage facilities on a farm that
resources and population growth, improve returns to land and labour.
Asian small farms were driven by the Beneficial associations are another
desire to earn income: they produce possibility with small ponds linked
fish for the household and for sale. to the raising of vegetables and/or
This commercial orientation of livestock. On-farm water reservoirs
smallholder farms raises another set are important to soil conservation
of issues. Most smallholder farmers and in sustaining other agricultural
have a poor understanding of the activities. In this regard, small ponds
market; lack the collective strength can play a major role.
for more bargaining power; and have Integrated small-scale fish farming
limited awareness of modern food creates value in the market chain.
safety and production standards. An example of a self-reliant and
With little experience, information sustainable model that highlights the
and organization, they have no basis central role of a small farm pond in
on which to access modern market integrated farming is the VAC system
chains for their products. in Viet Nam. It is a commercially
The opportunity for development oriented enterprise; the objective of
10
Farm ponds for water, fish and livelihoods
FIGURE 4 A fish farm in Lao PDR with integrated rice and fish culture that shows animal
pens built over the water in order that ducks will fertilize the ponds
(Photo: © FAO/20910/K. Pratt)
11
FIGURE 5 A group of farmers dividing their fish harvest; some to be sold in the market
and some for processing
(Photo: © FAO/22325/A. Proto)
12
Smallholder fish
production systems
13
and food production. Runoff ponds Advantages
require a spillway or overflow system. Runoff ponds take advantage of
Information is available to determine rainfall that otherwise would flow as
the watershed-pond ratio, the size of runoff water.
overflow systems based on watershed
ground cover and surface area. Disadvantages
Siphons may be used in some of these Water supply can be erratic. These
ponds to draw water for irrigation or ponds may dry up in the dry season
for additional ponds at the base of the and thus require close management
dam. Since they rely on rainfall and to produce a crop of fish. During a
lack a permanent water source, runoff heavy rain there is risk of dams being
ponds may need to be harvested flooded and washed out if spillways
before the water level drops so low or overflows are insufficient in size
as to allow heavy predation by birds for the area of the watershed. Runoff
and animals. ponds may suffer high loss of fish
14
from poaching and have unclear water in these ponds. In such cases,
land tenure issues. They are prone to if the owner has no possibility of
siltation. topping up the water from a stream
or a pump, he or she may have to fish
Management out the pond before it dries up.
Since the cropping cycle is short,
runoff ponds should be stocked with Advantages
large juvenile fish if a large size fish is Ground water ponds take advantage
desired at harvest. Nutrients added to of low-lying areas having ‘high’
these ponds become concentrated as water tables just beneath the ground
water volume decreases, but this may surface.
15
season advances, may need to be Advantages
stocked with large juvenile fish if a Borrow-pit ponds take advantage of
large size fish is desired at harvest. holes made in the ground as a by-
Nutrients added to these ponds may product of other activities. Turning
become concentrated as water volume them into fish ponds makes them
decreases, but this may enhance fish valuable.
production. Care is taken not to make
the water eutrophic (excessive algal Disadvantages
bloom from too much fertility, which Water supply may vary considerably
then exhausts the oxygen) with an in pits, with water loss in dry periods.
overload of nutrient. These may dry up entirely in the
dry season and thus require close
3 Borrow-pit ponds management to produce a crop of
Borrow-pit ponds are created fish. Land tenure may be a problem
through road construction, from the and pit ponds may need to be operated
holes dug in making mud bricks, or by a group when perceived as having
in other circumstances when the by- common ownership.
product of an activity is a hole in
the ground. These ponds may have Management
uneven bottoms and rough shapes Borrow-pit ponds may only be
and require some work to make seasonal and could hold water four
them more manageable for fish to six months of the year. Therefore,
production. Some borrow-pits may they may need to be stocked with
be very shallow while others may be larger fish. Nutrients added to these
very deep and hazardous to children ponds may become concentrated as
and others who may not know how to water volume decreases, but this may
swim. Such ponds may be managed also enhance fish production. Care is
by individuals or as groups, these taken not to make the water eutrophic
ponds being labour intensive. These (excessive algal bloom from too
ponds may be filled with water much fertility, which then exhausts
through runoff or through ground the oxygen) with an overload of
water, or both. Borrow-pit ponds may nutrients.
be seasonal. If an alternative source
of water is not available, such ponds 4 Derivation ponds
must be monitored closely to arrange Ponds supplied with water by
a harvest of the fish before the water derivation canal are perhaps the
level drops too low. easiest to manage. These can be filled
16
Farm ponds for water, fish and livelihoods
FIGURE 7 Ponds supplied with water through a derivation canal
(Photo: © FAO/12738/E. Errath)
or drained at any time. Such ponds ‘cut equals fill’ ponds. For example,
are built near a stream or other source a 100 m2 dug pond would require
of water, out of a flood zone. A water 70 m3 or more of earth work assuming
supply canal is dug or a structure is put a sloping bottom, whereas a ‘cut
in place to bring water to the ponds. equals fill’ pond would require half
Water conveyance structures can be or less the earthwork, depending on
made of bamboo, roofing sheets, tiles, the slope of the land. In open areas, a
stones or a variety of other readily labourer can usually dig 1 m3 of earth
available materials. This type of pond a day.
can be built by hand labour in areas
with gentle slopes. It is best to select Advantages
sites where ‘cut equals fill’; where Derivation ponds take advantage
the earth to be dug equals the fill dirt of the presence of streams which,
required to build the dikes. Obviously because of their fall in elevation
this results in cost savings as ponds of (topography), can be diverted into a
the same area that are entirely ‘dug’ canal which can supply water to fish
require roughly double the labour of ponds out of a flood zone. Such ponds
17
are usually the most efficient and least canals to the fields. Likewise siphons
costly to build as their topography can be used between ponds built in
lends itself to earth work where ‘cut tandem down small valleys. But if
equals fill’. the farmer has ponds on the lower
elevations of the farm, pumping would
Disadvantages be required for irrigation. Waters
Water canals require an understanding from these low-lying ponds can be
of topography and some skill in pumped up to the top of the farm for
construction. It is necessary to follow reuse in conservation management.
a ‘contour line’ at the same elevation, Treadle pumps could be used for this
allowing for a slight slope for the purpose.
water to slowly move through the
canal. Sometimes the soils along the Advantages
area of the canal are porous and not Ponds filled with siphoned or pumped
water-retaining, leading to some loss water take advantage of waters that
of water. otherwise would not be recycled
without use of siphons or pumps.
Management Siphons are cheap and many farmers
Derivation ponds are usually fully use plastic pipes in moving water
controllable by the farmer who may from one place to another. With a
fill or drain such a pond anytime. centrally located pond, a siphon or
Nutrients added to these ponds treadle pump can be used to fill it
are usually well-exploited for fish anytime of the day.
production.
Disadvantages
5 Siphon or pump filled ponds Siphoned or pumped waters require
Smallholders use water from their effort to manage and close supervision
ponds to support the entire farm. If to maintain desirable water levels. It
a farmer has land with a topography is necessary to invest in siphons and
suitable for having pond(s) at higher a treadle or mechanical pump. Motor
elevations on the farm, water can be pumps may not be economical as
siphoned from the pond to irrigate they require fuel and maintenance not
lower-level crops. Such strategically to mention the initial cash outlay.
located ponds provide a farmer with a
convenient farm layout. Siphons are Management
commonly used in irrigation schemes Siphon or pumped water ponds can be
to move water from the water supply filled or drained anytime. Nutrients
18
added to these ponds are usually Africa, except in Madagascar where
well-exploited for fish production. it has met with success. The longer-
Ponds filled via siphon or pump, stemmed rice, with longer growing
take advantage of the presence of season, is more suitable for rice-cum-
other ponds, water bodies or streams fish production as it allows deeper
located beside the farm pond. water in the paddy and a growing
period that produces larger size fish.
6 Rice paddies This is the case in many areas of
Rice paddies may also produce fish Madagascar as they grow only one
and have been shown to produce crop of rice a year. Elsewhere, short-
10 percent higher rice yields and as stemmed rice with a shorter growing
19
may satisfy the needs of smallholder integrate rice with fish. Short stemmed
farmers, but other farmers who prefer rice and the improved varieties of rice
larger fish would want to plant a with short growing periods call for
rice variety with a longer maturity shallow waters and a short growing
period. season of only 3 to 4 months.
Additionally, use of pesticides and
Advantages herbicides is not favourable for fish
Rice paddy ponds produce a production. Poaching is sometimes a
‘balanced meal of rice and fish’. It problem.
has a high production and returns
per unit area. Rice paddies modified Management
for rearing fish have stronger dikes Rice paddy ponds require close
as a result of digging ‘refuge canals’ management as regards the timing
for the fish. Long-stemmed rice with of stocking of juvenile fish. Water
longer growing season (i.e. more than management is crucial so that the fish
five months) favours integration with can grow to a good size.
fish.
7 Integrated irrigation
Disadvantages aquaculture ponds
Rice paddies must be modified to Some smallholder farmers may
provide a deeper ‘refuge canal’ to have ponds located within irrigation
protect fish from predation and high schemes. They can benefit from
water temperatures. Most rice farmers the system of water supply canals.
prefer to grow rice only rather than Most irrigation schemes target a
Rice-cum-fish farming has been exploited for many years in Asia and now this
integrated farming is starting to be practiced by smallholder farmers in Africa. Nigeria’s
Government has expressed a lot of interest in rice/fish farming as it offers a way to
reduce imports of rice (1.8 metric tonnes(MT)/year) and fish (700 000 MT/year). This
could also create employment in rural areas and reduce poverty. Research in Nigeria at
the National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI) has shown an increase of 54 percent in
revenues with rice/fish production as compared to rice production only. Presence of fish
in rice paddies adapted with a refuge canal yielded up to a 15 percent increase in rice
production. In small plots, Nigerian smallholder farmers have produced up to 3.2 tonnes
of rice per hectare and as much as 480 kilograms of fish per hectare. Rice farmers in
the flood zone, in the south eastern part of the country, borrowed fish nets to fence off
their rice paddies before harvest and were able to harvest up to 90 kilograms of wild
fish that grew in the rice paddy.
20
particular crop and some areas within otherwise a pump would be needed.
the scheme may not be suitable for Ponds built close to crop fields may
crop production. These areas maybe receive pesticides and herbicides
suited for building ponds. Fish ponds indirectly through wind movements,
increase the efficiency of land use which could be detrimental to fish.
within the irrigation domain and
the presence of fish ponds adds Management
to the variety of crops produced. Irrigation ponds can be filled or
Use of irrigation aquaculture could drained by the farmer. Nutrients added
include rice-fish farming, rotation to these ponds are well-exploited for
of crops with fish, as well as ponds fish production.
21
FIGURE 9 A small water body with a Peking duck enterprise, Zambia
(Photo: © FAO/14282/W. Gartung)
and livestock needs. Care must be or cage culture of fish, as in Asia. This
made to avoid polluting the waters. would need training to make people
A community management scheme, aware of the importance of managing
where responsibility of control and this resource. Training and awareness-
management rests with the members raising should aim at providing the
of the community should be agreed. co-management skills, culture-based
The management arrangement would fishery techniques and, probably the
include stocking of fish, regulating most important objective, instilling in
fishing activities, enhancing its the community a sense of collective
productivity and even using it for pen ownership of the water body.
22
Integrated farm pond management
and fish production systems
23
raffia. This allows the farmer to dry a neighbour for the first stocking or
the pond and carry out maintenance from government or private suppliers.
before refilling. After the first stocking, the fish will
Water management involves spawn in the pond and the farmers can
user management. If the water have a lot of small fish available for
comes from a common source, the restocking after harvesting. However,
community can ration water use to as it is a very prolific fish, tilapia could
individual farms and farm ponds. If over-populate a fishpond, producing
the farm pond systems are communal progressively smaller fish if the pond
property, as with a small water is not drained and restocked. To help
body, communal management is overcome this constraint, tilapias can
necessary. Community, group or joint be raised with a predator, such as
management can be complicated. catfish, to reduce the reproduction
levels and further have catfish as a
Obtaining seed ‘second crop’.
Farm ponds used for raising fish While tilapias remain popular
may be stocked with a wide variety among smallholder farmers,
of fish or other aquatic organisms. catfish farming has considerably
Farm ponds, even if not used for increased, either in polyculture with
managed fish production, should be tilapia or as a single crop. Seed are
stocked with fish anyway. Fish help usually juvenile fish caught in the
control water-borne diseases, prey on wild. Catfish tend to have specific
mosquito larvae and some help control spawning seasons linked to the rainy
snails, which spread bilharzia. season when juveniles school and are
Most farmers raise one or more of easy to capture. Women and youth
the many varieties of tilapias. Tilapias groups often catch juvenile catfish
are indigenous in many parts of and tilapias for sale or barter to pond
Africa and raised in most parts of the owners. Catfish are hardier than
world. A major advantage of tilapias many of the species of farmed fish
is that generally their seed is readily and can be stocked at higher densities
available, albeit of variable quality. than the tilapia. The decision as to
Tilapias can spawn year round when which fish species to raise, depends
conditions are suitable. Small adults on availability of fingerlings and
or juveniles may be captured in the the market. Because of the variable
wild for stocking ponds. As tilapias quality of seed, farmers should be
spawn readily (usually after four trained to distinguish the good from
months), seed may be obtained from the poor quality seed. This is a crucial
24
Farm ponds for water, fish and livelihoods
FIGURE 10 Farmer in Honduras checking up on his brood fish
(Photo: © FAO/18891/G. Bizzarri)
skill and should be an opportunity for integrated farms because they breed
farmers’ training programmes. At the well naturally. Brood stock can be
same time, efforts should be made to collected from the wild or developed
assist hatcheries, if seed supplies are in the ponds. Common carp breeding
from hatcheries, to produce quality can be carried out in hapas (inverted
seed. fine mesh nets) set in a pond. Other
Carps are another popular species species such as the Indian major
for integrated or mono-culture in carps and Chinese carps would
small farm ponds. They are hardy need a full hatchery facility, which
and prolific and grow fast with good requires a high capital investment. (A
feeding. There are several species full hatchery consists of an elevated
(Chinese carps, Indian major carps, water tank, a source of good quality
and common carps which includes the freshwater such as a tube well or
European carps). The common carps a stream, circular spawning and
(Cyprinus carpio) would probably breeding tank, hatching jar, holding
be the most suitable for small tank, a shed for the whole structure
25
except the elevated water tank, and own fingerlings, barter seed from
brood fish tanks or pond). neighbour farmers, or catch from the
This is an opportunity for assistance wild. In choosing seed their needs
to small farmers. The expertise on to be a preference to use local and
brood stock rearing, breeding and indigenous species.
hatchery acquired from working Small ponds (of about 4 m2 water
on common carps could be applied surface area) are built beside the
subsequently to other carp species or grow out ponds to hold small fish
other freshwater fish species. It is also while pond preparation and cleaning
the foundation for improving quality is carried out. Once the main or grow-
of fish seed for small farms. out pond is cleaned and refilled, these
fish are transferred to it.
Stocking Organizations can play a role in
Smallholders may obtain their initial identifying sources of reliable quality
fish seed from government or private seed or securing initial seed as an
fish hatcheries or other suppliers. entry point to supporting smallholder
But they may also produce their pond development. Care must be
FIGURE 11 When they reach the required size, small fish are transferred to larger ponds
through sluices, Republic of Congo
(Photo: © FAO/11572/N. Brodeur)
26
taken in handling and stocking fish to be made aware of the rules on
fingerlings. Transport and stocking movement and introduction of live
must be done early in the day when fish. Development organizations can
the water is coolest. Fish should be help farmers with compliance and
counted at stocking. Poor handling assist governments in recording these
and transport techniques stress the movements.
small fish and result in a lot of dead
fish after stocking. Appropriate Fertilization
skills in these techniques need to be Smallholders have limited resources,
learned. but most try to add nutrients to their
Where species are available, it ponds, such as farm and household
27
Ponds that leak or have high flow- water availability will, of course,
through may not be able to maintain have considerably lower yields.
a bloom and in such conditions,
fish have little supplementary food. Processing
Farmers should learn to observe and On-farm or backyard fish processing
interpret the behaviour of fish such is an opportunity for improving
as how they swim and respond to income by adding value to the fish as
nutrient additions, on normal days, well as reducing wastage. As such, it
cloudy days, rainy days, cool days, is a good opportunity for introducing
and hot days. Careful observation low-cost and easy to operate smoking,
can help farmers detect poor water salting and drying techniques and
quality, diseases and predation. training women in such techniques.
Most traditional smoking methods
Harvesting usually rely on high temperatures
Smallholder fish production is over a short smoking time, producing
variable and unpredictable. Most poor quality fish charred on the
farm ponds however are likely to outside and half-cooked inside. Such
have yields that are twice the natural fish spoil easily.
fish production in a natural water A variety of fish smoking
body. Production can range from methods are available to small-scale
700 kg to 1 200 kg/ha/year. The rural farmers, from traditional ‘alter
quality and quantity of the harvest smokers’ to heavy smoking chambers
will depend on the farm system used made of welded metal. The output
and the management techniques from traditional methods is small
employed. Regular cycles of stocking but uses a lot of fuel wood. It also
and harvesting; with harvesting carries a high risk of fire outbreak
accompanied by a complete draining and may pose a health hazard, mainly
and re-filling of the pond, often to women and their children, who are
provide the highest yields. However, typically responsible for processing.
farmers with a ‘water-first’ set of Some farmers may salt and dry fish.
priorities may be reluctant to drain Chorkor (oven with trays) smoking
ponds, while some farm ponds are kilns, designed in Ghana, have a high
difficult or impossible to drain. Thus, smoking capacity and are very well
the decision of having complete or suited for backyard operation. The
partial harvest is important. Farm kiln can be made and easily repaired
ponds that are empty during certain with locally available and low-cost
periods of the year caused by seasonal materials.
28
Farm ponds for water, fish and livelihoods
FIGURE 12 Fish is smoked on a Chorkor
(Photo: © FAO/18298/P. Cenini)
29
difficult or costly. But if the objective
is to enable small farmers to market in
distant urban centres, then the value
chain becomes longer and costs and
risks increase.
The size of fish for market is
also important. The preference of
consumers is obviously the most
important criterion. However, often it
can be more profitable to sell smaller
size fish on a per kilogram basis
because the growing period is shorter
and therefore turnover is faster. Even
with the extra cost of seed for growing
more than one crop, the annual return FIGURE 13 Choosing the right fish for
would still be higher. Generally, fish marketing and fish to leave for further
maturing
use feed more efficiently at the earlier (Photo: © FAO/22248/A. Proto)
stages of their growth.
30
Supporting fish ponds
as a diversification enterprise
Assessment Training
of potentials and advice Among smallholders, management
Farmers that have ponds need an practices and techniques of
assessment of their pond’s production integrated farming can be the core
history, present status and potentials. subjects of training and study visits
Some may only need short-term programmes. Integrated farming is
support, and follow-up for monitoring more complicated than mono crop
production. Farmers who would like to farming so that hands-on training
build new ponds need more long-term combined with demonstration would
input for assessing their conditions be effective approaches. Farmer field
and the potential for farm ponds. schools (FFSs) are cost effective,
31
provide training based on ‘learning by Organizations could structure their
doing’, follow the seasonal schedule, inputs around a core framework for
bring farmers together in groups and assisting farm pond programmes
encourage them to learn from each through the following activities:
other.
Feasibility
Helping farmers organize Past programmes tended to promote
properly and for the right reasons the construction of ponds without
When efforts are clearly rewarded proper assessment of site and area
it is easier to promote the adoption suitability. To avoid repeating this
of a new technology or practice. A mistake, it would be useful to run a
community management approach checklist of questions. The answers
in effect pools and shares resources would provide information on
for collective benefit. But there whether it is an appropriate project
will always be some free riders, or and if so how to promote, develop,
individuals who would want to benefit and possibly upgrade farm ponds and
from the results without contributing smallholder fish farming in an area. A
much or at all to the effort. Individual checklist of questions is provided.
farm operations of organized farmers
would likely be a better approach than 1 Are there farm ponds in the area
communal or group management. of interest?
Organized farmers individually 2 Is there a desire by the people
operating their own farms would to use these and/or build new
still have the combined strength of ponds?
transacting with suppliers or buyers, 3 What are the resources available
helping each other, or pooling their locally?
harvest for more cost-effective 4 Are there available local skills
marketing without the burden of in fish farming?
suspecting who might be gaining 5 What is needed to put farm ponds
benefits that are disproportionate to to sustainable use?
his/her contribution to the pooled 6 Are there means to realistically
effort. Communal and cooperative and sustainability meet these
management would apply better to needs?
small water bodies with no individual
ownership. If the answer to either question 2, 4
Specific assistance and or 6 are ‘No’, there is no sufficient
interventions are described next. justification to promote farm ponds
32
in the area. Otherwise, proceed with water-retaining soils. Climate plays
the next set of questions: a role in management of ponds
as cool temperatures, flooding or
7 What types of small ponds are drought pose risks that need to be
found in the area? mitigated by good management. Pond
8 Who owns the small ponds? construction requires skilled labour.
Describe the typical farmer Seasonal availability of labour is a
owning the ponds? consideration because construction
9 Where are small ponds likely to of ponds needs to be done during the
be located? off season for major crops to avoid
10 What interventions can an competition; more skilled labour for
33
FIGURE 14 A fish culture extension agent introducing the basics of fish farming in a village
(Photo: © FAO/14929/R. Cannarsa)
34
developed ‘management’ practices service or partner with other public
to make the pond fit into the farming institutions in the service area. Rural
system so that that new inputs might smallholder farmers need trainers
upset this equilibrium. experienced in fish culture. Staff in
A geographic concentration of some countries are gaining practical
older ponds can be better managed experience and greatly increasing
and assisted, if not by improving the their capacity to serve as facilitators
structures by improving the access in Farmer Field Schools (FFSs).
to inputs including information and Programmes can be established for
market. Training of groups should training fisheries graduates at private
be conducted at a smallholder farm fish farms.
35
CASE STUDY 2 Small ponds for irrigation in Villa Manica, Mozambique
Farmers in this hilly area on the Zimbabwe border requested the ALCOM programme for
training in fish farming. Their fish farming activities were more oriented to water storage
than fish husbandry. In this area the principal cash crops are ginger and maize grown
under gravity-flow irrigation, the water coming from a network of canals that traverses
the community. As this is a high population density area, where most of the people are
smallholder farmers, there is a higher demand on water than the mountain springs can
provide. Consequently, there is a community-managed rationing programme. Water
flows through specific canals on specific days; most farmers having access to water
twice a week. Hence, the farmers saw ponds as a way to store water when their canals
were ‘open’, using the water to irrigate crops when their canals were dry. The farmers
typically built very small ponds; 30–100 m2. These ‘mini-impoundments’ were often built
in the family compound. The farmers used integrated irrigation practices to fertilize the
ponds with small animal husbandry units for chickens, ducks and/or rabbits located
next to the ponds. The ponds, once stocked, were managed more as a capture than a
culture fishery; the farmers catching fish with nets or hook-and-line whenever the family
needed fish to eat and rarely draining the impounded water. The water was siphoned
from the ponds through plastic hosepipes and applied through fixed sprinklers to the
downhill maize and ginger crops. This area of Mozambique is far from supply routes
for marine fishes and these very small ponds provide the major source of fish that is an
integral part of their diet.
36
Farm ponds for water, fish and livelihoods
FIGURE 16 A Farmer group harvesting fish and sorting by size for marketing
(Photo: © FAO/14929/R. Cannarsa)
37
FIGURE 18 Transporting fish in ice boxes to market
(Photo: © FAO/21194/A. Proto)
issues have proven their value with Organizations, like NGOs, too often
relatively quick implementation of have pursued their own programmes
innovations. without meshing them with that of
the government and others. Resources
Role definition are thus wasted from redundancy
A strategic plan to develop the of efforts and farmers get confused
smallholder fish farming sector from a multiplicity of programmes.
includes a clearer definition of the A national strategy can clearly define
roles of government, NGOs and the interventions and assure that all
private sector. This would avoid areas of need are being addressed.
inefficiencies and duplication of An overview of broad and specific
efforts, which usually happen when services and responsibilities between
responsibilities are ill-defined, the public and private sectors is
roles are unclear and objectives are provided in Table 1.
ambiguous. With limited resources, In a multi-stakeholder participation
there is general consensus on the need and democratic environment,
to define the roles and responsibilities government is only one of the
of different development partners. stakeholders in decision-making. The
38
Farm ponds for water, fish and livelihoods
FIGURE 19 Woman selling fish from her own market stall
(Photo: © FAO/21190/A. Proto)
39
40
TABLE 1 Overview of services and responsibilities from the public and private sector in assisting smallholder farmers
1 Broodfish
Public Public Public/private Possibility of using public facilities.
management
Quality seed starting to be available to some farm
pond operators; segmentation of operations into
2 Fish seed Private Private Public/private
hatchery, nursery and grow-out increases technical
efficiencies and creates more employment.
Farm pond operators most often source own feeds.
Farmers and feed
3 Fish feeds Private Private Quality improvement needed. Advice based on
industry
economics of feeding needed.
Public/private/
4 Advisory services Public/private Public/private
professional Some group could certify qualifications of advisors.
(outreach) partnership partnership
associations
5 Fish processing
Public/private Control and monitor both input/output quality
& marketing Public/private Public/private
partnership & food safety
standards
6 Environmental and Public/private Few exist or are applied. Much improvement
Public Public/private
quality monitoring partnership needed.
Public/private Relevance of research enhanced with government-
7 Research Public Public/private
partnership private sector-farmer group dialogues
8 Education Public/private
Public/private Public/private Government improves standards and capacities
& training partnership
Public/private
9 Infrastructure Public/some private Public Roads & market infrastructures
partnership
Public/private Private with public Quality & safety assurance; advice on cost-
10 Input supplies Private
partnership monitoring effective use of inputs
Enabling environment cooperative and statistics agencies.
An important role of government is They can propose or develop
to improve the enabling environment assistance for farm ponds in line with
for the development of smallholder their institutional mandates, as for
farming. The principal instrument instance, flood and erosion control,
to achieve this aim is a strategic training and education, water supply
plan for the sector. The major regulations, farm-to-market roads,
components of the plan that would market infrastructures, environmental
provide a favourable environment for safeguards, and health and welfare.
development includes: Their roles and services will need to
be synchronized, which underlines
41
Financial services regulatory mainstream, the situation
While some smallholder farmers is changing. Some governments are
can benefit from credit schemes, proposing the need for licenses for
they generally are so isolated farm ponds and water uptake and
they lack access to microcredit. discharge. Others are suggesting
Nevertheless, recent years have seen the need for environmental impact
impressive growth in the provision assessments (EIAs) for structures such
of microcredit. Organizations could as farm ponds. There are related and
facilitate access for smallholder farm potentially regulated concerns such as
pond programmes. Microcredit funds watershed management, water-borne
would be most appropriate for one- disease control, conservation areas,
off expenditures such as purchasing and other concerns. Organizations
the initial stock of fish or employing can serve as an interface for the
additional labour to complete pond smallholder and regulatory agencies,
facilities. There is a variety of provide awareness training and
community institutions that have prepare simple booklets to advise on
traditionally assisted in providing cash compliance with various regulations.
and other resources to members, often Similar processes also help farmers
on a rotational basis. These structures contribute to policy and regulation
should, as appropriate, be mobilized activities by seeking their feedback
to assist farm pond programmes. and assessment of what works and
It is important to differentiate what is counterproductive.
loans from grants. Decades of Participation of all stakeholders
experience have demonstrated that would go a long way in enabling policy
gratuities are counter-productive; they and regulations on rural agriculture
foster dependence. The past decades and fish production. Crucial issues
of neglect have demonstrated that that policy and regulations need
smallholders can build and keep farm to address include licensing, water
ponds with no external support and no use rights, land tenure, movement
gifts. Improvements can be achieved of products, biodiversity and
with the provision of high quality environmental concerns.
technical support and not by free By working with farmers’
wheelbarrows, seed, feed or fertilizer. associations it is possible to enforce
some regulations through members
Policy and regulations and to protect their growing industry.
Although smallholders have long Through such a mechanism, the
been outside the main policy and public sector can play a role in
42
enforcement via community-based receive training where they are
programmes. With reasonable shown the need to embrace such
government regulations developed regulations and thus become partners
through inclusive participation of with government in enforcement.
stakeholders, farmer groups can
43
Opportunities and challenges
45
• advice on more effective use of • improved transport and post-
resources of smallholder farms; harvest handling for fish;
• guidance for maximizing • research that is demand-driven;
production from input of nutrients • articulation of a National
to the ponds; Aquaculture Development
• strategies and techniques to Strategy that includes support to
optimize overall farm production; small farmers.
• training programmes for both
technical and management Organizations should seek balance
support; between promoting smallholder
• training to improve the capacities fish production and attaining food
of farmer organizations; security and improved livelihoods.
• improved rural outreach; Many opportunities exist for helping
• improved institutional support smallholder farmers achieve higher
services, access to inputs and to harvests and better economic returns
markets; from the integration of farm ponds.
46
Annex 1
Examples of integrated fish farming: Nigeria and Viet Nam
47
the homestead for the home and garden. The excavation becomes the pond.
Traditionally, the water collected in the de facto pond is used for domestic
purposes and to produce aquatic weeds for pigs. Most pig and other manures
are used on field crops, especially rice. As fish production grows in importance,
more of the manure is diverted to fertilize the pond.
It is estimated that 85 to 90 percent of the rural families maintain
a garden and livestock pen, with 30 to 35 percent of these having
fishponds. In many villages, 50 to 80 percent of families have the full
VAC system. Around 30 to 60 percent of income of most village families
may come from the system; in many cases, it may be 100 percent.
Most families keep various animals on the farm, including one or more water
buffaloes and cattle, one or more pigs, and several ducks and chickens. The large
ruminant animals are allowed to graze or are fed farm by-products. The swine and
poultry are usually fed with kitchen wastes, as well as other farm by-products,
such as cassava, rice bran, sweet potato, banana trunks and water hyacinth.
A portion of the livestock manure is used to fertilize fruit trees and
vegetables. Trees are applied with manure once or twice a year; vegetables are
manured according to their needs. Pond silt is removed every 3 to 4 years and
used as fertilizer.
The fishpond is usually allocated a more central part of the farm for better
management. Pond area ranges from 100 to 1 500 m2, with a pond depth of
about 1 m. Ponds are often drained after the final harvest, usually in February.
The bottom of the pond is kept dry for 1 to 3 weeks; after which it is cleaned,
limed, manured and then filled up with water for restocking. Domestic
washings and kitchen wastes are channeled into the pond daily. Animal manure
is also applied twice a month at the rate of 0.05 to 0.15 kg/m2. Three months
after stocking, farmers begin to harvest on a weekly basis using small nets and
continuously restock and harvest the pond.
48
Annex 2
A checklist for decision and planning
The following checklist list can help organizations decide and develop plans
for interventions about choosing small ponds as an option in rural development
and livelihood diversification programmes.
49
17 Is land tenure to the farm pond site(s) secure and
documented?
18 Are water rights secure and documented?
19 What is the potential for expansion of farm ponds in the area?
Land area, water supply, labour?
20 Are there irrigation schemes in the area where ponds could be
built?
21 Are there schools in the area where a farm pond could be built
as a practical teaching tool?
22 How can available resources best be used for farm ponds and
fish production?
23 Is there a market for fish in the area?
24 Which species of fish is most preferred in the area?
25 Are fish processed in the area? If so, how are they processed
and by whom? What is the shelf-life of such fish?
26 Would it be feasible to integrate small livestock and/or crops
with ponds? Are there examples of integrated small farms in
the area where training could be done?
27 Does the organization have sufficient human and financial
resources to support the farm pond programme?
28 Does the organization have the resources to adequately
provide this support until it can be taken over by the
smallholder organization?
29 Who are the other actors that could benefit from intervention
(e.g., government agents, researchers, etc.)?
30 Is there an extension service or other body already supporting
the community to develop farm ponds?
50
Selected further reading
51
Brummett, R. E. & Costa-Pierce, B. A. 2002. Village-based aquaculture
ecosystems as a model for sustainable aquaculture development in sub-
Saharan Africa. In B.A. Costa-Pierce (Ed.), Ecological Aquaculture: the
Evolution of the Blue Revolution. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
Dey, M. M., Kambewa, P., Prein, M., Jamu, D., Paraguas, F. J., Pemsl,
D. & Briones, R. M. 2007. Impact of the development and dissemination
of integrated aquaculture-agriculture technologies in Malawi. p. 118-146
In H. Waibel & D. Zilberman eds., International Research on Natural
Resource Management: Advances in Impact Assessment. CABI Publishing,
Wallingford, UK.
52
Dey, M. M., Kambewa P., Prein, M., Jamu, D., Paraguas, F. J., Pemsl,
D. E. & Briones, R. M. 2006. Impact of development and dissemination
of integrated aquaculture-agriculture (IAA) technologies in Malawi. Naga,
WorldFish Center Quarterly 29(1&2):28-35.
FAO. 2003a. Culture of fish in rice fields, M. Halwart & M.V. Gupta
(eds), FAO, Rome and WorldFish Center, Penang.
53
FAO. 2003b. Integrated livestock-fish farming systems,
by D.C.Little & P.Edwards, Rome.
FAO. 1990. Better Freshwater Fish Farming: Raising Fish in Pens and
Cages, Better Farming Series 38, Rome.
FAO. 1981c. Water: Where Water Comes From, Better Farming Series 28,
FAO, Rome.
54
FAO, ICLARM & IIRR. 2001. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture:
a primer, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 407, Rome.
Gupta, M.V., Mazid, M.A., Islam, M.S., Rahman, M., Hussain, M.G.
1999. Integration of Aquaculture into the Farming Systems of the Floodprone
Ecosystems of Bangladesh: an Evaluation of Adoption and Impact. ICLARM
Gupta, M.V. Sollows, J.D., Mazid, M.A., Rahman, M., Hussain, M.G. &
Dey, M.M. 1998. Integrating Aquaculture With Rice Farming in Bangladesh:
Feasibility and Economic Viability, its Adoption and Impact. ICLARM
Technical Reports No. 55, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management, Manila.
Halwart, M., Moehl, J., Prein, M. & Jia, J. 2008. SPADA – the Special
Programme for Aquaculture Development in Africa. Selected Highlight. FAO
Aquaculture Newsletter 40: 33–35.
55
Hopkins, K. D. & Cruz, E. M. 1982. The ICLARM-CLSU Integrated
Animal-fish farming project: Final Report. ICLARM Technical Report
No 5. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management,
Manila.
IIRR, IDRC, FAO, NACA & ICLARM. (eds.) 2001. Utilizing different
aquatic resources for livelihoods in ASIA, a resource book. International
Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines. 416 p.
56
Lightfoot, C., Bimbao, M. P. & Dalsgaard,P. T. & Pullin, R. S. V. 1993.
Aquaculture and sustainability through integrated resource management.
Outlook in Agriculture 22(3):143-150.
Lustig, N., Arias, O. & Rigolini, J. 2002. Poverty reduction and economic
growth; a two-way causality. Sustainable Development Department Technical
Paper POV-111, Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, DC.
57
Nerlove, M., Vosti, S. & Basel, W. 1996. Role of farm-level diversification
in the adoption of modern technology in Brazil. Research Report 104.
International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
58
Reij, C. & Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). 2001. Farmer innovation in Africa: a
Source of Inspiration. Earthscan Publications, London.
Roos, N, Islam, M. & Thilsted, S.H. 2003. Small indigenous fish species
in aquaculture in Bangladesh: contribution to vitamin A, calcium and iron
intakes. Journal of Nutrition 133:4021S-6S.
Shivakoti, G., Varughese, G., Ostrom, E., Shukla, A. & Thapa, G. (eds).
1997. People and participation in sustainable development. Workshop on
Political Theory and Policy Analysis, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA.
59
Uphoff, N. (ed). 2002. Agro-ecological innovations; increasing food
production with participatory development.
Earthscan Publications, Ltd., London.
Van Der Zijpp, A. J., Verreth, J. A. J., Tri, L. Q., van Mensvoort,
M. E. F., Bosma, R.H. & Beveridge, M.C.M. (eds.) 2007. Fishponds in
farming systems. Wageningen, Wageningen Academic Publishers
World Bank. 2006. Aquaculture: Changing the Face of the Waters. Meeting
the Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture. Agriculture and Rural
Development. Rept.# 36622-GLB.
60
Sources of further information
and support
61
World Aquaculture Society
https://www.was.org/Main/Default.asp
WorldFish Center
http://www.worldfishcenter.org/v2/index.html
62
Notes
Notes
AQUACULTURE HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED AS AN IMPORTANT
COMPONENT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT, AIMED AT IMPROVING
FOOD SUPPLY AND GENERATING MORE INCOME FOR POOR
FARMING HOUSEHOLDS. Ponds add value to farming activities:
water from ponds can serve domestic and livestock water
supplies as well as irrigation for crops. Raising fish is an obvious
use for a farm pond; it adds value to the water and provides
improved nutrition for farm families.
Photo: M. Halwart