CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTIONS

1.1 Background of Study

Avocado pear (Persea americana) is an edible fruit belonging to the family

Lauraceae. It has its origin from Mexico and Central and South America but it is

now cultivated worldwide (Unlu et al, 2015). The fruit is a large fleshy berry which

is 5-15 cm long, ovate to spherical containing a single, hard nut shaped seed

(FDA, 2013). Persea americana, called avocado, is a multi-stemmed tropical

evergreen tree that is native to Mexico, Central America and South America. It

typically matures to 30-60' tall, however grafted varieties generally grow shorter.

Avocado leaves (to 4-8"long) are typically glossy, elliptic to ovate and dark green

(Adodo, 205). Persea americana, commonly known as the avocado, has a variety

of names in Nigeria, reflecting the diversity of languages and cultures across the

country. Here are some of the Nigerian names given to Persea americana: Igbo:

Òkpòrò, Yoruba: Àgbàdà Hausa: Bawon Allah, Igbanja: Igbere, Fulani: Banye, Efik:

Ukó, Ibibio: Akara, Ijaw: Abalu, Itsekiri: Akpokpo, Tiv: Ior u kaan. These names are

often used in local markets, recipes, and everyday conversations. They reflect

the deep cultural significance of the avocado in Nigeria, where it is valued for its

nutritional value, culinary versatility, and traditional medicinal uses. (Asha et al.,

2019).

The fruit pulp is thick pale yellow having high oil content and rich in vitamins A, B

and E. It is also reported to be rich in fatty acids such as linoleic, oleic, stearic,

capric and myristic acids (ADA, 2019). One-half of an avocado is a nutrient and

phytochemical dense food consisting of the following: dietary Fiber (4.6 g), total

1
sugar (0.2g), potassium (345 mg), sodium (5.5 mg), magnesium (19.5 mg),

vitamin A (5.0 g, RAE), vitamin C (6.0 mg), vitamin E (1.3 mg), vitamin K1 (14 µg),

folate (60 (hy), vitamin B6 (0.2 mg), niacin (1.3 mg), pantothenic acid (1.0 mg),

riboflavin (0.1 mg), choline (10 mg), lutein/zeaxanthin (185 µg), cryptoxanthin

(18.5 µg) phytosterols (57 mg), and high-monounsaturated fatty acids (6.7 g)

and 11-1 kcals or 1.7 kcal/g (after adjusting for insoluble dietary fiber), which

may support a wide range of potential health effects (USDA, 2011; ADA, 2019).

Avocados contain an oil rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in a water

based matrix, which appears to enhance nutrient and phytochemical

bioavailability and masks the taste and texture of the dietary fiber (USDA, 2011;

Unlu et al., 2015).

The avocado pear seed is a by-product representing 13-18 of the fruit (Talab et

al., 2016). It is often discarded as agro-food waste during processing of the pulp

thereby representing a severe ecological problem. Ifesan et al., (2015) develop

acceptable candies from avocado pear seed and reported that Sample with 85%

avocado pear seed was most preferred. Emelike et al., (2020). also developed

moimoi (steamed cowpea pudding) from blend of cowpea and avocado pear

seed flour and reported that avocado pear seed can be substituted at 10% level

with cowpea for the production of acceptable and nutritious moimoi. Report

shows that the seed contain more antioxidants constituents than the fruit Pulp

(Ejiofor et al., 2018).

1.2 Statement of Problem

One of the millennium development goals initiated by the United Nations in 2000

is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Thus, research has been on going on

2
many plant materials, especially those discarded as waste, to exploit their

nutritional and antinutritional properties, Persea americana seeds is often

discarded after taking the pulp of the fruit. Research has shown that the avocado

seed is a good source of carbohydrate, protein, fat and some mineral elements

such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium as well as high

concentration of antinutritional factors such as phytate, oxalate and cyanogenic

glycosides making the seed to appear potentially toxic (Nwaogu et al., 2018).

To process avocado seed into flour, many processing methods can be employed.

These processing methods which involve different unit operations have effects

on the qualities of the final products. So far little information has been reported

on the effect of these processing methods on the quality of avocado seed in

Nigeria.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to evaluate the proximate composition, functional

properties and Amino acid profile of processed Avocado pear seed. The specific

objectives include;

 To process avocado pear seed into flour using different fermentation time

(24,36,48,60 hours)

 To determine the amino acid profile of the flour produced

 To determine the proximate composition and functional properties of the

flours produced.

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1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study covers the procurement of avocado fruits from the

market, removal of the peels and pulp to separate the seed, the production of

flour from avocado seed using different processing method (roasting and

fermentation). and the determination of the proximate and functional properties

of the avocado seed flour samples produced respectively.

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1.5 JUSTIFICATIONS

This research work will be useful because it will be putting a large quantity of

solid waste into good use as secondary raw material in different industries

rather than transferring them to disposal area. And through this study, the

utilisation of avocado pear seed will be acknowledged by lessen cost spent on

purchase of wheat flour and other flours. Utilisation of avocado seed in flour

production will deliver significant level of nutrients and photochemical to

Nigerian diets. This would also help to solve waste disposal problem associated

with fruit processing in addition to conserving foreign exchange on wheat

importation.

Certain individuals with allergic diseases react to high level of cereal protein

partially gotten in wheat. A baked product from avocado seed flour which is very

low is gluten content is solution to this chronic disease. This research will also

serve as a reference material for researchers that will embark on related

research in the future.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF AVOCADO

The avocado (Persea americana) is believed to have originated in south-central

Mexico around 7,000 to 5,000 B.C. (Popenoe, 1920). The fruit has a long history

of cultivation in Mesoamerican civilizations, including the Olmec, Maya, and

Aztec cultures (Dreher and Davenport, 2013).

The avocado's origins can be traced back to the rainforests of southern Mexico

and Central America, where archaeological evidence suggests its domestication

as early as 10,000 years ago. The Nahua people of Mesoamerica referred to the

avocado as "āhuacatl," meaning "testicle," due to its shape and association with

fertility and abundance. Avocados held significant cultural and religious

importance in Mesoamerican societies, often used in ceremonies and rituals

(Nabhan, 2014).

Persea americana is regarded as an evolutionary anachronism, having likely

coevolved dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct megafauna in South

America, notably giant ground sloths and the gomphothere genus of the

elephant lineage (Berdugo, 2023). Following extinction of these original seed

dispersers, humans migrating into the region are thought to have become

primary long-distance dispersers, eventuating in domestication of the species

(Berdugo, 2023).

Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the

Tehuacan Valley in the state of Puebla, Mexico. There is evidence for three

6
possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently

recognized Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), Mexican (aoacatl) and West Indian

(tlacacolaocatl) landraces (Ayala et al., 2014). The Guatemalan and Mexican and

landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian

landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia,

Ecuador to Peru, (Ayala et al., 2014) achieving a wide range through human

agency before the arrival of the Europeans (Schaffer, 2013). The three separate

landraces were most likely to have already intermingled in pre-Columbian

America and were described in the Florentine Codex (Schaffer, 2013).

The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in

an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks,

birds, and sea lions (Dillehay, et al., 2017). The oldest discovery of an avocado pit

comes from Coxcatlan Cave, dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago

(Schaffer, 2013). Other caves in the Tehuacan Valley from around the same time

period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado.

There is evidence for avocado use at Norte Chico civilization sites in Peru by at

least 3,200 years ago and at Caballo Muerto in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500

years ago (Dillehay, et al., 2017).

The native, undomesticated variety is known as a criollo, and is small, with dark

black skin, and contains a large seed. It probably coevolved with extinct

megafauna. In 1982, evolutionary biologist Daniel H. Janzen concluded that the

avocado is an example of an "evolutionary anachronism", a fruit adapted for

ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giant ground

sloths or gomphotheres). Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of seed

7
dispersal, accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some

reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have coevolved with

Pleistocene megafauna to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready

to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse

avocado seeds in this fashion (Dillehay, et al., 2017).

The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South

America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC. A water jar shaped like an

avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Inca city of Chan Chan

(Brooke, 2016).

The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín

Fernández de Enciso (c. 1470 – 1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia

Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo (Stradley, 2014) .The

first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by

Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia

de las Indias [es] in 1526 (Ayala et al., 2014). The first written record in English

of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term, in a

1696 index of Jamaican plants. The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601,

Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States

mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the

Ottoman Empire in 1908. In the United States, the avocado was introduced to

Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856 (Schaffer, 2013).

Before 1915, the avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate

and in Florida as alligator pear. In 1915, the California Avocado Association

introduced the then-innovative term avocado to refer to the plant (Schaffer,

8
2013).

2.2 DESCRIPTION OF AVOCADO

Botanical Characteristics: The avocado, scientifically known as Persea

americana, belongs to the Lauraceae family. It is an evergreen tree that can

reach heights of 20 to 30 feet (Dreher & Davenport, 2013). The leaves are large,

leathery, and elliptical in shape, and the tree produces small greenish-yellow

flowers.

Persea americana is a tree that grows to 9–20 m (30–66 ft) with a trunk

diameter between 0.3–0.6 m (0.98–1.97 ft). The leaves are 7.62–25 cm (3–10 in)

long and alternately arranged (Dilip, 2014).

Flower

Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of

leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms

sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous 5–10

mm (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) wide. They have no petals but instead 2 whorls of 3 pale-

green or greenish-yellow downy perianth lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens

with 2 basal orange nectar glands (Dilip, 2014).

Fruit

The avocado fruit is a climacteric, single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible

endocarp covering the seed, rather than a drupe (Chittaranjan 2011). The pear-

shaped fruit is usually 7–20 cm (3–8 in) long, weighs between 100 and 1,000 g

(3+1⁄2 and 35+1⁄2 oz), and has a large central seed, 5–6.4 cm (2–2+1⁄2 in) long.

9
The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner

exocarp because of selective breeding by humans (Frederick, 2015).

Fruit Characteristics: The avocado fruit is technically classified as a berry and is

characterized by its unique pear or oval shape. The size varies depending on the

variety, ranging from small to large. The skin can be smooth or rough, and its

color changes from green to dark purple or nearly black as it ripens. The flesh is

creamy, with a buttery texture, and surrounds a large central seed or pit.

Nutrient Composition: Avocados are known for their rich nutrient profile. They

are a good source of healthy monounsaturated fats, vitamins, and minerals. The

flesh is particularly high in potassium, vitamin K, vitamin E, vitamin C, and

various B vitamins (Dreher & Davenport, 2013). The fat content primarily consists

of oleic acid, which is associated with several health benefits.

Culinary Uses: Avocados are versatile in the kitchen and are commonly used in

salads, sandwiches, and dips like guacamole. The creamy texture and mild flavor

make them suitable for both savory and sweet dishes.

2.3 AVACADO VARIETIES

Avocados come in a variety of cultivars, each with its own unique characteristics,

flavors, and uses. Here's an overview of some popular avocado varieties along

with relevant citations and references:

1. Hass (Persea americana 'Hass'): The Hass avocado is one of the most

widely recognized varieties. It has a distinctive pebbly skin that changes

from green to purplish-black as it ripens. The creamy flesh has a rich,

nutty flavor.

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Bender, G. (2015). Hass Avocado Composition and Potential Health Effects.

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 45(4), 287–303.

2. Fuerte (Persea americana 'Fuerte'): Fuerte avocados have smooth,

medium-thick skin and are pear-shaped. They are known for their velvety

texture and a slightly milder flavor compared to Hass (Crane, & Balerdi,

2017).

3. Reed (Persea americana 'Reed'): Reed avocados are round, have a pebbly

skin, and are larger than Hass avocados. They are recognized for their

creamy texture and buttery taste (Bender, 2015).

4. Pinkerton (Persea americana 'Pinkerton'): Pinkerton avocados have a

smooth, thin skin and an elongated shape. The flesh is creamy with a

slightly nutty taste (Bender, 2015).

5. Zutano (Persea americana 'Zutano'): Zutano avocados are pear-shaped

with a smooth, thin green skin. They are known for their mild flavor and

are often used in early-season harvests (Bender, 2015).

In summary according to Nabhan, (2014).:

Variety Characteristics Regions of Cultivation

Hass The most popular variety, known for its California, Mexico, Chile,

rich flavor, creamy texture, and long shelf New Zealand, South Africa

life

Fuerte A large, pear-shaped avocado with a California, Florida, Mexico

smooth, green skin and a buttery, nutty

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 flavor

Bacon A medium-sized avocado with a slightly California, Florida

bumpy, green skin and a rich, nutty flavor

Zutano A large, pear-shaped avocado with a California, Florida

smooth, green skin and a slightly sweet,

nutty flavor

Gwen A medium-sized avocado with a smooth, California, Florida

green skin and a slightly tart, nutty flavor

Reed A large, pear-shaped avocado with a California, Florida

smooth, green skin and a slightly sweet,

nutty flavor

Pinkerton A medium-sized avocado with a smooth, California, Florida

green skin and a slightly tart, nutty flavor

Nabal A medium-sized avocado with a dark California, Florida

green skin and a rich, nutty flavor

Topa A medium-sized avocado with a reddish- California, Florida

Topa purple skin and a mild, nutty flavor

Ettinger A large, pear-shaped avocado with a California, Florida

smooth, green skin and a slightly sweet,

nutty flavor

Booth 7 A medium-sized avocado with a smooth, California, Florida

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 green skin and a slightly tart, nutty flavor

Source: Nabhan, (2014).

In addition to these varieties, there are many other avocado varieties grown in

different parts of the world. The specific varieties that are available in your area

will depend on the climate and growing conditions (Nabhan, 2014).

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2.4 AVACADO FRUIT CARE AND CONSERVATION

Taking care of avocados and ensuring their conservation involves various

aspects, including cultivation, harvesting, storage, and post-harvest handling.

Here's an overview with relevant citations and references:

Avocado Fruit Care and Conservation:

1. Cultivation Practices: Proper cultivation practices, including adequate

irrigation, fertilization, and pest control, contribute to the overall health

and quality of avocado trees and their fruits (O'Hare, and Marques, 2013).

2. Harvesting: Avocados should be harvested when mature but still firm.

Harvesting too early or too late can affect the quality and flavor of the fruit

(Bender, 2015).

3. Post-Harvest Handling: Gentle handling during harvest and post-harvest

reduces damage and bruising. Avocados are sensitive to rough treatment

(O'Hare, and Marques, 2013).

4. Storage Conditions: Avocados are typically stored at temperatures

between 40 to 55°F (4 to 13°C) to slow down ripening. Controlled

atmosphere storage may also be used (Pesis and Fuchs, 2017).

5. Ripening and Conservation: Ripening can be initiated by exposure to

ethylene gas. Proper storage conditions, such as room temperature,

facilitate the ripening process (Woolf, 2017).

Remember that the specific care and conservation practices may vary based on

the avocado variety, local conditions, and post-harvest technologies. Always

14
refer to regional agricultural extensions and scientific literature for the most

accurate and context-specific information.

2.5 NUTRITIONAL BENEFIT OF AVOCADO

A Superfood for Overall Health

Avocados, botanically known as Persea americana, have gained immense

popularity worldwide due to their unique flavor, creamy texture, and impressive

array of health-promoting nutrients (Dreher and Davenport, 2013). These pear-

shaped fruits, native to Mesoamerica, have become a staple in many cuisines

and are increasingly recognized for their potential to contribute to overall well-

being (Baer et al., 2023).

Abundance in Heart-Healthy Fats

Avocados are a rich source of monounsaturated fats, particularly oleic acid, a

type of fat linked to numerous health benefits. Oleic acid has been shown to

lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels while raising HDL (good) cholesterol,

potentially reducing the risk of heart disease. Additionally, avocados contain a

small amount of polyunsaturated fats, which also play a role in maintaining heart

health (Baer et al., 2023).

Fiber-Rich for Digestive Wellness

Avocados are an excellent source of dietary fiber, an essential nutrient for

digestive health. Fiber promotes regular bowel movements, aids in nutrient

absorption, and helps maintain a healthy gut microbiome (Wien et al., 2013).

Adequate fiber intake can also help prevent constipation, diverticulosis, and

15
possibly certain types of colon cancer (Josseph et al., 2013).

16
Rich in Vitamins and Minerals

Avocados are a good source of various vitamins and minerals, including:

 Potassium: Essential for regulating blood pressure and muscle function.

 Folate: Crucial for DNA synthesis and cell division, particularly important

for pregnant women (Josseph et al., 2013).

 Vitamin E: A powerful antioxidant that protects cells from damage caused

by free radicals (Wien et al., 2013).

 Vitamin K: Plays a vital role in blood clotting and bone health (Josseph et

al., 2013).

Potential Benefits for Specific Health Conditions

Beyond their general nutritional value, avocados have been linked to potential

benefits for specific health conditions:

 Weight Management: Avocados' high fiber content promotes satiety and

can help regulate appetite, potentially aiding in weight management

efforts (Wolfe et al., 2017).

 Blood Sugar Control: Avocados' fiber content may help slow down the

absorption of carbohydrates, potentially benefiting individuals with

diabetes or prediabetes (Josseph et al., 2013).

 Eye Health: Avocados contain lutein and zeaxanthin, antioxidants that

protect the eyes from age-related macular degeneration (Wien et al.,

2013).

17
  Anti-inflammatory Properties: Avocados contain compounds with anti-

inflammatory properties that may help reduce inflammation associated

with chronic diseases (Baer et al., 2023).

Incorporating Avocados into a Healthy Diet

Avocados' versatility makes them easy to incorporate into a healthy diet. They

can be enjoyed raw, sliced, diced, or mashed, and their creamy texture makes

them a popular ingredient for dips, spreads, and smoothies. Avocados can also

be baked, grilled, or fried, and they pair well with a wide range of flavors, from

savory to sweet (Josseph et al., 2013).

2.6 CULINARY FOOD USER OF AVOCADO

Avocados, with their unique creamy texture and rich flavor, have become a

culinary staple worldwide. Their versatility allows them to be incorporated into a

wide range of dishes, adding not just flavor but also nutritional benefits. Here are

some of the most common culinary uses for avocados:

1. Guacamole: Guacamole, a popular Mexican dip, is arguably the most

iconic culinary use of avocados. Traditionally made with mashed

avocados, lime juice, cilantro, and onions, guacamole is a versatile

condiment that can be enjoyed with chips, tacos, burritos, or as a spread

on sandwiches (Nabhan, 2014).

2. Avocado Toast: Avocado toast has gained immense popularity as a

simple yet satisfying breakfast or snack option. Mashed avocados are

typically spread on toasted bread, often topped with additional ingredients

such as poached eggs, smoked salmon, or sliced tomatoes (Berrio and

18
 Whitaker, 2021).

3. Salads and Dressings: Avocados add a creamy texture and nutty flavor to

salads, making them a refreshing and nutritious addition. Avocados can

also be used to make a simple and healthy salad dressing by blending

them with olive oil, lemon juice, and spices (Wien, 2013; Berrio and

Whitaker, 2021).

4. Smoothies: Avocados can be blended into smoothies to enhance their

creaminess, fiber content, and healthy fats. Their mild flavor blends well

with various fruits, vegetables, and yogurt, creating nutritious and

satisfying smoothies (Nabhan, 2014).

5. Sushi: Avocados are a popular ingredient in sushi rolls, adding a creamy

contrast to the savory flavors of fish and vegetables (Berrio and Whitaker,

2021). They are often used in California rolls and other maki rolls (Nabhan,

2014)

6. Desserts: Avocados can be surprisingly versatile in desserts, providing a

rich and decadent texture. They can be used in chocolate mousse, ice

cream, and even brownies (Berrio and Whitaker, 2021).

2.7 NUTRIENTS AND FAT COMPOSITION OF AVOCADO

Avocados, botanically known as Persea americana, have gained immense

popularity worldwide due to their unique flavor, creamy texture, and impressive

array of health-promoting nutrients (Baer et al., 2023). These pear-shaped fruits,

native to Mesoamerica, have become a staple in many cuisines and are

increasingly recognized for their potential to contribute to overall well-being

19
(Wolfe et al., 2017).

Nutritional Profile of Avocados

Avocados are a rich source of various nutrients, including:

 Heart-healthy fats: Avocados are an excellent source of monounsaturated

fats, particularly oleic acid, a type of fat linked to numerous health

benefits. Oleic acid has been shown to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels

while raising HDL (good) cholesterol, potentially reducing the risk of heart

disease. Additionally, avocados contain a small amount of

polyunsaturated fats, which also play a role in maintaining heart health

(Baer et al., 2023).

 Fiber: Avocados are an excellent source of dietary fiber, an essential

nutrient for digestive health. Fiber promotes regular bowel movements,

aids in nutrient absorption, and helps maintain a healthy gut microbiome

(Josseph et al., 2013). Adequate fiber intake can also help prevent

constipation, diverticulosis, and possibly certain types of colon cancer

(Wolfe et al., 2017).

 Vitamins and minerals: Avocados are a good source of various vitamins

and minerals, including:

o Potassium: Essential for regulating blood pressure and muscle

function (Baer et al., 2023).

o Folate: Crucial for DNA synthesis and cell division, particularly

important for pregnant women (Koutsidis and Kontominas, 2019).

20
 o Vitamin E: A powerful antioxidant that protects cells from damage

caused by free radicals(Wolfe et al., 2017).

o Vitamin K: Plays a vital role in blood clotting and bone health

(Koutsidis and Kontominas, 2019).

Fat Composition of Avocados

The fat composition of avocados is approximately:

 Monounsaturated fats: 70%

 Polyunsaturated fats: 12%

 Saturated fats: 18%

As you can see, avocados are a rich source of heart-healthy fats, with

monounsaturated fats making up the majority of their fat content (Baer et al.,

2023). These fats are beneficial for heart health and may also have other health

benefits, such as reducing inflammation and promoting weight management

(Wolfe et al., 2017).

Avocados are a nutrient-rich fruit with a unique fat profile, making them a

valuable addition to a healthy diet. Their abundance of heart-healthy fats, fiber,

vitamins, and minerals contributes to their potential health benefits, including

improved heart health, digestive wellness, and overall well-being (Baer et al.,

2023).

2.8 HEALTH BENEFIT OF AVOCADO

These pear-shaped fruits, native to Mesoamerica, have become a staple in many

21
cuisines and are increasingly recognized for their potential to contribute to

overall well-being.

Heart-Healthy Fats for Cardiovascular Health

Avocados are an excellent source of monounsaturated fats, particularly oleic

acid, a type of fat linked to numerous health benefits. Oleic acid has been shown

to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels while raising HDL (good) cholesterol,

potentially reducing the risk of heart disease. Studies have demonstrated that

regular avocado consumption may help lower blood pressure and improve

overall blood lipid profiles (Dreher and Davenport, 2013).

22
Fiber for Digestive Wellness and Satiety

Avocados are a rich source of dietary fiber, an essential nutrient for digestive

health. Fiber promotes regular bowel movements, aids in nutrient absorption,

and helps maintain a healthy gut microbiome. Adequate fiber intake can also

help prevent constipation, diverticulosis, and possibly certain types of colon

cancer. Additionally, the fiber content of avocados contributes to satiety, helping

you feel fuller for longer and potentially aiding in weight management efforts

(Baer et al., 2023).

Avocados are a good source of various vitamins and minerals, including:

 Potassium: Essential for regulating blood pressure and muscle function.

 Folate: Crucial for DNA synthesis and cell division, particularly important

for pregnant women.

 Vitamin E: A powerful antioxidant that protects cells from damage caused

by free radicals.

 Vitamin K: Plays a vital role in blood clotting and bone health.

These vitamins and minerals play essential roles in various bodily functions,

contributing to overall health and well-being.

Potential Benefits for Specific Health Conditions

Beyond their general nutritional value, avocados have been linked to potential

benefits for specific health conditions:

 Weight Management: Avocados' high fiber content promotes satiety and

23
 can help regulate appetite, potentially aiding in weight management

efforts. Studies have shown that regular avocado consumption may help

individuals maintain a healthy weight or lose weight (Wien et al., 2013).

 Blood Sugar Control: Avocados' fiber content may help slow down the

absorption of carbohydrates, potentially benefiting individuals with

diabetes or prediabetes. Studies have indicated that avocado

consumption may improve blood sugar control and reduce the risk of

insulin resistance (Wien et al., 2013).

 Eye Health: Avocados contain lutein and zeaxanthin, antioxidants that

protect the eyes from age-related macular degeneration, a leading cause

of vision loss (Carranza et al., 2018).

 Anti-inflammatory Properties: Avocados contain compounds with anti-

inflammatory properties that may help reduce inflammation associated

with chronic diseases such as arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease

(Unlu et al., 2015).

2.9 ALLERGIES ASSOCIATED WITH AVOCADO

Avocado allergies, though relatively uncommon, can manifest in individuals with

a predisposition to allergies. These reactions can range from mild to severe, and

it is crucial to identify and manage them effectively.

Avocado Allergies:

1. Latex-Fruit Syndrome: Avocado allergy is often associated with latex-fruit

syndrome, where individuals allergic to latex may also experience allergic

24
 reactions to certain fruits, including avocados (Leung and Sampson,

2020). This is due to cross-reactivity between proteins in latex and certain

fruits (Wagner et al., 2015).

2. Oral Allergy Syndrome (OAS): Some individuals may experience mild oral

allergy symptoms, such as itching or swelling of the lips, mouth, or throat,

when consuming avocados. This can be associated with cross-reactivity

with pollen allergens (Sanchez-Monge et al., 2022)

3. Histamine Intolerance: Avocados, like many other foods, naturally contain

histamine (Fiocchi and Sicherer, 2018). Individuals with histamine

intolerance may experience symptoms such as headaches, hives, or

digestive issues after consuming histamine-rich foods like avocados

(Maintz and Novak, 2017).

It's important to note that while allergic reactions to avocados are possible, they

are relatively rare. Individuals with known latex allergies or oral allergy syndrome

may be more susceptible. If someone suspects an avocado allergy, they should

seek advice from a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and

management.

Symptoms of Avocado Allergies

Symptoms of avocado allergies typically develop within minutes of consuming

avocados or coming into contact with avocado skin or flesh (Leung and

Sampson, 2020). These symptoms may include:

 Skin reactions: Hives, redness, itching, swelling, eczema (Sicherer and

Sampson, 2018).

25
  Gastrointestinal symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps,

diarrhea (Wood, 2018).

 Respiratory symptoms: Wheezing, difficulty breathing, tightness in the

chest (López-Gómez, and Pascual, 2016).

 Anaphylaxis: A severe allergic reaction that can involve multiple systems,

including life-threatening breathing difficulties and rapid drop in blood

pressure (Leung and Sampson, 2020).

Always consult with a healthcare provider if you suspect you have an allergy or

experience adverse reactions to avocados or any other food. The information

provided here is not a substitute for professional medical advice (Fiocchi and

Sicherer, 2018).

2.10 AVOCADO SEED COMPOSITION AND UTILIZATION

Avocado seeds, often discarded as waste, hold a wealth of untapped potential

as a source of valuable compounds with culinary and nutritional applications.

These seeds, comprising approximately 12-18% of the avocado fruit by weight,

are rich in fiber, polyphenols, and other bioactive substances (Alaswad and

Duong, 2020).

Nutritional Composition of Avocado Seeds

Avocado seeds are a rich source of dietary fiber, with a fiber content ranging

from 60-80%. This fiber is primarily composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and

lignin, which contribute to digestive health and promote satiety. (Alaswad and

Duong, 2020). Additionally, avocado seeds contain polyphenols, antioxidants

26
that protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. These polyphenols

include flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids, which have demonstrated anti-

inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-cancer properties (Da et al., 2019).

27
Culinary Applications of Avocado Seeds

Avocado seeds can be transformed into various culinary ingredients, adding a

unique flavor and nutritional boost to dishes (Khan et al., 2019). Here are some

potential culinary uses for avocado seeds:

 Avocado Seed Flour: Avocado seeds can be dried, ground, and used as a

gluten-free flour substitute. This flour adds a nutty flavor and a slightly

grainy texture to baked goods, pancakes, and other culinary creations

(Pereira et al., 2017)

 Avocado Seed Tea: Avocado seeds can be roasted, steeped in hot water,

and enjoyed as a caffeine-free herbal tea. This tea is known for its earthy

flavor and potential health benefits, such as improved digestion and

reduced inflammation (Prasad et al., 2017; Alaswad and Duong, 2020).

 Avocado Seed Powder: Avocado seeds can be dried, ground, and used as

a seasoning powder. This powder adds a nutty, umami-rich flavor to

soups, stews, sauces, and marinades (Alaswad and Duong, 2020).

 Avocado Seed Extract: Avocado seeds can be extracted using various

methods, and the resulting extract can be used as a flavoring agent or

natural preservative in food products (Da et al., 2019).

Utilization of Avocado Seeds in Non-Food Applications

Beyond their culinary potential, avocado seeds have also shown promise in non-

food applications:

 Bioplastics: Avocado seed fibers can be used to produce bioplastics, eco-

28
 friendly alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. These bioplastics are

biodegradable and offer comparable properties to conventional plastics

(Khan et al., 2019).

 Dyes and Pigments: Avocado seeds contain natural dyes and pigments

that can be extracted and used for coloring textiles, cosmetics, and other

products (Pereira et al., 2017)

 Cosmetics: Avocado seed extracts and oils have been shown to have

moisturizing, anti-aging, and skin-protective properties, making them

potential ingredients in natural cosmetics (Prasad et al., 2017).

2.11 APPLICATIONS OF AVOCADO SEED

Avocado seeds, often discarded as waste, hold a wealth of untapped potential

as a source of valuable compounds with culinary, nutritional, and non-food

applications (Da et al., 2019). These seeds, comprising approximately 12-18% of

the avocado fruit by weight, are rich in fiber, polyphenols, and other bioactive

substances (Alaswad and Duong, 2020).

Nutritional Applications

Avocado seeds are a rich source of dietary fiber, with a fiber content ranging

from 60-80% (Da et al., 2019). This fiber is primarily composed of cellulose,

hemicellulose, and lignin, which contribute to digestive health and promote

satiety. Additionally, avocado seeds contain polyphenols, antioxidants that

protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. These polyphenols include

flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids, which have demonstrated anti-

inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-cancer properties (Alaswad and Duong,

29
2020).

Culinary Applications

Avocado seeds can be transformed into various culinary ingredients, adding a

unique flavor and nutritional boost to dishes. Here are some potential culinary

uses for avocado seeds:

 Avocado Seed Flour: Avocado seeds can be dried, ground, and used as a

gluten-free flour substitute. This flour adds a nutty flavor and a slightly

grainy texture to baked goods, pancakes, and other culinary creations (Da

et al., 2019).

 Avocado Seed Tea: Avocado seeds can be roasted, steeped in hot water,

and enjoyed as a caffeine-free herbal tea. This tea is known for its earthy

flavor and potential health benefits, such as improved digestion and

reduced inflammation (Alaswad and Duong, 2020).

 Avocado Seed Powder: Avocado seeds can be dried, ground, and used as

a seasoning powder (Alaswad and Duong, 2020). This powder adds a

nutty, umami-rich flavor to soups, stews, sauces, and marinades (Khan et

al., 2019).

 Avocado Seed Extract: Avocado seeds can be extracted using various

methods, and the resulting extract can be used as a flavoring agent or

natural preservative in food products (Alaswad and Duong, 2020).

Non-Food Applications

Beyond their culinary potential, avocado seeds have also shown promise in non-

30
food applications:

 Bioplastics: Avocado seed fibers can be used to produce bioplastics, eco-

friendly alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. These bioplastics are

biodegradable and offer comparable properties to conventional plastics

(Khan et al., 2019).

 Dyes and Pigments: Avocado seeds contain natural dyes and pigments

that can be extracted and used for coloring textiles, cosmetics, and other

products (Da et al., 2019).

 Cosmetics: Avocado seed extracts and oils have been shown to have

moisturizing, anti-aging, and skin-protective properties, making them

potential ingredients in natural cosmetics (Prasad et al., 2017).

Environmental Applications of Avocado seed

Avocado seed utilization can significantly reduce the environmental impact of

avocado production. By diverting avocado seeds from landfills, we can minimize

waste disposal costs and conserve valuable landfill space. Additionally, using

avocado seeds as a source of various products can reduce our reliance on non-

renewable resources and promote sustainable practices (Da et al., 2019).

Avocado seeds, once considered a waste product, are now recognized as a

valuable resource with a wide range of potential applications. Their unique

composition makes them a promising source of dietary fiber, polyphenols, and

other bioactive compounds with culinary, non-food, and environmental

applications (Pereira et al., 2017). As research into avocado seed utilization

continues, we can expect to discover even more innovative ways to harness the

31
potential of this untapped resource (Prasad et al., 2017; Alaswad and Duong,

2020).

32
2.12 EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON AVOCADO SEED

Avocado seeds, often discarded as waste, hold a wealth of untapped potential

as a source of valuable compounds with culinary, nutritional, and non-food

applications. However, the effect of processing methods on the nutritional and

bioactive properties of avocado seeds is crucial to consider before utilizing them

as ingredients or functional additives (Khan et al., 2019).

Effects of Processing on Avocado Seed:

1. Oil Extraction: Processing methods for avocado seeds, such as oil

extraction, can influence the composition of the extracted oil and its

potential applications (Alamar et al., 2016).

2. Antioxidant Activity: The processing method, including extraction

techniques, may impact the antioxidant activity of compounds present in

avocado seeds (Jiménez-Escrig and Saura-Calixto, 2016)

3. Dye Extraction: Various processing methods can be employed to extract

dyes and colorants from avocado seeds, and the choice of method may

affect the yield and properties of the extracted compounds (Ajila and Brar,

2013).

4. Phytochemical Content: Different processing techniques, such as drying

or heat treatments, may influence the phytochemical content of avocado

seeds (Marhuenda et al., 2013).

5. Protein Isolation: Processing methods for protein isolation from avocado

seeds can impact the yield and quality of the isolated proteins (Jiménez

33
 et al., 2013).

6. Animal Feed Applications: Processing techniques for avocado seeds

aimed at using them in animal feed can affect their nutritional

composition and suitability for different livestock (Alamar et al., 2016).

Impact of Processing on Nutritional Composition

Processing methods can significantly influence the nutritional profile of avocado

seeds. Drying, a common processing technique, can concentrate certain

nutrients, such as fiber and polyphenols, while also reducing moisture content,

enhancing shelf life, and facilitating easier storage. However, prolonged drying at

high temperatures may lead to the loss of heat-sensitive compounds, such as

vitamin C (Khan et al., 2019).

Roasting, another processing method, can impart a unique flavor and aroma to

avocado seeds while also enhancing their antioxidant activity. The Maillard

reaction, occurring during roasting, can lead to the formation of new antioxidant

compounds with potential health benefits (Khan et al., 2019).

Effect of Processing on Bioactive Compounds

Processing methods can also affect the abundance and bioavailability of

bioactive compounds in avocado seeds. Extraction techniques, such as using

solvents or enzymes, can effectively isolate and concentrate specific bioactive

compounds, such as polyphenols, for potential use as functional ingredients or

nutraceuticals (Alamar et al., 2016).

However, the choice of extraction solvent and method can significantly impact

34
the extraction efficiency and the stability of the extracted compounds. For

instance, solvents with high polarity can extract a wider range of compounds, but

they may also lead to the degradation of certain sensitive compounds (Pereira et

al., 2017).

Considerations for Processing Avocado Seeds

When processing avocado seeds for various applications, it is essential to

consider the following factors:

1. Processing method: The choice of processing method should depend on

the desired outcome and the specific compounds of interest (Alamar et

al., 2016).

2. Processing parameters: Factors such as temperature, time, and solvent

selection should be optimized to maximize the retention of valuable

compounds while minimizing losses (Pereira et al., 2017).

3. Storage conditions: Proper storage conditions, such as cool temperatures

and controlled humidity, can help maintain the quality and stability of

processed avocado seeds.

Processing methods play a crucial role in unlocking the nutritional and bioactive

potential of avocado seeds. By understanding the impact of processing

techniques on the composition of avocado seeds, we can develop strategies to

optimize their utilization in various applications, from culinary ingredients to

functional additives (Khan et al., 2019).

2.13 ANTINUTRIENTS NUTRIENTS ASSOCIATED WITH AVOCADO SEED

35
 CONSUMPTION

Avocado seeds, often discarded as waste, have emerged as a potential source

of valuable nutrients and bioactive compounds (Figueroa and Borrás-Linares,

2020). However, it is crucial to consider the presence of antinutrients, which can

interfere with the absorption of certain nutrients, when evaluating the overall

nutritional value of avocado seeds (Wong et al., 2019).

Avocado seeds contain several antinutrients, including:

 Tannins: Avocado seeds may contain tannins, which are polyphenolic

compounds that can interfere with nutrient absorption (Figueroa and

Borrás-Linares, 2020).

 Phytates: Phytates are compounds that can bind to minerals, such as iron,

zinc, and calcium, reducing their absorption in the body (Wong et al.,

2019).

 Oxalates: Oxalates can bind to calcium, forming insoluble oxalate salts,

which can potentially contribute to kidney stone formation in susceptible

individuals (Figueroa and Borrás-Linares, 2020).

 Cyanogenic glycosides: Cyanogenic glycosides, when broken down in the

body, release cyanide, a toxic compound that can cause adverse health

effects in high doses (Figueroa and Borrás-Linares, 2020).

 Saponins: Saponins can interfere with the absorption of certain nutrients,

such as cholesterol, but they also possess potential health benefits, such

as anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties (Wong et al., 2019).

36
Balancing Antinutrients and Nutrients

While avocado seeds contain antinutrients, their potential health benefits may

outweigh the potential risks associated with antinutrient consumption. Moreover,

the amount of antinutrients in avocado seeds can be reduced through various

processing methods, such as soaking, sprouting, or fermenting (Figueroa and

Borrás-Linares, 2020).

Additionally, incorporating avocado seeds into a balanced diet alongside other

nutrient-rich foods can help ensure that any potential nutrient absorption

interference is minimized (Figueroa and Borrás-Linares, 2020).

2.14 AMINO ACID

2.14.1 Amino acids meaning

Amino acids are the fundamental building blocks of proteins, which are essential

for life. Amino Acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of

proteins. They contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a

hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R group) that varies among different amino

acids. There are 20 different amino acids that are commonly found in living

organisms (Voet et al., 2013).

Amino acids are formally named by the IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on

Biochemical Nomenclature in terms of the fictitious "neutral" structure shown in

the illustration. For example, the systematic name of alanine is 2-

aminopropanoic acid, based on the formula CH3−CH(NH2)−COOH(Flissi et al.,

2020).

37
Figure 2.1 Structure of a generic L-alpha-amino acid in the "neutral" form.

Source: Flissi et al., (2020).

Amino acids can be classified according to the locations of the core structural

functional groups, as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids;

other categories relate to polarity, ionization, and side chain group type (aliphatic,

acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins,

amino acid residues form the second-largest component (water being the

largest) of human muscles and other tissues (Flissi et al., 2020). Beyond their

role as residues in proteins, amino acids participate in a number of processes

such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis. It is thought that they

played a key role in enabling life on Earth and its emergence(Flissi et al., 2020).

2.14.2. Types of Amino Acids:

 Essential Amino Acids: These are amino acids that the body cannot

produce on its own, and they must be obtained through diet. Examples

include leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan,

phenylalanine, and lysine (Lehninger et al., 2015).

 Non-Essential Amino Acids: The body can synthesize these amino acids,

and they are not required in the diet. Examples include alanine, asparagine,

aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine (Voet et

38
 al., 2013).

 Conditionally Essential Amino Acids: These become essential under

certain conditions, such as illness or stress. Examples include arginine,

cysteine, glutamine, tyrosine, ornithine, proline, and serine (Lehninger et

al., 2015).

2.14.3. Importance of Amino Acids:

 Protein Synthesis: Amino acids are essential for building proteins, and

proteins play crucial roles in the structure and function of cells, tissues,

enzymes, hormones, and more (Lehninger et al., 2015).

 Muscle Growth and Repair: Amino acids, particularly essential amino

acids, are vital for muscle growth, repair, and maintenance. They are

essential for athletes and individuals engaged in physical activities

(Lehninger et al., 2015).

 Enzyme Function: Many enzymes, which are biological catalysts, are

proteins made up of amino acids. Amino acids contribute to the structure

and function of enzymes, facilitating biochemical reactions in the body

(Voet et al., 2013).

 Neurotransmitter Synthesis: Certain amino acids are precursors for

neurotransmitters, which are essential for communication between nerve

cells in the brain. For example, tryptophan is a precursor for serotonin

(Lehninger et al., 2015).

 Immune Function: Amino acids are involved in the production of

39
 antibodies and other components of the immune system, contributing to

the body's defense against infections (Lehninger et al., 2015).

 Energy Production: While carbohydrates and fats are primary energy

sources, amino acids can be converted into energy under certain

conditions, providing an alternative energy source (Lehninger et al., 2015).

 Hormone Regulation: Some amino acids are involved in the synthesis of

hormones that regulate various physiological processes, including growth

hormone and insulin (Voet et al., 2013).

In summary, amino acids are fundamental to the structure and function of the

human body. They play critical roles in protein synthesis, muscle function,

enzyme activity, neurotransmitter synthesis, immune function, energy production,

and hormone regulation (Voet et al., 2013). A balanced diet that includes a

variety of protein sources is essential to ensure an adequate intake of all

essential amino acids (Lehninger et al., 2015).

40
2.15 AMINO ACIDS PROFILE: MEANING AND RELEVANCE

2.15.1. Meaning

The amino acid profile refers to the composition and concentration of individual

amino acids in a protein or food source (Mariotti and Gardner, 2019). It provides

information about the types and quantities of amino acids present, particularly

essential amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own and must be

obtained through the diet. Amino acid profiles provide a detailed breakdown of

the amino acid content of a protein source. This information is crucial for

understanding the nutritional value of proteins and their potential health benefits

(Mariotti and Gardner, 2019).

Amino acid profiles are typically represented as a list of amino acids and their

respective quantities, expressed as grams per 100 grams of protein. Each amino

acid has a unique three-letter abbreviation, making it easier to identify and

compare amino acid profiles across different protein sources (Mariotti and

Gardner, 2019).

2.15.2. Relevance

 Nutritional Quality of Protein: The amino acid profile is crucial in

assessing the nutritional quality of proteins. Proteins from different

sources may have varying amino acid compositions, and the profile

influences the protein's ability to support bodily functions, especially

protein synthesis (Mariotti and Gardner, 2019).

 Essential Amino Acids: Understanding the amino acid profile is vital for

assessing the availability of essential amino acids. A complete protein

41
 source contains all essential amino acids in sufficient quantities.

Incomplete protein sources may lack or have insufficient amounts of one

or more essential amino acids(Wolfe, 2017).

 Protein Synthesis and Muscle Health: For individuals involved in physical

activities or seeking muscle health, the amino acid profile becomes

essential. Certain amino acids, particularly branched-chain amino acids

(BCAAs) like leucine, play a crucial role in protein synthesis and muscle

repair (Wolfe, 2017).

 Dietary Planning and Balanced Nutrition: A diverse amino acid profile is

indicative of a well-rounded and balanced diet. Including a variety of

protein sources helps ensure the intake of all essential amino acids,

supporting overall health and well-being(Mariotti and Gardner, 2019).

 Plant-Based Diets: For individuals following plant-based diets,

understanding the amino acid profile is essential to ensure a

complementary combination of plant-based protein sources, as many

plant proteins may be deficient in certain essential amino acids (Mariotti

and Gardner, 2019).

 Nutritional Requirements: Different life stages and health conditions may

have specific amino acid requirements. For example, the amino acid

profile is particularly important during periods of growth, pregnancy, or

recovery from illness or surgery (Mariotti and Gardner, 2019).

 Protein Quality: Protein quality is often assessed using metrics such as

the Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) or the

42
 Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS). These scores take

into account both the amino acid composition and digestibility of proteins

(Wolfe, 2017).

 Research and Formulation: In the field of nutrition and food science,

understanding the amino acid profile is crucial for formulating balanced

diets and designing protein-rich foods that meet specific nutritional

requirements (Wolfe, 2017).

2.15.3 Applications of Amino Acid Profiles

Amino acid profiles have various applications in the fields of nutrition, sports

science, and animal feed formulation:

 Nutritional Assessment: Amino acid profiles are used to evaluate the

nutritional adequacy of food products and dietary patterns (Mariotti and

Gardner, 2019).

 Sports Nutrition: Athletes often monitor their amino acid intake to

optimize muscle growth, repair, and performance (Wolfe, 2017).

 Animal Feed Formulation: Amino acid profiles are used in formulating

animal feed to ensure optimal growth and development of livestock

(Mariotti and Gardner, 2019).

In summary, the amino acid profile is highly relevant for assessing the nutritional

quality of proteins, planning balanced diets, understanding the importance of

essential amino acids, and supporting various health and fitness goals. It plays a

key role in ensuring that the body receives an adequate and well-balanced supply

43
of amino acids for optimal functioning.

2.16 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES

2.16.1 Concept of Functional Properties

Functional properties of food refer to the characteristics that influence the

behavior of food during processing, storage, and consumption. These properties

determine how food ingredients interact and contribute to the overall quality,

texture, and sensory attributes of the final product (Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

Functional properties of food refer to the physical and chemical characteristics

that affect its behavior during processing, storage, preparation, consumption,

and digestion. These properties play a crucial role in determining the quality,

acceptability, and nutritional value of food products (Gontard, and Guilbert, 2016).

2.16.2 Types of Functional Properties

Functional properties of food can be broadly classified into the following

categories:

1. Hydration Properties: These properties relate to the ability of food to

interact with water. They include water absorption, water solubility, and

water retention (McClements, 2015).

2. Rheological Properties: These properties describe the flow behavior of

food under various conditions. They include viscosity, elasticity, and

plasticity(Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

3. Texture Properties: These properties define the sensory perception of

44
 food in the mouth. They include hardness, softness, chewiness, and

cohesiveness (Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

4. Emulsifying Properties: These properties influence the ability of food to

form and stabilize emulsions, which are mixtures of two or more

immiscible liquids, such as oil and water (McClements, 2015).

5. Foaming Properties: These properties determine the ability of food to

form and stabilize foams, which are dispersions of gas bubbles in a liquid

or solid matrix (Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

6. Color Properties: These properties describe the appearance of food and

its ability to impart color to other ingredients (Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

7. Flavor Properties: These properties influence the taste and aroma of food.

They are affected by various factors, such as the presence of volatile

compounds, sugars, acids, and salts(McClements, 2015).

8. Sensory Properties: These properties encompass the overall sensory

experience of food, including texture, flavor, color, and aroma.

2.16.3 Significance of Functional Properties

Functional properties of food are crucial for several reasons:

1. Food Processing and Quality: Functional properties influence the

behavior of food during processing operations, such as mixing, heating,

cooling, and forming. They impact product quality attributes, such as

texture, stability, and shelf life (McClements, 2015).

45
 2. Food Acceptability and Consumption: Functional properties affect the

sensory characteristics of food, influencing consumer acceptance and

preference. Texture, flavor, and appearance play significant roles in

determining food appeal (Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

3. Nutrition and Health: Functional properties can influence the

bioavailability of nutrients and bioactive compounds in food. They can

also impact digestion and nutrient absorption (Singh, and Heldman, 2019).

4. New Product Development: Understanding functional properties is

essential for developing new food products with desired characteristics,

such as low-fat spreads, high-fiber snacks, and extended-shelf-life

products (McClements, 2015).

2.17 EFFECT OF PROCESSING TECHNIQUE ON PLAN FOOD QUALITY

The effects of processing techniques on plant food quality can vary depending

on factors such as the type of processing, duration, and conditions applied.

Here's an overview with general references, and for more detailed information,

it's recommended to consult scientific literature and specific studies on plant

food processing.

Processing techniques play a crucial role in transforming raw plant ingredients

into edible and nutritious foods. However, these techniques can also

significantly impact the quality of plant-based foods, affecting their nutritional

value, sensory characteristics, and overall safety. Understanding the effects of

processing techniques is essential for optimizing food quality and minimizing

potential adverse effects.

46
1.Heat Processing: Heat processing methods such as boiling, steaming, or

blanching can lead to the loss of water-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamin C),

degradation of heat-sensitive compounds, and alterations in color, texture, and

flavor (Rickman et al., 2017).

47
2. Freezing: Freezing is generally effective in preserving the nutritional quality of

plant foods, as it can help retain vitamins and minerals. However, there might be

textural changes due to ice crystal formation (Barrett and Lloyd, 2022).

3. Drying/Dehydration: Drying processes remove water, extending shelf life but

may result in nutrient losses, especially water-soluble vitamins. However, some

phytochemicals may become concentrated (Tiwari et al., 2011).

4. Fermentation: Fermentation can enhance the bioavailability of certain

nutrients, produce bioactive compounds, and contribute to flavor development.

5. High-Pressure Processing: High-pressure processing can help retain the color,

flavor, and nutritional content of plant foods while inactivating enzymes and

microbes (Balasubramaniam et al., 2015).

6. Microwave Processing: Microwave processing can be efficient but may cause

uneven heating, potentially leading to nutrient losses and changes in texture

(Choudhury and Singh, 2016).

7. Canning: Canning involves high heat, which can lead to nutrient losses, but the

process is effective in preserving the food and can result in shelf-stable products

(Rickman et al., 2017).

8. Irradiation: Irradiation can reduce microbial contamination and extend shelf

life with minimal nutrient losses. However, there are concerns about changes in

organoleptic properties (Diehl, 2022).

It's important to note that the impact of processing on plant food quality is

complex and depends on various factors. Moreover, advancements in

48
processing technologies and modifications to traditional methods continue to

shape the understanding of their effects on plant food quality. Always refer to

the latest scientific literature for the most up-to-date information.

Effect on Nutritional Value

Processing techniques can influence the nutritional value of plant foods in

various ways:

 Nutrient Retention: Some processing methods, such as blanching, can

help retain nutrients by inactivating enzymes that can cause nutrient

degradation. However, other methods, such as excessive heating or over-

processing, can lead to nutrient losses, particularly heat-sensitive

vitamins and antioxidants (Rickman et al., 2017).

 Nutrient Enhancement: Certain processing techniques can enhance the

bioavailability of certain nutrients. For instance, soaking grains can

increase the bioavailability of iron and zinc, while fermentation can

enhance the production of beneficial probiotics (Rickman et al., 2017).

 Nutrient Addition: Processing techniques can also be used to add

nutrients to plant-based foods, such as fortification with vitamins or

minerals to address potential nutrient deficiencies (Rickman et al., 2017).

Effect on Sensory Characteristics

Processing techniques significantly influence the sensory characteristics of

plant foods, including texture, flavor, and color:

 Texture: Processing techniques can alter the texture of plant foods,

49
 ranging from softening or tenderizing to hardening or crisping. For

example, cooking or steaming vegetables softens them, while baking can

make them crispy (Choudhury and Singh, 2016).

 Flavor: Processing techniques can modify the flavor profile of plant foods

by influencing the release of volatile compounds, the breakdown of

complex carbohydrates, and the formation of new flavor compounds. For

instance, roasting enhances the sweetness and umami flavors of

vegetables, while fermentation can produce sour or tangy

flavors(Choudhury and Singh, 2016).

 Color: Processing techniques can also impact the color of plant foods,

both positively and negatively. For example, blanching helps preserve the

vibrant colors of vegetables, while excessive heating or exposure to light

can cause color fading (Choudhury and Singh, 2016).

Effect on Food Safety

Processing techniques can enhance the safety of plant foods by reducing or

eliminating potential hazards:

 Pathogen Reduction: Processing methods such as cooking,

pasteurization, and irradiation can effectively destroy or inactivate

harmful pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites, that can

cause foodborne illnesses (Tiwari et al., 2011).

 Toxins Removal: Processing techniques can also remove or reduce

natural toxins present in some plant foods, such as antinutrients or toxins

produced by microorganisms.

50
  Shelf-Life Extension: Processing techniques can extend the shelf life of

plant foods by inhibiting enzymatic activity, reducing moisture content,

and controlling microbial growth (Balasubramaniam et al., 2015).

Balancing Processing and Quality

Balancing processing techniques to optimize plant food quality requires careful

consideration of the potential benefits and drawbacks. While processing can

enhance nutrient bioavailability, improve sensory characteristics, and enhance

food safety, excessive or inappropriate processing can lead to nutrient losses,

reduce palatability, and mask the natural flavors of plant foods (Tiwari et al.,

2011).

Therefore, it is crucial to select processing methods that minimize negative

effects while maximizing the desired outcomes (Balasubramaniam et al., 2015).

This may involve using less harsh processing methods, optimizing processing

conditions, and combining different techniques to achieve the desired results.

2.18 EFFECT OF FERMENTATION IN DIFFERENT FOOD

Fermentation is a traditional food preservation and transformation technique

that involves the use of microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, or Molds to

alter the flavour, texture, and nutritional composition of food (Caballero et al.,

2017; Charalampopoulos and Panagou, 2014).

Fermentation is an ancient food preservation technique that utilizes

microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast, to transform raw ingredients into

flavorful and nutritious products (Mozzi et al., 2018). This process not only

enhances the shelf life of foods but also introduces a multitude of beneficial

51
effects, making fermentation an essential part of culinary traditions worldwide

(Caballero et al., 2017).

Fermentation's impact varies depending on the type of food being fermented:

 Dairy Products: Fermentation transforms milk into a diverse range of

products, including yogurt, cheese, and kefir. Lactic acid bacteria, the

primary microorganisms involved in dairy fermentation, not only enhance

flavor and texture but also produce lactic acid, which aids in digestion and

contributes to the preservation of these products (Mozzi et al., 2018).

 Vegetables: Fermented vegetables, such as kimchi, sauerkraut, and

pickles, are rich sources of probiotics, dietary fiber, and vitamins. The

fermentation process breaks down complex carbohydrates, making the

nutrients more accessible and enhancing the overall digestibility of these

vegetables (Caballero et al., 2017).

 Legumes: Fermented legumes, such as miso, tempeh, and natto, possess

enhanced digestibility and bioavailability of proteins and minerals. The

fermentation process also produces unique flavors and textures, making

these legumes versatile culinary ingredients (Charalampopoulos and

Panagou, 2014).

 Grains: Fermented grains, such as sourdough bread and tempeh, undergo

a breakdown of gluten proteins, potentially reducing gluten intolerance

symptoms. Additionally, fermentation enhances the flavor, aroma, and

nutritional value of these grain-based products (Caballero et al., 2017)

 Beverages: Fermented beverages, such as kombucha, kefir, and alcoholic

52
 drinks, are rich sources of probiotics and bioactive compounds. These

beverages offer potential health benefits for gut health, immune function,

and overall well-being (Mozzi et al., 2018).

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 SOURCE OF MATERIAL

The mature seed of Avocado pear (Persia american) fruit was sourced from

relief market in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Thereafter, selected quantities of the

fruits were subsequently taken to the department.

3.2 Materials and Equipment

Equipment and apparatus used for the fermentation process of avocado pear

seed flour were gotten from the processing workshop of Food Technology

Department of Federal Polytechnic Nekede Owerri Imo State. These include:

Bowl, knife, blender, Ape x milling machine (SG-703P), Oven (DH9-9023A),

aluminum foil, Soaking Containers (bucket), .

sieve Avocado pear seed, preparation of the samples and analysis were carried

out in the food technology workshop of food technology Department of Federal

Polytechnic Nekede Owerri Imo State.

3.3 METHOD

3.3.1 Sample Preparation

53
The method of Dadge (2019) and Nwaachukwu et al., (2019) were modified and

adopted. The Avocado pear seed were carefully sorted, washed with clean water

to eliminate dust, extraneous and adhering matter. The fruits of the Avocado

pear were critically screened to remove defective one and the outer skin was

peeled off, the edible pulp scraped off and seed collected. The Avocado pear

seed were cut into pieces and soaked in the bucket for 12 hours. After that, the

sample was fermented using different fermenting time (24, 36, 48, 60 hours).

Thereafter, the different fermenting sample were dried in an Oven (DH9-9023A)

and then milled (Ape x milling machine SG-703P), into a fine flour and were

labelled and stored in Ziplog bag for further analysis.

54
 Avocado Seed

Sorting

Cleaning

Washing

Cutting

Deseeding

Slicing

Soaking

Fermenting
(12, 24, 36, 48, and 60 minutes)

Draining and washing

Oven drying (70oC for 1hour)

Milling

Sieving

Avocado Seed Flour

Figure 3.1: Flowchart of processing fermented Avocado seed

Source: Odugbemi (2019).

55
3.4 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

The proximate compositions of all the samples were performed in three

replicates following the standard methods described by AOAC (2015). The

chemicals used were all of analytical grade.

3.4.1 Moisture content determination

The AOAC (2015) method No. 945.38 was employed. Three (3) grams of the

food sample were weighed into a clean, dried, and pre-weighed petri dish. The

petri dish and its contents were dried in the moisture extraction oven at 110°C

for 4 hours. Afterward, the samples were taken out of the oven, allowed to cool

in a desiccator, and then re-weighed. The samples were then returned to the

oven and dried until a constant weight was achieved.

Initial weight of sample  weight of oven dried samples 100

% Moisture content   .......... .......... .1 
Initial weight of sample 1

3.4.2 Ash content determination

The AOAC (2015) method No. 942.05 was employed. Clean dried crucibles were

weighed on an electronic balance, and 5g of the food sample was weighed into

the crucibles. The sample was incinerated/charred in a fume cupboard and then

transferred into the muffle furnace with a pair of tongs and ashed at 550oC for

4h until a white or grey ash was obtained. The sample was removed from the

furnace, cooled in a desiccator, and re-weighed. The percentage ash was

calculated as follows:

Weight of ash 100

% Ash content   .......... .......... .......... ..  2 
Weight of sample 1

3.4.3 Crude Protein determination

56
The AOAC (2015) method No. 955.04, known as the Kjeldahl method, was

utilized. The method was divided into three parts: Digestion, distillation, and

titration.

Digestion: For Digestion, approximately 0.1g of the food samples was weighed

into a clean, dried Kjeldahl flask, and 0.1g CuSO4 crystals, 0.5g Na2SO4 crystals,

and 25ml of concentrated H2SO4 acid were added to the flask, along with glass

beads as anti-bumping agents. The flask and its content were transferred to the

digesting chamber, located in a fume cupboard for proper exhaust, and digested

at 420°C for 30 minutes with constant rotation until the sample changed color.

The digest was then cooled, made up to 100ml with distilled water, and shaken

vigorously for a homogeneous solution.

Distillation: 20ml of the homogenous digest solution was transferred to a

distillation flask, followed by careful addition of 20ml of 40% NaOH solution. In a

receiving flask, 50ml of 2% boric acid solution and two drops of methyl red

indicator were added. The distillation unit was fitted, heated for about 35

minutes until the boric acid solution turned blue, and the volume increased to

about 100ml.

Titration: 10ml of the distillate was titrated against 0.1N HCl to a colorless

endpoint. A blank solution was also titrated to detect any trace of nitrogen in the

blank, and all titre values were recorded. The percentage crude protein was then

calculated according to the prescribed formula (AOAC, 2015).

The percentage crude protein were calculated as follows:

28 Vt  Vb
% Nitrogen   .......... .......... .......... .......... 3 
100 Wo

57
 % Crude Pr otein % Nitrogen  6 . 25 .......... .......... ..........  4 

Where;

Vt = Titre value of sample; Vb = Titre value of blank; Wo = Weight of sample

58
3.4.4 Crude fat determination

The AOAC (2015) method No. 920.39A was utilized. Five (5) grams of the food

sample were weighed into a light filter paper, wrapped, and placed in the

extraction thimble of the Soxhlet extraction apparatus. A clean, dried, and

weighed Soxhlet extraction flask was half-filled with petroleum ether, and the

entire apparatus was assembled, with the flask positioned on the heating mantle

and heated at 60°C. The condenser was cooled with constant running water, and

the fat was extracted for three (3) hours. Upon completion of the extraction, the

extractor was disconnected, and the thimble containing the sample was

removed. The equipment was reassembled, the flask heated at 60°C, and the

solvent evaporated, leaving the oil in the flask. The oil was then dried in a

moisture extraction oven at 110°C for 1 hour to remove solvent residues. The

dried oil in the flask was cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The drying, cooling,

and re-weighing of the oil sample were repeated until a constant weight was

obtained. The percentage fat content was calculated as follows:

Weight of flask  oil  weight of empty flask 100

% Crude fat   .......... .......... ...... 5 
Initial weight of sample 1

3.4.5 Crude fibre determination

The AOAC (2015) method No. 942.05 was employed. Two (2) grams of the

defatted sample were weighed into a 250ml beaker containing 200ml of 0.125M

H2SO4. The mixture was heated in a steam bath at 70 – 90oC for 2 hours, then

allowed to cool. The cooled mixture was filtered using a muslin cloth over a

Buckner funnel. The residue was washed three times with hot water to eliminate

the acid and then placed in a beaker containing 200ml of potassium hydroxide

59
(KOH). The mixture was heated as before over a steam bath for 2 hours. The

solution was filtered, and the residue was washed three times with hot water,

followed by washes with alcohol and water. The final residue obtained was

placed in a clean pre-weighed crucible and dried at 120oC to a constant weight.

The crucible with the oven-dried sample was then put in a muffle furnace and

ashed at 550oC for 30 minutes, ensuring the sample became ash-white. The

crucible and its contents were removed from the furnace, cooled in a desiccator,

and weighed. The percentage crude fibre was calculated accordingly.

Weight of oven dried sample  Weight of ash 100

% Crude fibre   .......... .......... . 6 
Initial weight of sample 1

3.4.6 Carbohydrate content determination

The carbohydrate content of the sample was obtained by difference, i.e., as the

variance between the total summations of percentage moisture, ash, fat, protein,

fiber, and 100.

% Carbohydra te  100  (% moisture % ash % fat % protein % fibre )......... ......  7 

3.5 Determination of functional properties

The methods of Nzelu et al. (2012) and Onwuka (2018) would be adopted for use.

3.5.1 Bulk density

A specific gravity bottle or 10ml capacity measuring cylinder/container would be

weighed. The container would be filled with the sample and the sample weight

would be noted. Then, the bottom of the container would be tapped on the

60
laboratory bench until no more samples would be accommodated in the density

bottle or at the 10ml mark of the cylinder. The weight of the sample would be

divided by the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at the same

temperature.

Weight of sample (g)

Bulk density =
Volume of sample (ml)

3.5.2 Foam capacity

1 – 2g of flour sample would be measured into a flask (100ml volume). The

sample would be dispersed with 100ml distilled water. Then, it would be whipped

at low speed in a blender for 5 minutes. Thereafter, it would be poured into a

25ml measuring cylinder and the new volume would be determined.

Volume after whipping-volume before whipping

Foam Capacity = x 100
Volume before whipping

3.5.3 Emulsification capacity

2g of flour sample with 25ml distilled water would be blended at room

temperature for 30 seconds in a warring blender at 1,600rpm. After complete

dispersion, 25ml vegetable oil would be added gradually and the blending

continued for another 30 seconds. The blended mixture would be transferred

into a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 1,600rpm for 5 minutes. The volume of

oil separated from the sample after centrifugation would be read directly from

the tube.

X 100
Emulsification capacity = x
Y 1

61
Where,

X = Height of emulsified layer

Y = Height of whole solution in the centrifuge tube

62
3.5.4 Gelation capacity

Some portions of the sample would be weighed into test tubes and dispersed in

5ml distilled water to give a range of 2 – 20% w/v. The suspension would be

blended at low speed using a mixer. The test tubes would be heated in boiling

water bath for 5 minutes. Thereafter, the test tubes would be cooled rapidly in

running tap water (within the next 5 minutes). The test tubes would be further
0
cooled for about 120 minutes at 4 C. The cooled test tubes would then be

inverted. The gelation capacity of a sample would be the least gelation

concentration determined as the concentration at which the sample from the

inverted tube will not fall or slip.

3.5.5 Gelatinization temperature

10% of the flour sample would be prepared in a test tube. The aqueous

suspension would be heated in a boiling water bath with continuous stirring. The

temperature at 30 seonds after gelatinization is visually noticed would be

recorded as the gelatinization temperature.

3.5.6 pH

10% w/v suspension of the sample would be prepared in distilled water. The

suspension would be thoroughly mixed in a warring blender and the pH

measured with a good pH meter (State model).

3.5.7 Wettability

Into a 25ml graduated cylinder with a diameter of 1cm, 1g of the sample would

be added. A finger would be placed over the open end of the cylinder which

63
would be inverted and clamped above a 100ml beaker containing 500ml of

distilled water. The finger would be removed and the rest of the material allowed

to be dumped. The wettability would be the time required for the sample to be

completely wet.

3.5.8 Water absorption capacity

Flour sample (1 g) would be weighed into a conical graduated centrifuge tube.

Using a warring whirl mixer, the sample and 10ml distilled water would be mixed

thoroughly for 30 seconds. The sample would be allowed to stand for 30

minutes at room temperature and then centrifuged at 5,000 x g for 30 minutes.

The volume of free water (the supernatant) would be read directly from the

graduated centrifuge tube. Water Absorption Capacity of flour would be

expressed as grams of water absorbed (or retained) per gram of sample.

3.5.9 Oil absorption capacity

1g of the flour sample would be weighed into a conical graduated centrifuge

tube. Using a warring whirl mixer, the sample and 10ml of oil would be mixed

thoroughly for 30 seconds. The sample would be allowed to stand for 30

minutes at room temperature and then centrifuged at 5,000 x g for 30minutes.

The volume of free oil (the supernatant) would be read directly from the

graduated centrifuged tube. Oil Absorption Capacity of flour would be expressed

as grams of oil absorbed (or retained) per gram of sample.

3.6 Amino acid profile of the Avocado pear seed

The amino acid analysis was carried out using a HPLC amino acid analyzer

(Sykam-S7130) according to the method of Ohaegbulam et al. (2021) in which

64
hydrolysates of the sample were obtained. The sample (a known weight

mentioned in the calculation sheet) was transferred into a hydrolysis tube

containing 5ml of 6N HCl and afterwards tightly closed and incubated for 24h at

110°C. After incubation and filtration, the filtrate was evaporated to dryness at

140°C for one hour and diluted with 1ml of 0.12N citrate buffers (pH 2.2) similar

to the amino acid standards. Then, the sample hydrolysate (150 µl) was injected

in a cation separation column at 130°C. Ninhydrin solution and an eluent buffer

(containing solvent A, pH 3.45 and solvent B, pH 10.85) were delivered

simultaneously into the high temperature 16m length reactor coil at a flow rate

of 0.7ml/min. The buffer/ninhydrin mixture were heated in the reactor for 2

minutes at 130°C and the mixture was detected at wavelengths of 570nm and

440nm on a dual-channel photometer. The amino acid composition was

calculated from the areas of standards obtained from the integrator and

expressed as percentages of the total protein.

The tryptophan content was determined according to the method described by

Maria et al. (2014). The tryptophan in the known sample was hydrolyzed with

4.2M Sodium hydroxide (NaOH). In general terms, the known sample was dried

to constant weight, defatted, hydrolyzed, evaporated in a rotary evaporator and

loaded into the Applied Biosystems PTH Amino Acid Analyzer.

Defatting sample

A known weight of the dried sample was weighed into the extraction thimble and

the fat was extracted with chloroform/methanol (2:1 mixture) using soxhlet

extraction apparatus as described by AOAC (2015). The extraction lasted for

15hr.

65
Nitrogen determination

The Nitrogen content was determined using the same method as stated in 3.6.3.

66
Hydrolysis of the sample

A known weight of the defatted sample was weighed into a glass ampoule. Ten

(10) millilitres of 4.2M NaOH was added and oxygen was expelled by passing

nitrogen into the ampoule. The glass ampoule was then sealed with Bunsen

burner flame and put in an oven preset at 105oC ± 5oC for 4 hours. The ampoule

was allowed to cool before breaking it open at the tip and the content was

filtered to remove the humins. The filtrate was neutralized to pH 7.0 and

evaporated to dryness at 40oC under vacuum in a rotary evaporator. The residue

was dissolved with 5ml of borate buffer (pH 9.0) and stored in plastic specimen

bottles, which were kept in the freezer.

Loading of the hydrolysate into TSM Analyzer

The amount loaded was 60 microlitres. This was dispensed into the cartridge of

the analyzer. The period of analysis lasted for 45 minutes.

Method of calculating amino acid values

An integrator attached to the analyzer calculates the peak area proportional to

the concentration of each of the amino acids.

3.7 Statistical Analysis

All the results obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using analysis of

variance to determine significant differences among biscuit samples. Least

significant difference was calculated to ascertain which samples were

significantly different.

67
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

4.2 Proximate composition of flour made from Avocado pear seed

Sample F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 LSD

Moisture (%) 10.21d 13.63c 14.29b 14.41b 15.57a 0.824

Protein (%) 5.03c 6.42d 7.22c 8.20b 9.28a 0.662

Fat (%) 8.56c 9.30b 9.39ab 9.46a 9.40a 0.152

Ash (%) 2.89a 2.82b 2.63b 2.51b 2.47b 0.075

Fibre (%) 4.01a 4.90a 4.85a 4.14a 4.05a 0.181

Carbohydrate (%) 69.3a 62.93a 61.62a 61.28a 59.25a 1.553

Key

F1 => Control

F2 => Fermentation for 24 hours

F3 => Fermentation for 36 hours

F4 => Fermentation for 48 hours

F5 => Fermentation for 60 hours

LSD => Least significant Difference

68
The table 4.2 presents the result of proximate composition of flour derived from

Avocado pear seeds, with variations based on different fermentation durations.

Moisture content, often expressed as a percentage, is a measure of the amount

of water present in a substance or material. Moisture content of the sample

increases with fermentation time, with F5 having the highest value (15.57%) and

F1 with the lowest value of 10.21%. This could be due to the breakdown of

starches and other carbohydrates into simpler molecules, which can bind more

water. This trend suggests that extended fermentation contributes to increased

moisture retention, this is inline with the result in Alaswad and Duong, (2020)

study.

Protein content also increases with fermentation time, with F5 again having the

highest value (9.28%) and F1 the lowest (5.03%). This may be due to the release

of bound protein during fermentation. This suggests that prolonged

fermentation positively influences the protein composition of the avocado pear

seed flour. In comparison to other studies, a study by Alaswad and Duong, (2020)

found that the protein content of avocado pear seed ranged from 5.33% to 9.79%

which is higher than the values reported in this study.

Fat content shows an increasing trend with longer fermentation periods. F1 has

the lowest fat content (8.56%), while F4 demonstrates the highest (9.46%).

Prolonged fermentation appears to enhance the fat content in the flour. This

result is significantly the same with Dreher and Davenport, (2013). In comparison

to other studies, a study by Dreher and Davenport, (2013), found that the Fat

content of avocado pear seed ranged from 8.55% to 9.44% which is significantly

(p>0.05) similar to the value of this study.

69
The ash content, representing mineral content, follows a different trend. F1 has

the highest ash content (2.89%), and F5 has the lowest (2.47%). The ash content

decreases with longer fermentation, suggesting a potential loss of minerals

during the process (Dreher and Davenport, 2013). In comparison to other studies,

a study by Dreher and Davenport, (2013), found that the ash content of avocado

pear seed ranged from 2.85% to 3.04% which is higher than the value of this

study.

Fibre content shows a slight decrease with fermentation time, with F1 having the

highest value (4.01%) and F5 the lowest (4.05%). This could be due to the partial

degradation of fibre during fermentation. This result is inline with Wong et al.,

(2019); their results Fibre content exhibits variations among samples but does

not show a consistent trend with fermentation duration. In comparison to other

studies, a study by Wong et al., (2019), found that the fibre content of avocado

pear seed ranged from 4.15% to 4.24% which is higher than the value of this

study.

Carbohydrate content decreases with fermentation time, with F1 having the

highest value (69.3%) and F5 the lowest (59.25%). This is likely due to the

breakdown of carbohydrates into simpler molecules, such as sugars and

alcohols, during fermentation. This result is similer to the result by Wong et al.,

(2019); Carbohydrate content shows a decline with longer fermentation periods.

Prolonged fermentation may contribute to a reduction in carbohydrates. In

comparison to other studies, a study by Wong et al., (2019), found that the

carbohydrate content of avocado pear seed ranged from 54.63% to 67.24%

which is lower than the value of this study.

70
4.3 Functional composition of flour made from Avocado pear seed

Sample F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 LSD

Bulk Density 3.41b 3.56a 3.24c 3.44b 3.26c 0.054

(g/cm3)

Wettability (s) 7.50a 5.50d 23.0b 34.00a 15.50c 4.760

Gelation 2.40c 2.65b 1.90d 2.80a 2.30c 0.141

Capacity (%)

Gelatinization 91.50a 91.00a 88.00b 86.00d 87.00c 0.990

temperature
(oC)

OAC (g/ml) 8.75c 9.10a 8.95b 8.80c 8.20d 0.139

WAC (g/ml) 7.00b 7.60a 7.55a 6.10c 7.00b 0.245

Foam Capacity 19.00b 21.50b 19.50b 15.00c 27.5a 1.855

(%)

Emulsification 0.405a 0.385b 0.400ab 0.45a 0.44a 0.011

capacity (%)

pH 6.45c 6.46b 6.56b 6.58a 7.24a 0.134

Key

F1 => Control

F2 => Fermentation for 24 hours

F3 => Fermentation for 36 hours

F4 => Fermentation for 48 hours

F5 => Fermentation for 60 hours

LSD => Least significant Difference

OAC => Oil absorption capacity

WAC => Water absorption capacity

71
The table 4.3 shows the result of functional composition of flour derived from

Avocado pear seeds, with variations based on different fermentation durations.

Bulk density values vary among samples. F2 has the highest value for bulk

density (3.56g/cm3), while F3 has the lowest (3.24 g/cm3). Bulk density is an

important parameter in various industries, influencing packaging, transportation,

and storage. F2 (24 hours) has the highest bulk density (3.56 g/mL), meaning it's

most packed. F1 (12 hours) and F5 (60 hours) have the lowest bulk density (3.24

g/cm3 and 3.26 g/cm3), implying a looser packing (Khan et al., 2019). In

comparison to other studies, a study by Khan et al., (2019), found that the Bulk

density content of avocado pear seed ranged from 4.15 g/cm3 to 4.24 g/cm3

which is higher than the value of this study.

Wettability shows a significant variation across samples, with F4 demonstrating

the highest wettability (34.00sec) and F2 the lowest (5.50sec). Wettability is

crucial in assessing how easily a substance wets or absorbs water, impacting its

behavior in various applications. F4 (48 hours) exhibits the highest wettability

(34.00), indicating it absorbs water the fastest. F2 (5.50) has the lowest

wettability, suggesting it takes longer to absorb water. This result is significantly

(P>0.05) similar to Alaswad and Duong, (2020) which was 34.05sec to 5.56sec.

The highest wettability, indicates it absorbs water the fastest. This could be

beneficial for applications like thickening soups or sauces (Alaswad and Duong,

2020).

Gelation capacity varies among samples, with F4 having the highest value

(2.80%) and F3 the lowest (1.90%). Gelation capacity is important in determining

the ability of a substance to form gels, which is relevant in food and industrial

72
processes. F4 (2.80%) has the highest gelation capacity, meaning it forms the

strongest gels. F3 (1.90%) has the lowest gelation capacity, hinting at weaker gel

formation (Alaswad and Duong, 2020), highest gelation capacity in a processed

(fermented Avocado pear seed) avocado seed forms the strongest gels. This

could be useful for thickening jams or jellies.

Gelatinization capacity shows variations, with F1 and F2 having the highest value

(91.50 and 91.00, respectively) and F4 the lowest (86.00). Gelatinization is a key

process in cooking, particularly in starch-based materials. F1 and F2 (91.50 oC

and 91.00 oC) have the highest gelatinization capacity, suggesting they convert

into a gel most effectively. F4 (86.00 oC) has the lowest, implying less efficient

gel formation. This result is significantlt (p>0.05) similar to Alaswad and Duong,

(2020) from the report of the study which was 86.05oC to 91.05oC, the highest

Gelatinization capacity form the most viscous pastes upon heating. This could

be useful for thickening gravies or sauces.

Oil absorption capacity (OAC), F2 exhibits the highest OAC (9.10g/ml), and the

lowest is F5(8.20g/ml). These parameters are important in understanding how

the flour interacts with oil and water in various applications, such as cooking and

food processing. F2 (9.10 g/ml) has the highest OAC, meaning it absorbs the

most oil. F5 (8.20 g/ml) has the lowest OAC, indicating it absorbs less oil. The

result of this study is similar to Khan et al., (2019); the highest OAC (9.10g/ml),

meaning it absorbs oil well. This could be advantageous for baked goods

requiring richer textures or emulsions.

Water absorption capacity (WAC), F2 has the highest WAC (7.60g/ml). This

parameter are important in understanding how the flour interacts with water in

73
various applications, such as cooking and food processing. F2 (7.60 g/g) has the

highest WAC, meaning it absorbs the most water. F4 (6.10 g/ml) have the lowest

WAC, implying they absorb less water. The result of this study is similar to Khan

et al., (2019); the highest WAC (7.60), meaning it absorbs water well. This could

be advantageous for baked goods requiring richer textures or emulsions.

Foam capacity shows significant variations, with F5 having the highest value

(27.5%) and F4 the lowest (15.00%). Foam capacity is relevant in applications

where foaming is desired, such as in certain food and beverage products. F5

(27.5%) exhibits the highest foam capacity, suggesting it forms the most stable

and voluminous foam. F4 (15.00%) has the lowest, indicating it forms less stable

or voluminous foam. This result is in the same conformity with Unlu et al., (2015)

which were 15.00% to 27.50%; the highest foam capacity forms the most stable

and voluminous foams. This could be useful for whipped creams or meringues,

while the lowest capacity, potentially making it less suitable for applications

requiring fluffy foams.

Emulsification capacity varies, with F4 having the highest value 0.45% and F2

0.385% the lowest. Emulsification capacity is crucial in assessing the ability of a

substance to form and stabilize emulsions, important in food and cosmetic

industries. All samples show statistically similar emulsification capacity,

suggesting fermentation time has minimal impact on their ability to stabilize oil-

water mixtures. According to Khan et al. (2019) the highest emulsification

capacities can effectively blend and stabilize oil-water mixtures. This could be

beneficial for salad dressings or mayonnaise (Khan et al. 2019).

pH values differ among samples, with F5 having the highest (7.24) and F1 the

74
lowest (6.45). pH is a fundamental parameter influencing the functional

properties of materials, particularly in food and biological applications. F5 (7.24)

has the highest pH, which is slightly alkaline. F1 (6.45) and F2 (6.46) have the

lowest value for pH, which is slightly acidic. Similarly, Alaswad and Duong, (2020)

highest pH indicates more alkaline. This could affect the taste and texture of

baked goods compared to other samples. (Alaswad and Duong, 2020)

Table 4.3: Amino acid profile of flour made from Avocado pear seed

SAMPLES
AMINO ACID F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
Leucine† 6.42 6.77 7.06 6.16 6.57
Lysine† 3.34 3.55 3.87 3.53 3.45
Isoleucine† 4.81 4.55 4.98 4.42 4.32
Phenylalanine† 3.10 3.55 3.90 3.46 3.37
Trytophan† 0.53 0.68 0.87 0.66 0.60
Valine† 5.20 8.42 8.83 8.19 8.04
Methionine† 2.56 3.18 3.29 2.78 2.65
Proline 3.86 4.26 4.47 3.86 3.86
Arginine 4.47 4.82 5.08 4.73 4.65
Tyrosine 2.41 2.41 2.75 2.41 2.41
Histidine† 2.68 2.84 3.04 2.78 2.68
Cystine 0.61 0.79 1.15 0.67 0.67
Alanine 3.30 3.56 4.17 3.38 3.38
Glutamic acid 7.27 7.57 8.33 7.50 7.34
Glycine 3.97 4.25 4.47 4.11 4.04
Threonine† 2.77 2.61 2.91 2.44 2.50
Serine 3.24 3.70 3.86 3.51 3.43
Aspartic acid 6.26 6.54 7.16 6.36 6.27
TOTAL 66.75 74.05 80.19 71.42 70.23
∑EAA 31.36 36.15 38.75 34.89 34.18

Key

EAA Essential Amino Acid (+)

F1 => Control

F2 => Fermentation for 24 hours

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F3 => Fermentation for 36 hours

F4 => Fermentation for 48 hours

F5 => Fermentation for 60 hours

76
Table 4.3 shows the amino acid profile of flour made from avocado pear seed. A

total of eighteen (18) amino acids were detected in the samples. Amino acids

are the building blocks of protein (Mudambi and Rajagopal, 2009). All the nine

essential amino acids were present in the samples at a range of 31.36g/100g

protein to 38.75g/100g protein, whilst the total amino acids present in the

samples ranged from 66.75g/100g protein to 80.19g/100g protein - from the

Control sample to the avocado pear seed. Eke (2003) explained that protein

amino acids are the twenty a-L-amino acids and some of their derivatives which

serve as the building blocks of protein polypeptides. Eight of these are essential

(because the body needs them, cannot synthesise them and must obtain them

from the diet. They include isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, valine.

phenylalanine, threonine and tryptophan, histidine, the ninth one is needed by

infants), while the rest are non-essential (because the body can synthesise them

from a utilizable source of nitrogen, usually protein). Manay and

Shadaksharaswamy (2008) affirmed that the "quality" or "balance" of a protein

depends upon the kinds and amounts of amino acids it contains. A "balanced" or

"high-quality" protein contains all the essential amino acids needed for the

human body. When the dietary pattern of amino acids differs from the ideal

pattern, it results in "amino acid imbalance", leading to depressed growth and

impairment of mental capabilities in children. Except for mental impairment, all

other defects can be overcome by supplementing the diet with the limiting

amino acids (those not contained, or least below the minimum level, in a protein).

Thus, the value of protein as food depends upon its amino acid composition.

especially that of essential amino acids. From this study, there seemed to be a

gradual but marked increase in the level of essential amino acids based on the

77
treatment applied (Table 4.3).

78
 CHAPTER FOUR

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Overall, the results suggest that fermentation time significantly affects the

proximate composition of avocado pear seed flour. Longer fermentation times

(e.g., 60 hours) lead to higher moisture and protein content, but lower

carbohydrate content. The impact on fat, ash, and fibre is less pronounced.

Extended fermentation periods appear to positively influence protein and fat

content but may lead to increased moisture and decreased carbohydrate content.

The variations in ash and fibre content are less pronounced. The interpretation

of these findings should consider the intended use of the avocado pear seed

flour and the nutritional goals.

5.2 Recommendations

As a result of the high protein content and good functionality of the avocado

pear seeds, it would be a good substitute for flour hence their utilization should

be encouraged. They could also be used in “moi-moi” and baked products as

they would provide good fat binding emulsification and foaming capacity.

From the study, fermenting 24 hours is recommended as the best processing

method for avocados as it improves the functional properties and proximate

composition

79
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