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Virtual reality in problem‐based learning contexts: Effects on the problem‐

solving performance, vocabulary acquisition and motivation of English
language learners

Article in Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · February 2021

DOI: 10.1111/jcal.12528

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DOI: 10.1111/jcal.12528

ARTICLE

Virtual reality in problem-based learning contexts: Effects on

the problem-solving performance, vocabulary acquisition and
motivation of English language learners

Ching-Huei Chen1 | Hsiu-Ting Hung2 | Hui-Chin Yeh3

1
Department of Industrial Education and
Technology, National Changhua University of Abstract
Education, Changhua, Taiwan Learning a foreign language requires interaction with language input while involved
2
Department of English, National Kaohsiung
in a task. Given that problem-based learning (PBL) offers hands-on application in real-
University of Science and Technology,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan istic contexts, and that virtual reality (VR) enables learners to interact with multiple
3
Department of Applied Foreign Languages, modalities of information, this study examines how the integration of VR technology
National Yunlin University of Science and
Technology, Douliu, Taiwan into PBL contexts affects students' motivation for, problem-solving during, and
vocabulary acquisition in learning English as a foreign language (EFL). A total of
Correspondence
Hui-Chin Yeh, Department of Applied Foreign 84 engineering majors who enrolled in a course of English for specific purposes were
Languages, National Yunlin University of randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Students in
Science and Technology, No. 123, University
Road Section 3, Douliu, Yunlin, Taiwan. the experimental group participated in a VR-assisted PBL context, in which they were
Email: hyeh@gemail.yuntech.edu.tw to view a PBL scenario using VR technology and then to create VR videos about solv-

Funding information
Ministry of Science and Technology Taiwan
ing the given problems. Those in the control group participated in a PBL context
without the use of VR technology for viewing and solving the identical scenario.
After the intervention, all the students wrote a problem-solving analysis, took a
vocabulary knowledge test, completed a learning motivation questionnaire, and par-
ticipated in individual interviews. The results showed that the students in the experi-
mental group significantly outperformed those in the control group in terms of
vocabulary acquisition, and were more motivated to learn English related to their
future careers, whereas there was no significant difference in the problem-solving
performance of the two groups. Implications of these findings highlight the value of
engaging EFL learners in immersive environments for contextualized learning through
the integrated use of VR and PBL.

KEYWORDS
English learning, motivation, problem-based learning, virtual reality, vocabulary acquisition

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N particular interest to this study is English language teaching for non-

As English is a recognized international language, in many countries, it
is widely integrated into education and other professional sectors,
such as business and engineering. To prepare students to cope with
continued globalization for future careers, teaching English for specific
or occupational purposes is one of the primary goals of recent educa-
tion reforms (e.g., Fillmore, 2014; Latif, 2017; H. Shin, 2016). Of
English majors with a science, technology, engineering and mathemat-
ics (STEM) background, for whom the biggest challenge in learning
English is a lack of motivation (Alsamadani, 2017; Rajini &
Krishnamoorthy, 2020). The demotivating cause is often due to a lack
of relevant contexts for using the target language (Riyanti, 2019;
Turhan & Kırkgöz, 2018) in a way that is responsive to their profes-
sional skills and occupational needs. Therefore, establishing a

J Comput Assist Learn. 2021;1–10. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jcal © 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 CHEN ET AL.
motivating English-learning environment is essential for this group of
students.
Since the 1970s, authenticity in language learning has been
emphasized, especially for those learning English as a foreign lan-
guage (EFL), as they normally have limited access to authentic input
and practical opportunities for language use beyond the classroom
(Gardner & Lambert, 1972). With the advancement of digital technol-
ogy as a source of learning tools, it has become feasible to contextual-
ize foreign language learning in real-world settings. Emerging
technologies, such as virtual reality (VR), can enable learners to use
multiple modalities of information to learn in language-immersive
environments through the construction and simulation of actual situa-
tions in an approach termed ‘embodied cognition’ (Hamilton
et al., 2020; D. H. Shin, 2018). By allowing students to participate in
immersive learning tasks, VR has thus been found to narrow the gap
between language classrooms and workplace contexts (Lin &
Lan, 2015).
In this study, VR technology was integrated into problem-based
learning (PBL) contexts as a means to increase students' meaningful
and professional exposure to EFL learning. The premise was that the
combination of VR and PBL could provide learners with virtual immer-
sions of problem-solving scenarios in language-rich environments,
necessitating the need for them to learn and use the target language
for authentic purposes in their professional fields. It was hypothesized
that EFL learning within the context of VR-assisted PBL could
enhance students' English-learning motivation and facilitate their
acquisition of specialized English vocabulary, while also improving
their problem-solving performance. A VR-assisted PBL approach was
therefore proposed in the present study. The following research ques-
tions were addressed to examine the effectiveness of the proposed
approach:
1. Did the students who experienced the VR-assisted PBL approach
demonstrate better problem-solving performance than those who
experienced the non-VR-assisted PBL approach?
2. Did the students who experienced the VR-assisted PBL approach
acquire more specialized English vocabulary than those who experi-
enced the non-VR-assisted PBL approach?
3. Did the students who experienced the VR-assisted PBL approach
have higher motivation to learn English than those who experi-
enced the non-VR-assisted PBL approach?
2 | LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 | English learning through VR technology
With the increasing demands for international communication associ-
ated with globalization, students are expected to learn additional lan-
guages to be competitive. Many Asian countries, including Taiwan,
Korea and Japan, have prioritized learning English as an additional lan-
guage in preparation for involvement in global political, social and eco-
nomic contexts (Honna, 2016; Tsui, 2020). However, EFL learners
have often struggled with vocabulary acquisition (Fard & Vakili, 2018;
Patahuddin et al., 2017), especially for a specific field of study or jar-
gon. This appears to be a major drawback as having an adequate size
of vocabulary knowledge is strongly correlated with English listening,
reading and writing skills as well as other communication-related per-
formance (Johnson et al., 2016).
Another relevant problem for EFL learners concerns the limited
contexts for communicating in English. Authentic input can help to
promote learning attitudes, motivation and achievements (Hidayati &
Diana, 2019; Huda, 2017; Monteiro & Kim, 2020). If instructional
materials can be matched with authentic learning tasks and integrated
into specific situations and meaningful contexts, their effectiveness
can be enhanced (Yeh et al., 2020). However, little attention has been
paid to authenticity in the acquisition of English vocabulary for spe-
cific purposes, which can arguably be fostered by integrating
language-learning materials into realistic situations through the medi-
ation of VR.
Previous research has shown that VR can offer several advantages
in learning. First, VR allows for learning in immersive environments,
which reflects the theory of situated cognition (Brown et al., 1989).
Unlike two-dimensional (2D) videos to which the viewer merely relates
as a separate observer, VR promotes a sense of immersion by enabling
exploration in three-dimensional (3D) space. Second, through VR
exploration, the student can have experiences that are not easily avail-
able in the real world, such as visiting Arctic caves, enabling situational
learning in relevant contexts (Chien et al., 2020). Third, students tend
to achieve high levels of interactivity and involvement in VR learning
environments, which often contribute to students' learning motivation
(Wang et al., 2017) and collaborative learning (Abdullah et al., 2019).
Given its major affordances for immersion and interaction, VR can pro-
vide learning opportunities for active operations and repeated practice
to promote the acquisition of relevant knowledge and skills in
contexts.
The use of VR for language learning has attracted researchers'
attention in recent years. As with the use of VR in other disciplines, VR
provides an immersive environment for language learning, allowing
learners to use virtual avatars to assume a first-person perspective in
3D settings (Lan, 2020; Slater, 2017). VR also supports highly interac-
tive learning scenarios with visual, auditory and tactile sensations in
which learners can communicate using the target language (e.g., J.
C. Chen, 2016a; J. Chen, 2016b; Yamazaki, 2018; Yeh et al., 2020).
Thus, a number of empirical studies have found that VR can facilitate
language learning in various aspects (Hamilton et al., 2020;
Parmaxi, 2020). For example, J. C. Chen (2016a) utilized a VR-assisted
English-learning platform in the classroom to explore its influence on
students' cognitive and linguistic development. The results showed
that the students improved their phonological, morphological, grammar
and syntax knowledge with the aid of VR technology. In another study,
Lan et al. (2018) implemented either physical on-site learning or virtual
learning with two groups of students to investigate the effect of 3D
avatars in virtual worlds enabled by VR technology on their develop-
ment of English-listening comprehension. The findings revealed that
the virtual learning group outperformed the physical learning group on
CHEN ET AL.
a listening test. Alfadil (2020) explored the effects of a VR game on
students' English vocabulary acquisition by comparing the vocabulary
learning outcomes of 32 students who used the VR game to learn with
those of 32 students who received vocabulary instruction in a tradi-
tional classroom. The results showed that the VR group gained signifi-
cantly higher scores on vocabulary acquisition than their counterparts.
Similarly, Legault et al. (2019) pointed out that interacting with 3D
characters and objects in immersive VR learning environments can
improve the accuracy and speed of learners' learning of words. While
VR technology has shown enormous effects on learning a foreign lan-
guage, however, an instructional approach that accommodates such
technology has not been explored thoroughly. The present study
therefore set out to fill this gap in the literature.
2.2 | English learning in PBL contexts
PBL is a student-centred active learning approach that originated in
medical education as a way to guide students through data search and
data analysis in the problem-solving process (Barrows, 1986;
Evenson & Hmelo, 2000). It aims to develop students' problem-solving
skills through such stages as problem identification, resource explora-
tion, solution generation and evaluative reflection (Glasgow, 1997;
Hung, 2009; Moust et al., 2019).
Effects of PBL on learners' skill development have been well docu-
mented in the literature. For instance, PBL facilitates students' meta-
cognitive skills as they are directed to define a problem, search for
information, analyse data, construct hypotheses and implement solu-
tions (Araz & Sungur, 2007; Dochy et al., 2003; Downing et al., 2009;
Gallagher et al., 1992). PBL promotes students' critical thinking and
creative thinking skills as they work in an ill-structured context in pur-
suit of best solutions rather than ‘right’ answers (Khoiriyah &
Husamah, 2018; Nulhakim, Setiawan, & Saefullah, 2020; Ulger, 2018).
PBL encourages collaborative learning in which students are required
to develop and apply such soft skills as communication and teamwork
in the complex process of problem-solving (Hmelo-Silver, 2004).
Despite the aforementioned benefits, applications of PBL in for-
eign language education are less commonly reported. This is probably
due to the fact that EFL teachers typically focus their instruction on
linguistic aspects and language skills, leaving little room for
implementing active learning approaches such as PBL. However,
researchers have found that successful language learning requires not
only the mastery of linguistic knowledge and skills but also the organic
development with respect to cognitive learning and affective learning
(Allen & Rooney, 1998; Hwang et al., 2017; Othman & Shah, 2013).
From this perspective, it seems reasonable to engage EFL learners in
PBL, as such a learning approach can provide a naturalistic content-
based context for the integration of vocabulary and grammar as well
as the four skills of language: reading, writing, listening and speaking. It
can also be argued that EFL learning in PBL contexts requires active
involvement of learners in the realistic problem-solving process, and
the learning outcomes can be more easily transferred to real-world
settings, leading to increased learning motivation of students
3
throughout the learning experience. Nevertheless, these claims need
to be verified by empirical studies. The present study thus aimed to
build on the affordances of VR technology (as mentioned earlier) to
establish a VR-assisted PBL context for EFL learners. An evaluation
(to be described below) was carried out to investigate the associated
effects arising from the proposed approach.
3 | M E TH O DO LO GY
3.1 | Participants
Participants were two EFL classes of students enrolled in a required
course, Applied English, each with 42 sophomores majoring in electric
and mechanical engineering. The course was designed to acquaint stu-
dents with English in engineering fields with a main objective of
enhancing their specialized vocabulary knowledge. The majority of the
participants were certified as low-intermediate by a standardized
English proficiency assessment, The Test of English for International
Communication (TOEIC), which is recognized in more than
150 countries.
As foreign language learners of English in Taiwan, all the 84 partici-
pants came from vocational high schools that were not academically
oriented and did not emphasize holistic English education of the four
language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Most of the
participants were not interested in learning English, which could possi-
bly be attributed to a lack of context in which to practice their English
skills. In their higher education pursuits, English learning was typically
approached by taking a required English course, meeting 2 h a week
(as with the course under investigation).
3.2 | The VR-assisted PBL approach
The study was situated within a PBL context where the students were
presented with a PBL scenario (see Appendix A), based on which to
compose a PBL analysis. During the PBL process, the instructor pro-
vided a set of guided questions (see Appendix B) to help the students
solve the given problems in the scenario. Specifically, the students
were directed to identify potential problems, search for valid
resources, generate feasible solutions and reflect upon their conclu-
sions, all of which were seen as necessary components in a high-
quality PBL analysis. For the course objectives and research purpose,
criteria for assessing the students' PBL analyses were collaboratively
designed by the researchers and the instructor (see Appendix C).
In terms of research design, both the experimental and control
groups were taught by the same instructor, used the same materials
and participated in identical PBL contexts. The major difference was
the integration of VR technology. To be clear, the experimental group
learned with the VR-assisted PBL approach by (1) viewing the PBL sce-
nario through VR technology, in which a 3D avatar narrated the situa-
tion, and (2) by creating problem-solving VR videos, in which the
students role-played the solutions they came up with prior to writing
4 CHEN ET AL.
up their PBL analyses. In comparison, the control group learned with
the conventional PBL approach without the use of VR; they were pro-
vided with the same PBL scenario in a printed format for them to com-
pose a follow-up PBL analysis, but they were not required to make
videos in between. It should be noted that the course was conducted
in the students' target language, and thus any learning materials and
student artefacts involved in the intervention were presented in
English as well.
An educational VR app, EduVenture, developed by the Centre for
Learning Sciences and Technologies at the Chinese University of Hong
Kong (Jong & Luk, 2014), was adopted in this study for the students in
the experimental group to view, design and share VR content through
spherical videos on mobile-rendered head-mounted displays (HMDs).
Spherical videos are 360-degree videos made with a camera that can
capture and record a screen showing content from every direction. As
a form of spherical video-based VR technology, this app allows the stu-
dents to manipulate multiple modalities of information (such as still
images, panoramas, audios, videos and texts) in their creation of VR
content. Viewers can use Google Cardboard, a popular and low-cost
HMD provided by the research team, to access the student-created
VR content and experience a virtual tour in an interactive manner
(as shown in Figure 1). A sample screenshot of student-generated VR
video is presented in Figure 2.
3.3 | Instruments
A quasi-experimental study was conducted with a mixed method for
data collection and analysis to examine the effectiveness of the VR-
assisted PBL approach as the independent variable. The dependent var-
iables of problem-solving performance, English vocabulary acquisition
and English learning motivation were measured using the following
quantitative instruments, supplemented with qualitative interview data.
F I G U R E 1 Picture showing the students viewing PBL scenarios
using Google cardboard [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
The PBL analysis was designed to evaluate the students' problem-
solving performance. The students' analytical responses to the PBL
scenario were written in English. Two trained raters applied a
researcher-developed scoring rubric to evaluate the PBL quality on a
0-to-5 scale (low to high) against four criteria on the basis of the PBL
stages adopted in this study: problem identification, resource explora-
tion, solution generation and evaluation reflection (as shown in Appen-
dix C). The raters first graded independently and then compared their
results, discussing discrepancies (if any) until a consensus was
achieved. The inter-rater reliability was 0.95.
The English-learning performance test was developed by the
instructor to assess the students' academic achievement in the
enrolled course with a focus on specialized English vocabulary knowl-
edge. The test comprised 20 multiple-choice questions with one cor-
rect answer. Each question was worth five points, and the students
had up to 20 minutes to complete the test. The reliability coefficients
were 0.81 and 0.84 for the pretest and posttest.
The English-learning motivation questionnaire was adapted from
Dörnyei and Taguchi (2009) based on the Second Language (L2)
Motivational Self-System theory (Dörnyei, 2005). It consisted of
39 items with a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 as very unlikely
to 5 as very likely. This questionnaire measured six motivational
dimensions, namely ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, promotion-instru-
mentality, prevention-instrumentality, attitudes toward learning
English and English anxiety. Ideal L2 self refers to one's ideal vision
of self-image as a proficient language learner. Ought-to L2 self refers
to the attributes that one intends to possess to meet expectations
and to avoid possible negative outcomes. Promotion-instrumentality
focusses on one's practical wishes for the future, whereas
prevention-instrumentality refers to one's concerns about meeting
language-learning requirements. Attitudes toward learning English
refer to one's degree of satisfaction with the language-learning expe-
rience. English anxiety refers to one's feelings of uneasiness, ner-
vousness or fear while learning or using the target language. Overall,
the Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the motivational constructs/
scales ranged from 0.75 to 0.88, exceeding either the widely
accepted minimum of 0.70 or Nunally's (1978) higher standard of
0.80 (Lance et al., 2006).
Additionally, qualitative data were collected to complement the
quantitative analyses and enhance the triangulation of data sources.
Both groups of participants were interviewed individually con-
cerning their own learning experiences in the course under investi-
gation. The interviews were audio-recorded and later transcribed
for analysis. Given the purpose of this study, a set of interview
questions were developed on the basis of the three dependent vari-
ables (i.e., problem-solving performance, English vocabulary acquisi-
tion and English-learning motivation) to elicit the participating
students' perceptions. Sample questions posed to the experimental
group for the semi-structured interviews were: ‘How did you feel
about learning with the VR-assisted PBL approach?’ and ‘Did the
learning experience help to enhance your English vocabulary knowl-
edge in some way? If so, provide specific instances. If not,
why not?’
CHEN ET AL.
F I G U R E 2 Screenshot of student-
made VR content created using
EduVenture [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TABLE 1 Results of ANOVA for problem-solving performance
Group N Mean
Experimental group 42 58.32
Control group 42 52.75
4 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 | Effect on problem-solving performance
In answering the first research question, an analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed to compare the effect of the PBL approach
with or without the integration of VR technology on the two groups'
problem-solving performance. As shown in Table 1, although the
experimental group, who learned with the VR-assisted PBL approach,
scored higher in their problem-solving analyses (M = 58.32,
SD = 11.89) when compared to the control group, who learned with
the non-VR-assisted PBL approach (M = 52.75, SD = 8.35), no signifi-
cant difference was found between the two groups in their problem-
solving performance with F(1,83) = 3.68 (p = 0.06). The quantitative
analysis indicates that the PBL approach (regardless of VR integration)
can be helpful to students.
The qualitative results obtained via individual interviews of all the
participants provided additional support for the statistical analysis.
Both groups of students recognized the importance of PBL and per-
ceived it positively. For example, one student mentioned, ‘In this
course, I learned a lot about PBL; I learned the process of how to solve
a problem in a systematic manner’ (Control Group, S2). Another stu-
dent replied, ‘PBL made me think actively about the essential problems
and find practical ways to solve them effectively’ (Experimental Group,
S1). Generally speaking, the students from both the experimental and
control groups appreciated learning with the PBL approach, which
guided them to solve the identified problems step by step through
exploring related resources and proposing possible solutions.
While the PBL intervention with or without VR technology resulted
in no significant difference between the two groups' problem-solving
performance, the findings can be interpreted positively in educational
5
SD F p η2
11.89 3.68 0.06 0.04
8.35
terms. This implies that exposing students to PBL contexts can by itself
be a pathway to develop students' problem-solving performance.
4.2 | Effect on English vocabulary acquisition
To address the second research question, an analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) was conducted to examine the effect of the proposed
approach on EFL students' vocabulary learning performance, using the
pre-test scores as the covariate and the post-test scores as the depen-
dent variable. The homogeneity of the regression coefficient was
tested on the experimental and control groups' pre-test scores, and
the results were confirmed with F(1,83) = 3.35 (p > 0.05), indicating
that the use of ANCOVA to analyse the post-test scores of the two
groups was appropriate.
The ANCOVA results of the two groups' English vocabulary acqui-
sition are shown in Table 2. The adjusted mean of the experimental
group (84.58) was higher than that of the control group (72.89). There
was a significant difference between the two groups after excluding
the impacts of the pre-test scores with F(1,83) = 15.89 (p < 0.01). The
quantitative analysis indicates that the experimental group, who
learned with the VR-assisted PBL approach, performed better in
English vocabulary acquisition than the control group, who learned
with the PBL approach without the integration of VR technology.
The interview data supplemented the positive results from the
quantitative analysis. The students in the experimental group
highlighted the added value of VR technology to the PBL approach
and responded that they had become more active in learning special-
ized English vocabulary. As one student explained, ‘In making the VR
video for my problem-solving analysis, I realized how little I knew
about English for engineering purposes, so I spent more time searching
6 CHEN ET AL.

T A B L E 2 Results of ANCOVA for

Experimental group Control group
English vocabulary acquisition
Assessment Mean SD Adj. M Mean SD Adj. M F p η2
Pre-test 55.35 20.61 48.93 48.33 13.95 43.98 15.89** 0.00 0.16
Post-test 88.38 12.20 84.58 77.14 13.64 72.89

**p < 0.01.

T A B L E 3 Results of ANOVA for

Experimental group Control group
English learning motivation
Dimension Mean SD Mean SD F p η2
Ideal L2 self 4.51 0.97 4.11 0.87 3.88 0.05 0.05
Ought-to L2 self 4.39 0.87 4.14 0.83 1.67 0.20 0.02
Promotion-instrumentality 4.68 0.67 4.24 0.95 5.97* 0.02 0.06
Prevention-instrumentality 4.48 0.82 4.21 0.82 2.20 0.14 0.03
Attitudes toward English 4.44 0.85 3.98 0.99 5.20* 0.03 0.06
English anxiety 4.29 0.79 4.13 0.94 1.83 0.18 0.07

*p < 0.05.

for words that were new to me and learning to use them in context’
(Experimental Group, S8). Many other students noted the benefits of
the VR-assisted PBL approach, such as ‘I used to learn words by mem-
orization but often easily forgot them’ (Experimental Group, S3) and
‘This way of learning helps me learn English vocabulary as we need to
look for information on different factories or laboratories and figure
out how to present the information in English’ (Experimental Group,
S4). Simply put, the students who learned with the VR-assisted PBL
approach were given contextual opportunities for English learning by
searching for unfamiliar vocabulary to create the relevant content,
which contributed to expanding their English vocabulary knowledge
for engineering purposes.
The findings are consistent with previous research on multimedia
learning, which posits that learning with multiple modalities of infor-
mation can enhance the storage of information in long-term memory
(Merchant et al., 2014; D. H. Shin, 2017). As applied to the EFL set-
tings of this study, the findings confirm the potential of VR technology
to realize an immersive and multimedia-rich learning environment for
language acquisition. Specifically, this study shows that the visualiza-
tion capacity of VR improved recognition and recall of English vocabu-
lary, which is in line with the findings of previous studies stating that
engaging students in multiple modalities is more effective for learning
than engaging in only one modality (Chang et al., 2020; Legault
et al., 2019). This study further shows that creating problem-solving
VR videos can reinforce the mental representation of the target words
and facilitate the deep processing of word usage in context, leading to
the acquisition of English vocabulary knowledge.
4.3 | Effect on English learning motivation
In response to the third research question, ANOVA was computed to
examine the effect of the proposed approach on EFL students' English
learning motivation. Table 3 summarizes the descriptive statistics along
with the ANOVA results of the two groups' motivation for learning
English as an additional language in this research context. The experi-
mental group demonstrated significantly higher English learning moti-
vation in terms of promotion-instrumentality (F = 5.97, p < 0.05) and
attitudes toward English (F = 5.20, p < 0.05) as compared to the con-
trol group. Even though no significant differences were found between
the two groups in regards to ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, prevention-
instrumentality and English anxiety, the students in the experimental
group reported consistently higher means than those of the control
group across all the motivational dimensions. The quantitative analysis
indicates that the experimental group, who learned with the VR-
assisted PBL approach, were more likely to have a higher degree of
English-learning motivation than that of the control group, who
learned with the non-VR-assisted PBL approach. Particularly, they
were more likely to consider enhancing their English proficiency as
important for their future careers and to perceive their English learning
experiences positively.
The interview results concerning students' English-learning moti-
vation were generally positive and consistent with the quantitative
analysis of the survey data. In particular, virtually all of the students
in the experimental group described the VR-assisted PBL approach
as ‘interesting,’ ‘motivating’ or ‘engaging.’ As one student illustrated,
‘In this course, I not only experienced a new and interesting way to
learn English, but also applied it to solve real problems in workplace
situations’ (Experimental Group, S5). Most of them were satisfied
with the learning experience, as one stated, ‘I enjoyed learning
English through authentic and hands-on activities, and I think it's the
learning by visualizing with VR technology and learning by making
VR videos that made me learn better and even want to learn more’
(Experimental Group, S6). Some of them further commented that
while the creation of VR in PBL contexts was time-consuming, the
knowledge and skills involved in the learning process made them feel
CHEN ET AL.
more professionally competitive and confident in using English for
their future jobs. In brief, the integration of VR technology in the PBL
approach engaged the students from the experimental group in
English learning and, more importantly, helped them probe into the
significance of English in their future careers with positive attitudes.
The present study's findings are in accordance with those of previ-
ous studies that incorporated VR technology to establish a motivating
environment for language learning (Hsiao et al., 2016; Lan, 2015; Lan
et al., 2018) and for problem-solving (Lee & Kim, 2020; Radianti et al.,
2020). This study shows that by immersing students in realistic PBL
contexts through VR technology, students can increase their motiva-
tion for learning English in general and foster positive attitudes toward
learning English for specific purposes (in this case, specialized English
vocabulary in engineering fields). This study further shows that stu-
dents may find English learning in VR-assisted PBL contexts intrinsi-
cally engaging and have an intrinsic desire to use the target language
for authentic purposes as they go through the systematic stages of
problem-solving.
5 | C O N CL U S I O N S
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of integrating VR
technology into PBL contexts on problem-solving performance, English
vocabulary acquisition and English-learning motivation of undergradu-
ate EFL learners majoring in engineering. By engaging the students in
using VR to solve authentic problems in situated contexts that were
relevant to their occupational domains, this study revealed the signifi-
cant positive effect of the proposed VR-assisted PBL approach on the
engineering students' specialized English vocabulary knowledge. More-
over, the proposed approach also served to offer a motivating environ-
ment to help them understand the importance of English in their
future careers and sustain their interest in and positive attitudes
toward learning English.
This study intends to contribute to the EFL field by incorporating
PBL with the affordance of VR so that EFL learners can learn problem-
solving in pertinent work contexts, acquire related vocabulary and
increase their learning motivation. EFL students with a STEM back-
ground often find it hard to visualize the textbook knowledge, and the
role of English in their workplace contexts often seems disconnected.
This study proposes that leveraging the use of VR in PBL contexts
reflects the complexity and authenticity inherent in the future careers
which students are expected to engage in upon graduation. As shown
in this study, VR provided the students with an immersive and practical
PBL experience in which they not only viewed but also created
problem-solving VR videos by role-playing the problem-solutions using
the target language of English. The VR-assisted PBL approach deep-
ened EFL students' understanding of the specialized vocabulary in the
career-related context they have not yet had frequent exposure
to. Moving from knowledge consumers to creators with VR also hel-
ped the EFL learners gain ownership of their learning and thus moti-
vated them to learn the target language through analysing problems
and proposing solutions.
7
Nevertheless, this study has several limitations to be taken into
account when interpreting its findings, which should be considered for
further research. First, the student population for this study comprised
only undergraduate EFL learners majoring in engineering. Future studies
could include a wider range of participants to increase the diversity of the
research sampling. Second, the small sample size could limit the generaliz-
ability of this study. Future studies with a larger number of participants
could extend the findings presented here and strengthen their validity.
Third, English vocabulary acquisition was assessed with multiplechoice
items that required only selection of one correct option. Future studies
might evaluate EFL learners' vocabulary development with production
assessments, such as cloze tests or word meaning tests in writing form.
On a concluding note, this study provides a coherent line of argu-
ment from educational practice in developing the PBL approach coupled
with the use of VR, which to date has been missing from the literature.
Particularly, the study findings can inform EFL educators and
researchers how to engage learners in applying their target language to
solve problems in authentic workplace situations through the immersion
affordance available in VR. Effective and engaging EFL learning may thus
take place, as the learners are immersed in PBL contexts which are
directly relevant and meaningful to their future careers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology
in Taiwan (grant numbers: MOST 108-2511-H-018-017-MY3; MOST
107-2511-H-224-005-MY2; MOST 109-2511-H-992-003-MY2).
ETHI CAL S TATEMENT
Access to the original data used in the present study in anonymized
form is granted by an application to the study's first author. This study
involved only voluntary participation. We obtained informed consent
from all the participants, who were also informed that they could stop
participating at any time and that whether or not they participated in
the study would not affect their course grades. All the information col-
lected from this study is kept confidential.
P EE R R EV I E W
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.
com/publon/10.1111/jcal.12528.
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT
We confirm that our article contains a Data Availability Statement
even if no data is available (list of sample statements) unless our article
type does not require one.
ORCID
Ching-Huei Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9697-3752
Hui-Chin Yeh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9283-6291
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How to cite this article: Chen C-H, Hung H-T, Yeh H-C. Virtual
reality in problem-based learning contexts: Effects on the
problem-solving performance, vocabulary acquisition and
motivation of English language learners. J Comput Assist Learn.
2021;1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12528
APPENDIX A: A SAMPLE PBL S CENARIO FOR ANALYSIS
In today's rapidly aging society, combining smart electronic control
equipment with medical diagnostic systems has become more popular
than ever before. Making medical systems smarter and more conve-
nient relies heavily on artificial intelligence. In this scenario, you are
the client of a medical inventor, who seeks to research and observe
the optimal solution for the design and development of an intelligent
medical control system. The final product of this system will allow a
patient to effortlessly adjust the brightness of his/her lighting while
lying in bed in a room with other patients. That is, with intelligent elec-
tronic control, each patient's lighting needs can be accommodated
without disturbing the other patients while meeting the global goals of
energy savings and carbon reduction.
10 CHEN ET AL.

APPENDIX B : GUIDED QUESTIONS FOR P BL AN ALYS IS

PBL stages Guided questions

1. Problem identification 1–1. What are the problems presented in the PBL scenario?
1–2. What can be the causes of the problems?
2. Resource exploration 2–1. What available resources can be used to solve the identified problems?
2–2. What external resources can be sought to assist with the problem-solving process, if necessary?
3. Solution generation 3–1. What are possible solutions to the identified problems?
3–2. What are alternative solutions, if any, to the identified problems?
4. Evaluative reflection 4–1. What are the pros and cons of the proposed solutions to the identified problems?
4–2. What is the effectiveness of the problem-solving proposal as a whole?

APPENDIX C : CR ITER IA F OR ASSESSI NG THE QUALI TY OF STUDENTS ' PB L ANALYSES

PBL stages and associated criteria Ratings

1. Problem identification
• Identify potential problems with consideration of contextual factors 0-1-2-3-4-5
• Define the identified problems clearly with recognition of underlying causes 0-1-2-3-4-5
2. Resource exploration
• Apply valid available resources for the identified problems 0-1-2-3-4-5
• Seek external resources and additional help as appropriate 0-1-2-3-4-5
3. Solution generation
• Generate as many solutions as possible to the identified problems 0-1-2-3-4-5
• Develop any alternative solutions to the identified problems 0-1-2-3-4-5
4. Evaluative reflection
• Evaluate the pros and cons of each problem-solution critically 0-1-2-3-4-5
• Reflect on the overall cost–benefit of the problem-solving proposal critically 0-1-2-3-4-5

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