Basic Electronics Engineering

Experiment no.: 1
Study of Active & Passive Components

Aim: Electronic Components: Study of Active and Passive components

a) Resistors (Fixed & Variable), Calculation of resistor value using
color code.
b) Capacitors (Fixed & Variable)
c) Inductors, Calculation of inductor value using color code.
d) Devices such Diode, BJT, MOSFETs, various IC packages
Switches & Relays

Equipments: Various Active & Passive components

Theory:

Electronic components are classified into Passive devices & Active devices. A Passive Device is
one that contributes no power gain (amplification) to a circuit or system. It has no control action
and does not require any input other than a signal to perform its function.
e.g. Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors.
Active Devices are components that are capable of controlling voltages or currents and can add gain
to the input signal.
e.g. Diodes, Transistors and Integrated circuits.

1) Resistors

Function: The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current.

Circuit Symbol: or

Resistance value is measured in Ohms (Ω).

Broadly, resistors are classified as; fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also classified
according to the material from which they are made as;

1. Carbon Composition Resistor: carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values.
2. Metal Film Resistor: conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values.
3. Wire-Wound Resistors: Metallic bodies for heat sink mounting, very high wattage ratings.

Specifications:
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for
use in a circuit. Along with this, Tolerance and power ratings are other important specifications
for resistor.
The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistance value. Its value and
tolerance are mentioned using a color band and tolerance band or may be directly printed on the
resistor.
The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. The maximum rated
power of the resistor is specified in Watts. It is I2xR.
If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot and even burn.

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Resistor color code

Tolerance
Color Value Multiplier
(%)
Black 0 0 -
Brown 1 1 ±1

Example 1 Red 2 2 ±2
(Brown=1),(Black=0),(Orange=3) Orange 3 3 ±0.05
10 x 103 = 10k ohm
Tolerance(Gold) = ±5% Yellow 4 4 -
Green 5 5 ±0.5
Blue 6 6 ±0.25
Violet 7 7 ±0.1
Gray 8 8 -
White 9 9 -
Gold - -1 ±5
Example 2
(Yellow=4),(Violet=7),(Black=0),(Red=2) Silver - -2 ±10
470 x 102 = 47k ohm None - - ±20
Tolerance(Brown) = ±1%

2) Capacitor

Function: The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also
functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC).
They are used with resistors in timing circuits.

Circuit Symbol:

Non polarized Polarized

The unit of capacitance is the Farad is defined as a capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when
a charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt. Farad is a very large unit;
therefore, micro-farads, nano-farads and pico-farads are generally used.

Capacitors use, a three-digit code or a colour code to indicate the value of a capacitor.
For example; [10n] and [103] denote the same value of capacitance.
Code is [103], it indicates 10 x 103, or 10,000pF = 10 nanofarad (nF) = 0.01 microfarad (µF).

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3) Inductor

Function: An inductor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a

magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor
is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron or ferrite. They pass DC easily, but
block AC signals; this is the opposite of capacitors.

Circuit Symbol:

Air core Iron core Ferrite core Variable core

Inductance is measured in Henry, symbol H. 1H is very large so mH and µH are used. Iron and ferrite
cores increase the inductance

Transformer

Function: A TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another by electromagnetic induction (transformer action). The electrical energy is
always transferred without a change in frequency, but may involve changes in
magnitudes of voltage and current.

Circuit Symbol:

• Step-up transformers increase voltage; step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer.
• The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer.
• The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.

Switches

Function: To make or break an electrical circuit.

Circuit Symbol:

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Standard Switches
Type of Switch Circuit Symbol
ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be used to switch the power supply
to a circuit.

ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in
each case. It is often called a changeover switch.

Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line
in the circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to switch mains electricity because it can
isolate both the live and neutral connections.
Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line
in the circuit symbol).
A DPDT switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a motor as
shown in the diagram.

Connectors

There is a huge variety of different connector types that can be used in a wide
number of different applications. It is useful to have a good understanding of their
capabilities and an idea of the key specifications for different types of connector.

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Popular connector types

Although there are many different types of connector available, brief summaries of some of the
more popular connector types are given below:

• Terminal blocks and PCB terminals

Terminal blocks are usually available in 12-way lengths but

they can be cut into smaller blocks with a sharp knife, large
wire cutters or a junior hacksaw.
PCB
terminal Terminal block block

• Crocodile clips

Crocodile clips
• BNC plugs and sockets

These are designed for screened cables carrying high frequency

signals where an undistorted and noise free signal is essential,
for example oscilloscope leads.

• D connectors

These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw

fittings to make semi-permanent connections, for example on
computer equipment.

Procedure:

1. Read the theory thoroughly

2. Observe components carefully and note down their specifications in the observation
table.
3. Write at least 5 different types of each component
4. Also observe various instruments available in the lab. And note down their
specifications and applications in observation table
5. Write down the conclusion.

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Observation Table:
1. Passive Components
Sr. no. Component Circuit symbol Specifications Applications
1 Resistor Type:

Value:

Tolerance:

Power Rating:

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2. Active Components

Sr. no. Component Circuit symbol Specifications Applications

1

Conclusion:

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Experiment no.: 2
Measuring Instruments
Aim: Measurements using various measuring equipment:
a) Set up CRO and function generator for measurement of voltage and frequency.
b) Obtain the phase shift between to signals using CRO with the help of Lissagous pattern.
c) Measure voltage, resistance using digital multimeter. Also use multimeter to check diode, BJT.

Equipment’s: DMM, DMM probes, CRO, Function Generator, CRO probes, DC and AC
voltage source, resistors, diodes, transistors etc.

A. DMM:

Introduction:
A Multimeter is used to make various electrical measurements, such as AC and DC voltage, AC and
DC current and resistance. Multimeters may also have other functions, such as diode, transistor and
continuity tests. Apart from these many DMMs can measure frequency, capacitance, and
temperature. It has digital display, hence the name Digital Multimeter.

Typical DMM controls and connections

1. Display: The LCD display on a DMM is normally easy to see and

read. Most have four digits, the first of which can often only be either
a 0 or 1, and there will normally be a + / - indication as well.
2. Main connections: There will be some main connections for the
probes to connect to. Although only two are needed at any one time,
there may be three or four. Typically, these may be:
• Common - for use with all measurements and this will take the
negative or black lead and probe
• Volts, ohms, frequency - this connection is used for most
measurements and will take the positive or red lead and probe.
• Amps and milliamps - this connection is used for the current
measurements and will again take the red lead and probe.
• High current - there is often a separate connection for high current
measurements. Care must be taken to use this rather than the low
current connection if high levels of current are anticipated
Digital Multimeter
3. Main switch: There will usually be a single main rotary switch to
select the type of measurement to be made and the range that is needed.

B. CRO:

Introduction:
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time
and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability,
stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart
of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig.

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The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode)
and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid,
and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the
electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen
are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair
oriented ot give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and
vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any
portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited
and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write
with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.

In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and
then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same
time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus
causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant) rate. The signal applied to the
vertical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a
uniform time scale.

The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep generator
that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a
saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which
increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with
time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc , the
end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam
is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

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To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown
signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep
generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on the
tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistence of vision in the
human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In
addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not
observed.

CRO Controls:

Cathode ray tube:

1. Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination
2. Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
3. Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

Vertical amplifier section:

1. Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
2. Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
3. Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps.
Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise
position.
4. AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical
amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any
constant component.

Horizontal sweep section:

1. Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to
horizontal amplifier.
2. Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is fully
clockwise.
3. Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
4. Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal
amplifier through Ext. Horizontal connector.

Trigger: The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
1. Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of trigger
signal.
2. Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
3. Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT- (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier.
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60 cycle trigger
4. Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also allows
automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).

Connections for the CRO:

1. Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical)
amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case. ]
2. Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier.
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3. The lower terminal is grounded to the case of the oscilloscope.

4. Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves for use in calibrating the gain of the
amplifiers.

Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as
follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1

Plug line cord into a standard ac wall recepticle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not advance
the Intensity Control.

Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, then turn the Intensity Control until the
beam is visible on the screen.

WARNING: Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot appears.
Bright spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity (great brightness)
should never be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the screen for any length of time as
damage to the screen may occur.

Procedure:

1. Various controls of CRO:

Try to understand the various control knobs (you may use the manual supplied by the
manufacturer) like vertical gain switch (volts/div), the horizontal sweep speed selector (time/div),
CAL, VAR switch, Intensity and Focusing knobs, Vertical and Horizontal shifting knobs, X and
Y inputs, Traces (single or double beam), ALT, chop, x10 (magnification), component test etc.

2. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS:

(a) DC voltage:
• The D.C. input to be measure is fed to the Y-input of the CRO in the D.C. mode.
• The vertical shift of the trace is a measure of the magnitude of the D.C. voltage.
• Care should be taken to keep the vertical gain switch at a suitable position depending
on the magnitude of the input voltage such that the trace lies with the screen.
• The measurement can be repeated for various values of the input voltages (both +ve or -ve),
at different vertical gain etc.

(b) AC voltage:
• The ac signal from a signal generator is fed to the Y-input of the CRO in the ac mode and the
peak to peak voltage of the signal is measured by noting the height of the signal on the screen
and the vertical gain position of the Y input.
• This can be repeated on signals of different frequencies and magnitude Check peak to peak
voltage= 2 Vrms.
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3. FREQUENCY OF SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL

(a) Using horizontal time base (time/div)

• Connect the signal from the function generator to the Y-input and adjust the horizontal sweep
speed selector (time/div) to get a steady pattern of the signal on the CRO screen.
• Measure the time interval between two peaks, say t secs. Hence determine the frequency of
the signal f=l/t.

(b) USING LISSAJOUS FIGURES

• Set the CRO to XY mode and the function switch at XY position.
• Preferably adjust (V/div) of both the channels (X and Y) to be the same.
• The test signal (of frequency f) is fed to one of the channels (say Y) and a reference signal
(of frequency f1) to the other channel (x).
• Adjust the frequency f1 until you get a circle or ellipse (Lissajous figures) as steady as
possible.
• In the condition of single loop f: f1 = 1:1. Knowing the frequency of the reference signal f1,
the frequency of the test signal can be obtained.
• Repeat the measurement for Different ratio f: f1 = 1:2, 1:3, 2:1, 3:1, 2:3 etc. and obtain the
frequency f.

4. PHASE MEASUREMENT

(a) Using Dual trace (channels Y1 and Y2):

• One can approximately measure the phase difference θ between two signals (same
frequency) by feeding the signal to two inputs Y1 and Y2 of a dual trace CRO and noting the
shift in the peak positions.
• The shift is measured on the time scale (div/sec) and then converted into the phase difference
assuming one period T= 2π radians or 360o.
• A simple way of producing a difference between two signals is to pass one of the signals
through a capacitor C, an inductance L or a combination of R and C. (see fig1)

(b) Ellipse method:

• Feed the signals (same frequency) channel 1 and channel 2 to X and Y plates of CRO.
• You will get a circle (Lissajjous figure) on the CRO screen if the two signals are of the same
amplitude and same phase.

• Any phase difference between the signals will distort the circle into an ellipse
(fig.2).
• You can measure the phase difference by noting down the intercepts of ellipse on the X-Y
axis on the screen.
• The phase difference θ is obtained from the relation sin θ= B/A. The experiment is repeated
for different θ.
• Compare θ obtained by the experiment with the theoretical value θ = tan-1 (ωCR).

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C. Function Generator:

What is a function generator?

• A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of
frequencies and amplitudes.
• It is used to test the response of circuits to common input signals. The electrical leads from the
device are attached to the ground and signal input terminals of the device under test.

Features and controls

• Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number
of options.
• Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate
• The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high
and low voltage of the output signal.
• The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average voltage of a
signal relative to the ground.
• The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates.
On some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of different controls.

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• One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of magnitude) and the other selects
the precise frequency. This allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation in
frequency scale needed for signals.

How to use a function generator?

• After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the desired
shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to check
the controls. The type of output connector from the device depends on the frequency range of the
generator. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz and uses a BNC
connector, usually requiring a 50 or 75-ohm termination.
• Adjust the function generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the signal and ground
leads from the function generator to the input and ground of the device under test.

Observation Table:

CRO
(a) Measurement of AC Voltage:
Sr. No No. of vertical divisions Position of Volts/Div knob Amplitude of signal
(A) (B) AxB
1
2
3

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(b) Measurement of frequency:

Sr. Applied No. of horizontal Position of Time period Frequency
No frequency divisions Time/Div knob (T) F= 1/ T
(A) (B) T=AxB
1
2
3

(c) Measurement of DC Voltage:

Sr. Applied DC No. of vertical Position of Volts/Div Amplitude of signal
No voltage divisions (A) knob (B) AxB
1
2
3

(d) Measurement of Phase Shift:

Sr. Major axis of ellipse(A) Minor axis of ellipse Phase shift
No (B) Θ = sin-1(B/A)
1
2
3

Conclusion:

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