Summary

African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) is one fruit of great economic value in tropical
Africa due to its diverse industrial, medicinal and food uses. Its seeds have also been found to
have a number of beneficial uses. African star seed oil, derived from the fruit of Chrysophyllum
albidum, exhibits certain physiochemical properties and a fatty acid composition that contribute
to its overall characteristics. African star seed oil generally has a low moisture content and
specific gravity. Its refractive index and acid value may vary depending on the sample and
analysis method. The oil contains a range of fatty acids, including saturated, monounsaturated,
and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Predominant fatty acids may include oleic acid, linoleic acid,
palmitic acid, and stearic acid. However, the exact composition can differ based on factors like
geographical location and extraction method. Nutritional significance: African star seed oil's
fatty acid composition suggests potential health benefits.

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Introduction

African Star Apple seed (chrysophyllum albidum) is one of the nonconventional and

underexploited oil seeds. The African apple (Agbalumo in Yoruba, udara in Igbo) is a native of

many parts of tropical Africa. It features prominently in the compound agroforestry system for

fruit, food, cash income and other auxiliary uses including environmental uses. The tree grows as

a wild plant and belongs to the family of sapotaceae which has up to 800 species and make up

almost half of the order (Ehiagbonare et al., 2018). Within the fruit pulp are three to five seeds

which are not usually eaten. Studies reported that the seed oils have potential for use as domestic

and industrial oil. The continued increase in human population has resulted in the demand as

well as the price of edible oils, leading to the search for alternative unconventional sources of

oils particularly in the developing countries (Ehiagbonare et al., 2018).

Various studies have been carried on African Star Apple, such include nutrient and micronutrient

composition by Adepoju (2012) ethnobotanical study (Housessou et al., 2012). The processing

applications of the oil have been suggested by Idowu et al., (2016). Other studies on the seed

bordered on the antimicrobial properties; Chukwuemeka, (2016) also the use of seed oil as a

biofuel and the potential use of the seed as food ingredient. But little published information is

available about the oil yield, physicochemical composition and benefit of the oil as edible oil as

it is affected by processing conditions especially temperature factors.

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Origin of Chrysophyllum albidum
Chrysophyllum albidum is a dominant canopy tree of lowland mixed rain forest, sometimes

riverine belonging to the family sapotaceae. Chrysophyllum is a genus of about 70-80 species of

tropical trees native to tropical regions throughout the world, with the greatest number of species

in northern South America and some part of Africa (Sriram et al., 2015). Chrysophyllum

albidum commonly known as the white Star Apple is a tropical or near-tropical species found

within elevation of about 1,400fit (425m) in the country. It is a tall tree of about 25-37m girth

(Orwa et al., 2009). It bears simple elliptic leaves which are dark green on the adaxial surface

and silvery on the abaxial surface and up to 12-30cm long and 3.8-10cm wide (Orwa et al.,

2019).

Description of African Star Apple (chrysophyllum albidum).

Chrysophyllum albidum is a small to medium buttressed tree species, up to 25-37m in height

with a mature girth varying from 1.5 to 2m. Bole is usually fluted, frequently free of branches for

21m. Bark thin, pale brownish-green, slash exuding white, gummy latex.

Chrysophyllum albidum is tropical American tree, of the sapodilla family (sapotaceae), native to

the West Indies and Central America. It is cultivated for its edible fruit, which is the size and

shape of an apple and is named for the star shaped core. The surface of the fruit is firm and

smooth.

Taxonomy

C. cainito belong to the genus Chrysophyllum L., which is the type genus of the subfamily

Chrysophylloideae, a well supported monophyletic group (Swenson and Anderberg, 2018).

Chrysophyllum comprises about 70 species classified in six sections (Pennington, 2018). Out of

which, four are found only in neotropical regions, while the other two species are native to

Africa and Asia. Recent studies on phylogenetic of Sapotaceae have divulged the genus as a

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 whole is not monophyletic; however, the sampling in these studies was not sufficient to

thoroughly test the monophyly of any of the sections within the genus (Swenson and Anderberg,

2018). The type section Chrusophyllum has been defined as a neotropical group of 17

species distributed throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean (Pennington, 2018).

Further, Pennington (2018) recognized intraspeciûc taxa in three species of the section, viz., C.

oliviforme L., C. marginatum (Hook. and Arn.) Radlk. each with two subspecies, and C.

argenteum Jacq., with ûve subspecies. According to Bartish et al. (2011), the ancestor to the

neotropical clade that includes C. cainito and C.oliviforme likely arrived from Africa in South

America through longdistance dispersal across the Atlantic Ocean ca. 54 – 64 Ma. The lineages

leading to C. cainito and C.oliviforme likely diverged from a common ancestor in the early

Oligocene, between 29 – 19 Ma (Bartish et al., 2011). Scientific classification of

Chrysophyllum cainito (syn. Achras caimito Ruiz and  Pavon) is 

Scientific Classification of Chrysophyllum Albidum

i. Kingdom: Plantae

ii. Order: Ericales 

iii. Family: Sapotaceae

iv. Genus: Chrysophyllum

v. Species: Cainito

vi. Binomial name: Chrysophyllum  cainito 

Common Names of Chrysophyllum Albidum

i. Agbalumo in Yoruba

ii. Agbalumo in Nupe

iii. Udara in Igbo, Ibiobio and Efik,

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 iv. Agwaluma in Hausa,

Plate 1: African Star Apple

African Star Apple Seed

Chrysophyllum albidum Linn (African star apple) is a fruit with extensive nutritional and

medicinal benefits. The fruit and kernel in the seed are both edible. Strains of lactic acid bacteria

(LAB) were isolated from fermented seeds and assessed for probiotic characteristics Oboh et al.,

2019).

Plate 2: Africa Star Apple Seeds

Nutritional Benefits

African star apple fruit has been an available source of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils. It

was investigated the nutritional benefits of the African Star Apple fruit and found it to be rich in

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vitamins and iron. The pectin, vitamin C and polyphenols rich plant has potential for

detoxification and reducing sugar absorption (Edem et al., 2013).

A study was conducted on organoleptic variation of species of African Star Apple fruits in

contrast with their proximate parameters. The fruits had mean values of 73.33, 2.64, 3.61 and

16.99% for the moisture, ash, fiber, and protein contents respectively. The fruit is abundant in

vitamins (25.03mg/100g, 10.74/100%g, 0.15/100g and 0.04/100g.

Vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B1 and vitamin B2 respectively and the vitamin content remains

essentially the same in sweet and sour fruits. It has been observed that the sweeter fruits have

lower amount of carbohydrates and crude ash while the sour fruits are rich in carbohydrates and

crude ash. In addition, both the sweet and sour fruits have similar values for lipids and crude

fibre (Edem et al., 2013).

Studies on the antioxidant and food value of chrysophyllum Albidum showed the plant contains

some phenols, flavonoids, anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin. The anti- nutrient profile showed

that the sour fruits contain a significant amount of phylate, oxalate, flavonoids, phenols and

tannins. (Ajewole and Adeyeye, 2019).

The presence of cardiac glycoside which makes the fruit a good remedy for congestive heart

failure. Comprehensive examination revealed that the seed shell pericarp has more alkaloids

(25.80%) and flavonoid (17.23%) content (Adesina, 2015).

Pulp has the lowest concentration of the phytochemicals quantified. The seed shell pericarp has

higher crude protein (8.66%) and fat (8.07%) content while the fruit pulp has more carbohydrates

(66.45%) and the fruit skin is copious in crude fibre (15.57%) (Adesina, 2015). Flavonoids found

in the fruit scavenge free radicals, alkaloids are beneficial for their anti-inflammatory properties

and saponins possess hypocholesterolemic property by their ability to form insoluble complexes

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with cholesterol significantly reducing its absorption compared the mineral composition of the

peel and pulp of the African Star Apple fruit and found the peel to be richer than the pulp for all

the elements determined except for potassium and sodium (Ajewole and Adeyeye, 2019).

The value for sodium in the pulp and peel (2210 mg/kg) while the pulp (2.9 and 1.9%

respectively) were higher than that of the peel (0.88 and 0.59% respectively) (Ajewole and

Adeyeye, 2019). The pulp was abundant in protein and carbohydrate content (4.1 and 60.1%).

Determined the mineral composition of the leaves and pulp of the specie chrysophyllum

Africanism. Its leaves were richer in zinc and copper than the pulp (1.87 and 0.88mg/100g; 0.48

and 0.29mg/100g respectively) but for other minerals determined the pulp was found to be

significantly higher especially in potassium, calcium and magnesium (1436.38, 185.49 and

82.71mg/100g). The leaves were also richer in vitamins for all the parameters determined

(Ascorbic acid 28.34, Thiamine 13.32, Riboflavin 0.54, Pyridoxine 56.82, Nicotinamin 0.02 and

Cyanocobalamin 0.05mg/kg) (Adesina, 2015).

Table 1: Nutritional Values of African Star Apple

Nutrients Amount
Energy 91.09 Kcal
Carbohydrates 10.49 g
Protein 6.99 g
Total fat 2.49 g
Moisture 73 g
Vitamin C 25
Vitamin B3 1.137 g
Vitamin B1 0.049 mg
Vitamin B2 0.038 mg
Iron 0.49 g
Total dietary fiber 1.92 mg
Protein 1.52 g
Phosphorus 18. 95 mg
Tryptophan 0.004 g
Lysine 0.022 g
Methionine 0.022 g
Calcium 12.35 mg

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Source: ICRAF, 2017 
They contain several nutrients such as protein, lysine, niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic

acid, dietary fiber, amino acids, methionine, vitamin A, C, B3, B2, and B2 in moderate quantities

added to other traces of elements like tannins, terpenoids, flavonoids, and others that are

beneficial to human health. Some have a yellow color too, and this kind of African star apple is

more common than the purplish-green or purple star apple cultivated in other parts of the world

like the ones grown in Southeast Asia, which have extended to Central America. In some

Southeast Asia, other varieties are grown known as just Star apples but are a purple back (Purple

Star Apple) instead of the Nigerian yellow-orange color (Edem et al., 2013).

Health Benefits of Star Apple

African Star Apple is one of the native fruits indigenous to tropical African countries like

Nigeria and contains lots of nutrients that are numerous and beneficial to health. Africa Star

Apple is used in treating high blood pressure, diarrhea, digestive issues and fever, and lots more

(Okafor, 2019).

Below are some amazing health benefits of African star apples.

1.       Aids in Digestive Health

The active fiber content, which is mainly a carbohydrate in star apple, helps keep the digestive

system healthy and helps to overcome constipation and other digestive problems. It helps in

normalizing your bowel movements and aids in getting rid of constipation as well as other

problems of the digestive system. Consumption of star apple helps in preventing the most

dangerous health problem like cancer of the colon (Okafor, 2019).

 2.      Natural Antioxidants

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African Star apple serves as a natural source of antioxidants which helps to remove damaging

oxidizing agents in the body system and keep the immune system healthy. Antioxidant-rich

foods like star apple can prevent free radicals like heart attack and cancer. Regular and moderate

eating of star apples can help reduce the development of dead cells by removing free radicals

(Okafor, 2019).

 3.     Boosts Immune system

These vitamins present in star apples help produce collagen that promotes immune health and

moderates sugar levels in diabetic patients. Africa Star apple consumption helps boost immunity

due to the presence of vitamin C and carotene in it (Edem et al., 2013).

4.      Prevents Anemia

Iron deficiency is a type of anemia that occurs because of insufficient iron in the body. It has a

content of iron that is necessary for the body to produce hemoglobin and prevent iron deficiency

anemia. It can lead to dizziness, loss of appetite, weakness, rapid heartbeat, headache, shortness

of breath, and fatigue (Hyson et al., 2002).

All these can be prevented by consuming foods with high iron content, such as African star

apples and vegetables.

 5.       Strengthens Bones 

Important minerals such as calcium and phosphorus that are important for maintaining strong

bones and teeth are contained in African star apples. Because of its rich

in calcium and phosphorus, regular eating of these fruits contributes a lot to strengthening your

bones and preventing numerous bone diseases (Hyson et al., 2002). 

Uses of Chrysophyllum Albidum

Chrysophyllum albidum is used in treatment of yellow fever, fibroids, and malaria while the leaf

is used as emollient and for the treatment of skin eruption, stomach ache and diarrhoea.

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Safety and Side Effects

Star fruit may cause adverse effects in some people, mainly due to its high oxalate content.

Therefore, people with kidney problems should avoid star fruit and its juice or consult with a

doctor before trying it. For people with kidney problems, eating star fruit regularly may lead to

kidney damage as well as star fruit toxicity, which may cause neurological problems such as

confusion, seizures, and even death (Ochigbo and Paiko, 2011).

People taking prescription drugs should also proceed with caution. Similarly, to grapefruit, star

fruit can alter the way a drug is broken down and used by your body.

General Method of Oil Extraction from Seeds

Oil is extracted from Star Apple seeds by first removing the seed and spreading them to dry out

at room temperature, they are then particularly fried and grounded to coarse powder. Oil is

extracted from a measured amount of coarse powder with diethylether (34°c- 45°c) for 4hours in

soxhlet apparatus, this oil abstained is distilled and then dried in a dessicator (Anthiur, 2012).

Traditional method of extraction was adopted in the extraction of shear butter oil. This method

entails roasting the nuts, pounding them in wooden mortal and grinding with stone. The grinded

mass of shear butter is boiled with water which was then allowed to cool and the oil skimmed

from the surface. It was laborious, inefficient and produced a highly coloured and flavour oil.

But to obtain a high yield of oil, traditional method should use. After extraction has completed

the oil is classified and heated to boil with water at a very high temperature, skimmed off and

then allowed over a period of time to separate into a solid fat and liquid oil (Hilditch, 2019).

Chemical Composition of Oil

Free Fatty Acid

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Free fatty acid is the amount of fatty acid occuring naturally. It exists in an uncombined state as

a definable chemical unit, value is normally expressed as the breakdown of oleic acid. Free fatty

acids are expressed as percentage of acidity calculated as oleic acid (Mono unsaturated fat). The

uncombined fatty acid comes from the breakdown of fat (As triglyceride) into a unit of fatty acid

and glyceride. (Mehlenbacher, 2014).

Peroxide Value

The presence of peroxide in unsaturated fat and oils is an indication of less than optimum storage

conditions. Oxidised oils typically have an undesirable (rancid) flavour and odour. Peroxide

value estimate the oxidation of double bonds in the fatty acid, peroxide value is commonly

determined by measuring the amount of iodine liberated from a saturated potassium iodine (K1

solution) under standard. The liberated iodine is titrated with thiosulphate, peroxide value is

usually express as milliequivalent of peroxide oxygen per kg fat or oil (Pomerang and Meloan,

2018).

Saponification Value

Saponification value of fat or oil can be defined as the number of milligrams of potassium

hydroxide required to neutralise the fatty acids resulting from the complete hydrolysis of 1g of

the sample (Hilditch, 2019). Saponification values are usually large when compared with the

acid values of most edible oils. It is a measure of both free and combined acids. The

saponification value is inversely proportional to mean mol.Wt of the fatty acids in glycerides

presents.

Saponification value actually does not give a better identification index when compared with

iodine value. It is often used to detect the presence of high proportion or the lower fatty acids

(Hilditch, 2019).

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Iodine Value

Iodine value measure the degree of unsaturation in vegetable oils. This value for oil or fat is

defined as the weight of iodine absorbed by 100 parts by weight of the sample. The glycerides of

the unsaturated fatty acids present (more specifically as oleic acid series) with a definite amount

of halogen and the iodine value is therefore a measure of the extent of unsaturation (Eckey and

Miler, 2017).

Iodine value are as signature for differing species or varieties of vegetable oils each oil has a

specific iodine value and this ratio does not alter within the species. When oils are coming with

other species, the iodine level will be a value over ranging between the normal iodine ranging

typically found in each oil (Hilditch, 2019).

Application of African Star Apple Seed Oil

Seed crops are vital sources of oils of nutritional, pharmaceutical and industrial importance. The

characteristics of oils from different sources is dependent mainly on their composition and no oil

from single source can be suitable for all purposes. Need for further investigation of plant oils of

underutilized seeds should be awakened in order to explore them in the production of

pharmaceuticals such as ointments and creams for wound disinfection and management

(Adepoju et al., 2013).

Presently the quest for traditional vegetable oils have increased immensely due to the ever

increasing world population and their use for industrial purposes. New low cost seed crops are

needed to produce inexpensive oils suitable for food, pharmaceutical and industrial applications.

One of the possible alternetive crop is Chrysophyllum albidum (African star apple) and its seeds

could be harnessed for diverse purposes (Adepoju et al., 2013).

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Conclusion

The physiochemical properties and fatty acid composition of African star seed oil, derived from

the fruit of Chrysophyllum albidum, are noteworthy. African star seed oil possesses certain

physiochemical properties that contribute to its overall characteristics. These properties include a

relatively low moisture content, specific gravity, refractive index, and acid value. The exact

values may vary depending on the specific sample and the method of analysis.

The fatty acid composition of African star seed oil is considered nutritionally beneficial. It

typically contains a variety of fatty acids, including saturated, monounsaturated, and

polyunsaturated fatty acids. The predominant fatty acids in the oil may include oleic acid,

linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid, but the exact composition can vary depending on

factors such as geographical location and extraction method. The fatty acid composition of

African star seed oil suggests that it may have potential health benefits. It is important to note

that the specific physiochemical properties and fatty acid composition of African star seed oil

can vary depending on factors such as cultivation conditions, processing methods, and analytical

techniques used.

Recommendation

Therefore, conducting detailed scientific analysis and referencing reliable sources are crucial to

obtain accurate and up-to-date information regarding this oil.

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