Contents

2 Limits and Derivatives 37

2.1 Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.1 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.1 Kinds of Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.2 Continuity from right/left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 Limits Involving Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4.1 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4.2 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.3 Infinite Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.5 Tangents, Velocities, and Other Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.1 Tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.2 Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.6.1 Interpretation of the Derivatives as Slope of a Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6.2 The Derivative as a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6.3 Other Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6.4 How Can a Function Fail to be Differentiable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

36
 Chapter 2

Limits and Derivatives

SECTION 2.2 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION ◆ 101

2.1 Limit the behavior of the function f defined by f 共x兲 苷 x 2
x  2 for

of a Function
Let’s investigate
values of x near 2. The following table gives values of f 共x兲 for values of x close to 2,
Let’s investigate the behavior of the function f defined by f (x) = x2 − x + 2 for values of x near 2. The following
but not equal to 2.
table gives values of f (x) for values of x close to 2, but not equal to 2.

x f 共x兲 x f 共x兲

1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000

1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000
1.95 3.852500 2.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
Let’s investigate the behavior of th
1.995 3.985025 2.005 values of x near 2. The following tab
4.015025
y=≈- x+2 1.999 3.997001 2.001 but not equal to 2.
4.003001

x side of
From the table and the graph of f (a parabola) shown in Figure we see that when x is close to 2 (on either f 共x兲
From the table and the graph of f (a parabola) shown in Figure 1 we see that when
2), f (x) is close to 4. We express this by saying “the limit of the function f (x) = x2 − x + 2 as x approaches 2 is2.0000
x is close to 2 (on either side of 2), f 共x兲 is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we1.0can
equal to 4.” The notation for this is
make the values of f 共x兲 as close as we like to 4 by taking x sufficiently close to 2. 1.5We 2.7500
lim (x2 − x + 2) = 4. 1.8 3.4400
express this by saying “the limit of x→2the function f 共x兲 苷 x
x  2 as x approaches
2

x 1.9 3.7100
2 2 is equal to 4.” The notation for thisy is 1.95 3.8525
proaches 2,
1.99 3.9701
lim 共x
x  2兲 苷 4
2
1.995 3.9850
ƒ x l2
y=≈- x+2 1.999 3.9970
approaches 4
In general, we use the following
4. notation.
From the table and the graph of f
x is close to 2 (on either side of 2),
1 Definition We write make the values of f 共x兲 as close as w
express this by saying “the limit of t
lim f 共x兲 苷 L x
x0l a 2 2 is equal to 4.” The notation for this
As x approaches 2,
and say “the limit of f 共x兲, as x approaches a, equals L” lim 共x
FIGURE 1 x l2

if we can make the values of f 共x兲 arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we

In general, we use the following n
like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not
equal to a. 37
1 Definition We write
38 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

In general, we use the following notation.

Definition 1.

We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a

and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L” if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily
close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of) but not
equal to a.

An alternative notation for

lim f (x) = L
x→a

is
102 ■■■ CHAPTER
102
102 CHAPTER
CHAPTER
222LIMITS
LIMITS
LIMITS
AND
AND
AND
DERIVATIVES
DERIVATIVES
DERIVATIVES
f (x) → L as x → a

which is usually read “f (x) approachesFigureL as22x2shows

Figure
Figure approaches
shows
showsthe the
thegraphsa”. Notice
graphs
graphs of
of
ofthree the
three
three phrase Note
functions.
functions.
functions. “but
Note 6= in
xthat
Notethat
that a” in
ininpart
partthe
part(c),
(c),
(c),f f共a兲
f共a兲
共a兲isisisnot
definition notof
not
defined
defined
limit. This means that in finding thedefined
limitand and
andfinin
of inpart
(x)part
part
as(b),
(b), f f共a兲
x(b), f共a兲
共a兲苷
approaches苷苷LL.L.But
.But
Butwe
a, ininineach
each
eachcase,
never case,
case,
regardless
regardless
regardless
consider x = of of
a.ofwhat
what
Inwhat happens
happens
fact,happens
f (x) at atataa,a, ,
need
lim
lim
lim a afaf共x兲
x xlxll 共x兲
共x兲苷
fthing苷 苷Lthat
L.L. . matters is how f is defined near a.
not even be defined when x = a. The only
yyy yyy yyy

LLL LLL LLL

000 aaa xxx 000 aaa xxx 000 aaa xxx

(a)
(a)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(b)
(b) (c)
(c)
(c)
(c)

FIGURE
FIGURE
FIGURE222 lim
lim
limƒ=L
ƒ=Linininall
ƒ=L all
allthree
three
threecases
cases
cases Figure 2.1
x x xa a a

Figures show the graphs of three EXAMPLE

functions. Notethe that in of
Figure xxx


111f (a) is not defined and in Figure 2.1b,
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE111Guess Guess
Guess the
thevalue
value
value ofoflimlim 2.1c,
lim ...
f (a) 6= L. But in each case, regardless of what happens at a, lim f (x)
x xlxl1l1 1xx2x2


2
=11L
1
x→a
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTIONNotice
Notice
Noticethat that
thatthe
the functionf f共x兲
thefunction
function f共x兲
共x兲苷 苷苷共x共x共x


1兲兾共x
1兲兾共x
1兲兾共x

222


1兲 1兲1兲isisisnot
not
notdefined
defined
definedwhen
when
when
xxx111 f f共x兲
f共x兲
共x兲
Example 1. xxx苷
苷苷11,1,but
,but
butthat
that
thatdoesn’t
doesn’t
doesn’tmatter
matter
matterbecause
because
becausethe the
thedefinition
definition
definitionof ofoflim
lim
limx xl a afaf共x兲
xll f共x兲
共x兲says
says
saysthat
that
thatwe
we
we
0.5
0.5
0.5 0.666667
0.666667
0.666667 consider
consider
considervalues
values
valuesof of
ofxxxthat
that
thatare
are
areclose
close
closetototoaaabut but
butnotnot
notequal
equal
equaltototoaa.a.The
.The
Thetables
tables
tablesatatatthe
the
theleft
left
leftgive
give
give
0.9
0.9
0.9 sin0.526316
x0.526316
0.526316 values
values
valuesof off f共x兲
of f共x兲
共x兲(correct
(correct
(correcttototosix
six
sixdecimal
decimal
decimalplaces) places)
places)forfor
forvalues
values
valuesof ofofxxxthat
that
thatapproach
approach
approach111(but(but
(butare
are
are
Find
0.99
0.99 lim
0.99x→0 .
0.502513
0.502513
0.502513 not
not
not
equal
equal
equal to
toto 1).
1).
1).
On
OnOn the
the
thebasis
basis
basisof
ofofthe
the
the values
values
values inin
in
the
the
thetable,
table,
table, we
wewe make
make
make the
the
theguess
guess
guess that
that
that
x
0.999
0.999
0.999 0.500250
0.500250
0.500250
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999 0.500025
0.500025
0.500025 xxx


111
lim
lim
lim 2 苷 苷 苷0.5
0.5
0.5
x xlxl1l1 1xx2x2



111
Solution. Again the function f (x) = sin x/x is not defined when x = 0. Using a calculator (and remembering that,
xxx111 f f共x兲
f共x兲
共x兲
Example
Example
Example
if x ∈ R, sin x means the sine of the angle whose111isisis
illustrated
illustrated
illustrated
radian by
by
bythe
measurethe
thegraph
graph
is graph
x), of of
off fconstruct
we finininFigure
Figure
Figure3.
3.3.Now
the Now
Now let’s
let’s
let’schange
following change
change f fslightly
table fof slightly
slightly
values
1.5
1.5
1.5 0.400000
0.400000
0.400000
correct to eight decimal places. by
by
by
giving
giving
giving
it
itit
the
the
the value
value
value222when
when
when x x苷
x 苷苷 1 1 1and
andand calling
calling
calling the
the
the
resulting
resulting
resulting function
function
function tt:t: :

再再
1.1
1.1
1.1 0.476190
0.476190
0.476190
1.01
1.01
1.01 0.497512
0.497512
0.497512 xxx



111
ifififxxx苷
苷苷111
苷 xxx


111
1.001
1.001
1.001 0.499750
0.499750
0.499750 222
t(x)苷
t(x)
t(x) 苷
1.0001
1.0001
1.0001 0.499975
0.499975
0.499975
222 ifififxxx苷
苷苷111

This
This
Thisnew
new
newfunction
function
functiontttstill
still
stillhas
has
hasthe
the
thesame
same
samelimit
limit
limitas
as
asxxxapproaches
approaches
approaches111(see
(see
(seeFigure
Figure
Figure4).
4).
4).
yyy yyy

222

x-1
x-1
x-1
y=
y=
y= y=©
y=©
y=©
≈-1
≈-1
≈-1
 sin x
EXAMPLE 3 Find lim .
xl0 x
SOLUTION Again the function f 共x兲 苷 共sin x兲兾x is not defined when x 苷 0. Using a
2.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 39
calculator (and remembering that, if x 僆 ⺢, sin x means the sine of the angle whose
radian measure is x), we construct the following table of values correct to eight
decimal places. From the table and the graph in Figure 6 we guess that
y
(- 1,0.841471
sin x ) (1,0.841471)
lim 苷1
xl0 x
1 using a geometric
This guess is in fact correct, as will be proved in Section 3.4
argument.

sin x
x
x
y
1.0 0.84147098
sin x
0.5 0.95885108 1 y=
x
0.4 0.97354586
0.3 0.98506736
0.2 0.99334665
0.1 0.99833417
_1 0 1 x
0.05 0.99958339
0.01 0.99998333
FIGURE 6
0.005 0.99999583
0.001 0.99999983 x
-1 1

From the table and the graph 

EXAMPLEin4 Figure
Find limwe
singuess
. that
xl0 x
sin x
SOLUTION Once again the function
lim =1兾x兲 is undefined at 0. Evaluating the
f 共x兲 苷 sin共
▲ Computer Algebra Systems function for some small values x→0
of x, wex get
Computer algebra systems (CAS) have
commandsThis guess limits.
that compute is inInfact
order correct, we will prove f 共1兲 later
苷 sin using 1
()
 苷 0 a geometricf argument.
2 苷 sin 2 苷 0
to avoid the types of pitfalls demon-
strated in Examples 2, 4, and 5, they () f 3 苷 sin 3 苷 0
1
()
f 4 苷 sin 4 苷 0
1

don’t find limits by numerical experimen-

tation. Instead, theyExample 2.
use more sophisti- f 共0.1兲 苷 sin 10 苷 0 f 共0.01兲 苷 sin 100 苷 0
cated techniques such as computing
infinite series. If you have access to a
π Similarly, f 共0.001兲 苷 f 共0.0001兲 苷 0. On the basis of this information we might be
CAS, use the limitFind
commandlimto sin
compute. tempted to guess that
the limits in the examples of
x→0 x
this section
and to check your answers in the exer- 
cises of this chapter. lim sin 苷0
xl0 x
| but this time our guess is wrong. Note that although f 共1兾n兲 苷 sin n 苷 0 for any
π
Solution. Once again theinteger
function
n, it f
is(x)
also=true
sin( x )f is
that 共x兲undefined at 0. Evaluating
苷 1 for infinitely the
many values of function
x that for0.some small x values
approach
of, we get [In fact, sin共兾x兲 苷 1 when
 
苷  2n
f (1) = sin π = 0 x f (21 ) = sin 2π = 0
2
and, solving for x, we get x 苷 2兾共4n  1兲.] The graph of f is given in Figure 7.
f ( 13 ) = sin 3π = 0 f ( 41 ) = sin 4π = 0 (2.1)

f (0.1) = sin 10π = 0 f (0.01) = sin 100π = 0

Similarly, f (0.001) = f (0.0001) = 0. On the basis of this information we might be tempted to guess that

π
lim sin =0
x→0 x

but this time our guess is wrong. Note that although f (1/n) = sin nπ = 0 for any integer n, it is also true that
f (x) = 1 for infinitely many values of x that approach 0. In fact, sin(π/x) = 1 when

π π
= + 2nπ
x 2

and, solving for x, we get x = 2/(4n + 1).

 40 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

SECTION 2.2 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION ◆ 105

The graph of f is given in Figure.
y
y=sin(π/x)
1

ound of this function trying to

mit.
_1
urces / Module 2
asics of Limits 1 x
Sound of a Limit that Does
Not Exist

_1
FIGURE 7
The broken lines indicate that the values of sin(π/x) oscillate between 1 and −1 infinitely often as x approaches 0.
dule 2.2 Since
helps you values of fThe
explore
the broken
(x) do not lines indicate
approach that the
a fixed valuesasofxsin共
number 兾x兲 oscillate
approaches 0, between 1 and
1
s at points where graphs infinitely often as x approaches 0. (Use a graphing device to graph f and zoom in
al behavior. toward the origin several times. What limdo you π
observe?)
sin
Since the values of f 共x兲 do not approach a xfixed number as x approaches 0,
x→0

does not exist. 

lim sin does not exist
xl0 x

冉 冊
Example 3.
cos 5x
EXAMPLE 5 Find lim x 3  .
The Heavisidea function H xis
l 0defined 10,000
by,
SOLUTION As before, we construct a table of
 values.
0, t<0
H(t) =
1, ≥ 5x
tcos 0
x x3 
10,000
Its graph is shown in Figure.
1 1.000028
a This 0.5
function is named after the electrical engineer 0.124920
Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925) and can be used to describe an
electric current that is switched on at time t = 0.0.1 0.001088
106 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
0.05 0.000222
0.01 0.000101

y EXAMPLE 6 The Heaviside functio

From the table it appears that

xl0
冉
lim x 3 1
cos 5x
10,000
冊 苷0
H
But if we persevere with smaller values of x, the second table suggests that
cos 5x

冉 冊
x3  0 t
10,000 cos 5x 1
lim x  3
苷 0.000100 苷
0.00010009 xl0 10,000 10,000 [This function is named after the
that lim cos85x 苷 1 and then it follows that the limit is and can be used to describe an el
0.00010000 Graph of the Heaviside function.
Later we will see FIGURE 0.0001.
xl0
graph is shown in Figure 8.
As t approaches 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0. As t approaches 0 from the right, H(t) approaches 1. There
| Examples 4 and 5 illustrate some of the pitfalls in guessing the value of a limit.
As tItapproaches 0 from the le
is no single number that to
is easy H(t) approaches
guess the wrong as t approaches
value 0. Therefore,
if we use inappropriate lim H(t) does not exist.
values
t→0 of x, but it is difficult
ExampleH共t兲
to know when to stop calculating values. And, as the discussion after right, 2 approaches 1. There is
2.1.1 One-Sided shows, Limits
sometimes calculators and computers give the wrong values. Later,approaches
however, 0. Therefore, lim t l 0
we will develop foolproof methods for calculating limits.
We noticed in previous example that H(t) approaches 0 as t approaches 0 from the left and H(t) approaches 1 as
t approaches 0 from the right. We indicate this situation symbolically by writing
One-Sided Limits
lim H(t) = 0 and lim H(t) = 1
t→0− t→0+
We noticed in Example 6 that H
The symbol “t → 0− ” indicates that we consider only values of t that are less than 0. Likewise,“t → 0+ ” indicates
that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0.
H共t兲 approaches 1 as t approach
bolically by writing

lim H共t兲 苷
t l 0

 The
The
symbol
symbol t l0
0”
indicates
“t “l ” indicatesthat
that
weweconsider
consideronly
only
values
values
ofoft that
t that
areare
less
less
than
than
0. 0.
 
Likewise, “t “l
Likewise, t l0 0” indicates
” indicates
that
that
weweconsider
consider
only
only
values
values t that
ofof t that
areare
greater
greater
than
than
0. 0.
2.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 41

2 2Definition
DefinitionWe
Wewrite
write
Definition 2.
lim f 共x兲
lim
a

f 共x兲苷苷L L
x lxal
We write
andandsaysay
thethe
left-hand
left-hand limit
limitofoff 共x兲
f 共x兲asasxf (x)
lim approaches
x approaches
=L a [or
a [or thethelimit
limit f 共x兲
ofof f 共x兲
asas
x→a−
x approaches
x approachesa froma from the the
left]
left]
is is
equal
equal LL
toto if if
wewe
can can
make
make thethe
values
valuesofoff 共x兲
f 共x兲
and sayasthe
as left-hand
close
closetotoLL limit
asas
wewe of
like
likefby
(x)
by as x approaches
taking
taking x to
x to
bebe a (or the limit
sufficiently
sufficientlycloseof to
close f (x)
to aasand
a and xxapproaches
less
x lessthan
thana a.
a. from the
left) is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently
close to a and x less than a.
Notice
Noticethat
thatDefinition
Definition2 2differs
differsfrom
fromDefinition
Definition1 1only
onlyininthat requirex to
thatwewerequire x tobebe
less thana. aSimilarly,
lessthan . Similarly,if ifwewerequire thatx be
requirethat x begreater thana, awe
greaterthan , wegetget“the
“theright-hand
right-hand
Noticelimit
limit
that of f 共x兲
of f 共x兲
asas
Definition approaches
x approaches
2x differs a is
a is
equal
from Definition equaltoto
1 onlyLin
”Land
”that
andwe
wewewrite
writex to be less than a. Similarly, if we
require
require that x be greater than a, we get “the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L” and we
lim f 共x兲
lim f 共x兲苷苷L L
write  a
x lxal

Thus,
Thus,thethe
symbol
symbol x laa”means
“x“l ” means lim
that
that
x→awe f consider
+ we
(x)consider
= L only x
only x a. aThese
. These
definitions
definitions
areare
illustrated
illustratedinin
Figure
Figure
9. 9.
Thus, the symbol “x → a+ ” means that we consider only x > a. These definitions are illustrated in Figure 2.2.

y y y y

LL ƒƒ
ƒƒ LL

0 0 x x a a x x 0 0 a a x x x x

FIGURE
FIGURE
9 9 (a)(a)
limlimƒ=L
ƒ=L Figure 2.2 (b)(b)
limlimƒ=L
ƒ=L
x ax_ a _ x ax+ a+

By comparing Definition 1 with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see that the following is true.
SECTION 2.2 THE LIMI

lim f (x) = L
x→a
By comparing Definition l with the definitions of one-
if and only if following is true.
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L
x→a+ x→a−

Example 4. 3 lim f 共x兲 苷 L if and only if lim f 共x兲 苷 L

xla x l a

The graph of a function is shown in Figure. Use it to state the values (if they exist) of the following:
a) lim− g(x)
y EXAMPLE 7 The x→2graph of a function t is shown in Figure
4 values (if they exist)
b) lim of the following:
g(x)
+x→2
3 (a) lim
t共x兲
y=© xl2 c) lim g(x)(b) lim t共x兲 xl2
(c) lim t共x兲
xl2
x→2

(d) lim
t共x兲 (e) lim t共x兲

d) lim− g(x) (f) lim t共x兲
xl5 x→5 xl5 xl5
1
e) lim
SOLUTION From the g(x)
graph we see that the values of t共x兲 ap
0 x→5+
1 2 3 4 5 x
from the left, but they approach 1 as x approaches 2 from
f) lim g(x)
x→5

FIGURE 10 (a) lim
t共x兲 苷 3 and (b) lim

xl2 xl2

(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we concl
limx l 2 t共x兲 does not exist.
The graph also shows that

(d) lim
t共x兲 苷 2 and (e) lim

xl5 xl5
42 y EXAMPLECHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
7 The graph of a function t is shown in Figure 10.
4 values (if they exist) of the following:
3
Solution. From the graph we see that the values of g(x) (a)
approach
lim 3t共x兲
as x approaches
(b) 2lim
fromt共x兲
the left, but(c)
they
lim t共x兲
y=© x l 2
x l 2 xl2
approach 1 as x approaches 2 from the right. Therefore
(d) lim
t共x兲 (e) lim t共x兲 (f) lim t共x兲
a) limx→2− g(x) =13 xl5 xl5 xl5

b) limx→2+ g(x) = 1 SOLUTION From the graph we see that the values of t共x兲 appro
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
from the left, but they approach 1 as x approaches 2 from th
c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude that lim g(x) does not exist.
x→2
The graph also shows that
FIGURE 10 (a) lim
t共x兲 苷 3 and (b) lim t共
xl2 xl2
d) lim− g(x) = 2 and,
x→5
(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude
e) lim+ g(x) = 2.
x→5 limx l 2 t共x兲 does not exist.
f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so, The graph also shows that
we have

lim g(x) = 2.
x→5 (d) lim
t共x兲 苷 2 and (e) lim t共
xl5 xl5
Despite this fact, notice that g(5) 6= 2.
(f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so, b

Example 5. lim t共x兲 苷 2

xl5

Find lim
1
if it exists. Despite this fact, notice that t共5兲 苷 2.
x→0 x2

1
2 EXAMPLE
Solution. As x becomes close to 0, x also becomes close to 8 2Find
0, and 1/x becomes if it exists.
lim 2 large.
x l 0very
x
y
SOLUTION As x becomes close to 0, x 2 also becomes close to 0
1
x very large. (See the table at the left.) In fact, it appears from
x2
tion f 共x兲 苷 1兾x 2 shown in Figure 11 that the values of f 共x兲
1 1 large by taking x close enough to 0. Thus, the values of f 共x兲
0.5 4 number, so lim x l 0 共1兾x 2 兲 does not exist.
0.2 25
0.1 100 y
0.05 400
0.01 10,000 ( 1. , 1. )
0.001 1,000,000
x
1
y=
≈
In fact, it appears from the graph of the function f (x) = 1/x2 shown in Figure that the values of f (x) can be made
1
arbitrarily large by taking x close enough to 0. Thus, the values of f (x) do not approach a number, so lim 2
x→0 x
does not exist.
0
FIGURE 11
2.2. CALCULATING LIMITS USING THE LIMIT LAWS 43

2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

Suppose that c is a constant and the limits

lim f (x) and lim g(x)

x→a x→a

exist. Then

1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

2. lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

3. lim [c.f (x)] = c. lim f (x)

x→a x→a

4. lim [f (x).g(x)] = lim f (x). lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

lim f (x)
f (x) x→a
5. If lim g(x) 6= 0, then lim =
x→a x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

n
n
6. lim f (x) = lim f (x) , where n is a positive integer.
x→a x→a

7. lim c = c
x→a

8. lim x = a
x→a

9. lim xn = an , where n is a positive integer

x→a
√ √
10. lim n
x= n
a, where n is a positive integer. (If n is even, we assume that lim f (x) > 0)
x→a x→a

Example 6.

Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.

lim (2x2 − 3x + 4)
x→5

Solution.

lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) = lim (2x2 ) − lim (3x) + lim 4 (by Laws 2, 1)

x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5

= 2 lim x2 − 3 lim x + lim 4 (by 3)

x→5 x→5 x→5

= 2(52 ) − 3(5) + 4 (by 9,8, and 7)

= 39
44 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution, as the following examples show.

Example 7.

x2 − 1
Find lim .
x→1 x − 1

Solution. Let f (x) = (x2 − 1)/(x − 1). We can’t find the limit by substituting x = 1 because f (1) isn’t defined. Nor
can we apply the Quotient Law because the limit of the denominator is 0. Instead, we need to do some preliminary
algebra. We factor the numerator as a difference of squares:

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x−1 x−1

The numerator and denominator have a common factor of x − 1. When we take the limit as approaches 1, we have
x 6= 1 and so x − 1 6= 0. Therefore, we can cancel the common factor and compute the limit as follows:

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
lim = lim
114 ■
x→1 x − 1 CHAPTER 2
x→1 LIMITS
x − AND
1 DERIVATIVES
= lim (x + 1)
x→1
y The limit in this example arose in Section 2.1
=1+1=2
gent to the parabola y 苷 x 2 at the point 共1, 1兲.
3
y=ƒ
EXAMPLE 4 Find lim t共x兲 where
2 x l1
Example 8.

Find lim g(x) where

x→1
1

x + 1 if x 6= 1
t共x兲 苷 再
x1

g(x)0= 1 2 3 x
π if x = 1 SOLUTION Here t is defined at x 苷 1 and t共1兲 苷
y
approaches 1 does not depend on the value of
for x 苷 1, we have
3
y=© lim t共x兲 苷 lim 共x
x l1 x l1
2
Note that the values of the functions in Exam
1
x 苷 1 (see Figure 2) and so they have the sam

0 1 2 3 x 共3  h兲2
9
EXAMPLE 5 Evaluate lim .
h l0 h
FIGURE 2
SOLUTION If we define
The graphs of the functions f (from
Solution. Here g is defined at x = 1 and g(1) =3)
Example π,and
butgthe value
(from of a limit
Example 4) as x approaches 1 does not depend on
共3  h
the value of the function at 1. Since g(x) = x + 1 for x 6= 1, we have F共h兲 苷
h
lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1 then, as in Example 3, we can’t compute lim h
undefined. But if we simplify F共h兲 algebraical

共9  6h  h 2 兲
9
F共h兲 苷
h

(Recall that we consider only h 苷 0 when letti

共3  h兲2
9
lim 苷 li
h l0 h hl
2.2. CALCULATING LIMITS USING THE LIMIT LAWS 45

Example 9.

(3 + h)2 − 9
Evaluate lim .
h→0 h

(3 + h)2 − 9
Solution. If we define F (h) = we can’t compute lim F (h) by letting h = 0 since F (0) is undefined.
h h→0
But if we simplify F (h) algebraically, we find that

(h2 + 6h + 9) − 9 h2 + 6h
F (h) = = =6+h
h h

(Recall that we consider only h 6= 0 when letting h approach 0.) Thus

(3 + h)2 − 9
lim = lim (6 + h) = 6
h→0 h h→0

Example 10.
√
t2 + 9 − 3
Find lim .
t→0 t2

Solution. We can’t apply the Quotient Law immediately, since the limit of the denominator is 0. Lets multiply
√
and divide function with conjugate of t2 + 9 − 3.
√ √ √
t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim .√
t→0 t2 t→0 t2 t2 + 9 + 3
2
(t + 9) − 9 t2
= lim √ = lim √
t→0 t2 ( t2 + 9 + 3) t→0 t2 ( t2 + 9 + 3)

1 1
= lim √ =q
t→0 2
t +9+3 2
lim (t + 9) + 3
t→0
1 1
= =
3+3 6

Some limits are best calculated by first finding the left- and right-hand limits. The following theorem says that
a two-sided limit exists if and only if both of the one-sided limits exist and are equal.

Theorem 1.

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if and only if
lim f (x) = L = lim− f (x)
x→a+ x→a

When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also hold for one-sided limits.
 When computing one-sided limits we use the CHAPTER
46
fact that2.theLIMITS
Limit Laws also hold
SECTION
AND DERIVATIVES
for
2.3 CALCULATING

one-sided limits.
Some limits are best calculated by first fin
following theorem is a reminder of what we
ⱍ ⱍ
Example 11.
EXAMPLE 7 Show that lim x 苷 0. two-sided limit exists if and only if both of t
Show that lim |x| = 0. x l 0
x→0
SOLUTION Recall that lim f 共x兲 苷 L

再
1 Theorem if and o
x la

x if x 0
Solution. Recall that
ⱍxⱍ 苷|x| =
(

x x ≥if0 x  0
x, When computing one-sided limits we use t
−x, x<0 one-sided limits.
Since ⱍ ⱍ
x = x苷forx0 for
Since |x| we
< x, x 0, we have
have
lim |x| = lim+ x = 0
EXAMPLE 7 Show that lim x 苷 0.
x l0
ⱍ ⱍ
ⱍ ⱍ
x→0+ x→0
lim x 苷 lim x 苷 0 SOLUTION Recall that

再
For x < 0 we have |x| = −x and so
x l 0 x l 0
lim |x| = lim (−x) = 0 x
ⱍxⱍ 苷
ⱍ ⱍ
x→0− x→0−
x  0bywe
ForTherefore, have x 苷
x and so
Theorem
x
▲ The result of Example 7 looks
lim
plausible fromx→0 |x| =
Figure 3.0. ⱍ ⱍ
Since x 苷 x for x  0, we have
x l0
ⱍ ⱍ
lim
x 苷y lim
共
x兲 苷 0
x l0
ⱍ ⱍ
lim x 苷 lim
x l 0 xl
y=|x|
Therefore, by Theorem 1, ⱍ ⱍ
For x  0 we have x 苷
x and so
lim x 苷 0
x l0
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
lim x 苷 lim

x l 0
x l0

EXAMPLE 8 Prove that lim

ⱍ x ⱍ does not exist. 0 x Therefore, by Theorem 1,
lim x ⱍ
x l0 xFIGURE 3 x l0

ⱍ x ⱍ does not exist

ⱍxⱍ 苷
Example 12.
EXAMPLE 8 Prove that lim
x x
苷 lim 1 苷 1
x l0
SOLUTION |x| lim lim
l 0 x x
ⱍxⱍ 苷
Prove that lim does not xexist. x l0 x l0
x→0 x x
SOLUTION lim lim
x l0 x x l0 x

Solution. lim
ⱍxⱍ 苷
x

lim
苷 lim
共
1兲 苷
1 ⱍxⱍ 苷

x l0
lim
x |x| = x l 0x x
lim
x l0
= lim 1 = 1
lim

x l0 x
lim

x l0 x
x→0+ x x→0+ x x→0+

Since the right- and left-hand limlimits

|x| are−xdifferent,
= lim = lim (−1)it= follows
−1 Sincefrom Theorem
the right- 1 that
and left-hand limits are differ

ⱍ ⱍ 苷0 ⱍ not
xⱍ 兾x
兾x
ⱍ ⱍ
x x
兾x does not exist. The graph of the function f 共x兲x ldoes lim x doesis shown in graph of the
not exist. The
x→0 − x→0 − x→0 −

limSince 0 x
x l the right- and left-hand limits are different, it follows from Theorem that limit exist.
Figure 4 and supports the limits that we foun
Figure 4 and supports the limits that we found. y
y y= x
|x|
1
|x|
y= x 1 0
_1
0 FIGURE 4 x
_1
EXAMPLE 9 The greatest integer function is
that is less than or equal to x. (For instance, 冀
▲ Other notations for 冀x冁 are 关x兴 and  x.
冀
12 冁 苷
The graph of the function f (x) = |x|/x is shown in Figure and supports the one-sided limits ) Show

1.that that lim x l3 冀x冁 does not
we found.

EXAMPLE 9 The greatest integer function is defined by 冀x冁 苷 the largest integer
that is less than or equal to x. (For instance, 冀4冁 苷 4, 冀4.8冁 苷 4, 冀 冁 苷 3, 冀 s2 冁 苷 1,
1
 li
y=[ x] xl
2
Since 冀x冁 苷 2 for 2  x  3, we
2.2. CALCULATING LIMITS USING THE1 LIMIT LAWS 47

0 x li
1 2 3 4 5 xl
Theorem 2.
Because these one-sided limits a
If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits ofTheorem
f and g both
1. exist as x
approaches a, then
FIGURE 5x→a
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).
x→a The next two theorems give tw
Greatest integer function using the precise definition of a l

Theorem 3 (The Squeeze Theorem). 2 Theorem If f 共x兲  t共x兲 wh

limits of f and t both exist as
If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a

then
lim g(x) = L.
x→a 3 The Squeeze Theorem If f 共x兲
sibly at a) and

lim
xl
The Squeeze Theorem, which is sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem, is illustrated
by Figure. then

y
h The Squeeze Theorem, somet
Theorem, is illustrated by Figure
g
L
h共x兲 near a, and if f and h have th
limit L at a.

f
EXAMPLE 10 Show that lim x 2 sin
0 a x x l0

SOLUTION First note that we canno

FIGURE 6
It says that if g(x) is squeezed between f (x) and h(x) near a, and if f and h have the same limit L at a, then g is
forced to have the same limit L at a. lim x 2 s
x l0

because lim x l 0 sin共1兾x兲 does no

Example 13.
since
1
lim x2 sin =?
x→0 x

we have, as illustrated by Figure

Solution. First note that we cannot use


1 1
lim x sin = lim x2 · lim sin
2
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

1
because lim sin does not exist.
x→0 x
48 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

However, since
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤1
x
we have, as illustrated by Figure
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2 .
x
We know that lim x2 = 0 and lim (−x2 ) = 0 Taking
x→0 x→0

1
f (x) = −x2 , g(x) = x2 sin and h(x) = x2
x

in the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain

1
lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x

2.3 Continuity
We noticed that the limit of a function as x approaches a can often be found simply by calculating the value of
the function at a. Functions with this property are called continuous at a. We will see that the mathematical
definition of continuity corresponds closely with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language.

Definition 3.

A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

We say that f is discontinuous at a, or f has a discontinuity at a, if f is not continuous at a. Notice that

Definition implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a:

1. f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )

2. lim f (x) exists

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

The definition says that f is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x approaches a. Thus, a continuous
function f has the property that a small change in x produces only a small change in f (x). In fact, the change in
f (x) can be kept as small as we please by keeping the change in x sufficiently small. Geometrically, you can think
of a function that is continuous at every number in an interval as a function whose graph has no break in it. The
graph can be drawn without removing your pen from the paper.
 ▲ As illustrated in Figure 1, if f is con- 1. f 共a兲 is defined (that is, a is in
tinuous, then the points 共x, f 共x兲兲 on the
graph of f approach the point 共a, f 共a兲兲 2. lim f 共x兲 exists
2.3. CONTINUITY x la 49
on the graph. So there is no gap in the
curve. 3. lim f 共x兲 苷 f 共a兲
x la
y y=ƒ The definition says that f is contin
ƒ
a. Thus, a continuous function f ha
approaches f(a) only a small change in f 共x兲. In fact
f(a). please by keeping the change in x su
Physical phenomena are usually
velocity of a vehicle varies continuou
continuities do occur in such situati
tion 2.2, where the Heaviside functio
0 a x not exist.]
As x approaches a, Geometrically, you can think of a
interval as a function whose graph h
Example 14. FIGURE 1 out removing your pen from the pap
120 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
Figure shows the graph of a function f . At which numbers is f discontinuous? Why?
y EXAMPLE 1 Figure 2 shows the graph
tinuous? Why?
SOLUTION It looks as if there is a disc
break there. The official reason that
The graph also has a break when
different. Here, f 共3兲 is defined, but
0 1 2 3 4 5 x right limits are different). So f is di
What about a 苷 5? Here, f 共5兲 is
and right limits are the same). But
FIGURE 2
li
x
Solution. It looks as if there is a discontinuity when a = 1 because the graph has a break there. The official reason
that f is discontinuous at 1 is that f (1) is not defined. The graph also has a break f is adiscontinuous
Sowhen at 5. for
= 3, but the reason
the discontinuity is different. Here, f (3) is defined, but lim f (x) does not exist (because the left and right limits
x→3
are different). So f is discontinuous at 3. What about a = 5? Here, f (5) is definedNow
and lim
let’sf (x)
see exists
how to (because
detect disco
x→5
the left and right limits are the same). But
lim f (x)
Resources 6= f (5)
/ Module 2 EXAMPLE 2 Where are each of the fo
x→5
/ Continuity
So f is discontinuous at 5. / Problems and Tests
x2
x
2
(a) f 共x兲 苷
x
2

再
Example 15.

x2
x
2
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous? if x 苷
(c) f 共x兲 苷 x
2
x2 −x−2
(a) f (x) = x−2 1 if x 苷

1
 x 6= 0
x2 , SOLUTION
(b) g(x) =
1, x=0 (a) Notice that f 共2兲 is not defined,

 x2 −x−2 , x 6= 2 (b) Here f 共0兲 苷 1 is defined but
x−2
(c) h(x) =
1, x=2
lim
xl
(d) k(x) = [[x]]
does not exist. (See Example 8 in S
(c) Here f 共2兲 苷 1 is defined and

x2
x
2
lim f 共x兲 苷 lim 苷
x l2 x l2 x
2
exists. But
 50 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Solution.

(a) Notice that f (2) is not defined at 2, so f is discontinuous at 2.

(b) Here g(0) = 1 is defined but

1
lim g(x) = lim
x→0 x→0 x2
does not exist. So g is discontinuous at 0.

(c) Here h(2) = 1 is defined and

x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
lim h(x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

exists. But
SE
lim h(x) 6= f (2)
x→2

so h is not continuous at 2.
single number 2. [The
single
function
numbert共x兲 苷 x function
2. [The  1 is contin
t共x兲
(d) The greatest integer function k(x) = [[x]] has discontinuities at all of the integers because lim [[x]] does not
(b) is called an infinite
(b) is discontinuity.
calledx→n
an infinite
Thediscontinui
discontinu
exist if n is an integer.
discontinuities because
discontinuities
the function
because
“jumps”
the from
functio
on
y y y y y

SECTION ◆
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY 2.4 CONTINUITY
121 ◆ 121
1 1 1 1 1

The
single
function
numbert共x兲 苷0 x function
2. [The  1 is continuous.]
x 苷
t共x兲 0 x 1The
1 isdiscontinuity
continuous.]
0x The
in part
discontinuity
x 0 in part
0x x
1 2 2 1 2
finite
(b) is discontinuity.
called an infinite
Thediscontinuity.
discontinuitiesThe
in part
discontinuities
(d) are called
in part
jump (d) are called jump
ecause
discontinuities
the function
because
“jumps”the from
function
one“jumps”
value to from
another.
one value to another.
(a) f (x) (b) g(x)
≈-x-2
y
(a) ƒ=
≈-x-2
y
x-2
y ≈-x-2
(a) ƒ=
y
(b) ƒ=
x-2
1/≈ if x≠0 y
1
1/≈ if x≠0
(b) ƒ= (c) ƒ=
if x=0 1 if x=0 冦 冦 1
if x≠2
x-2 (c) ƒ=
if x=2
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 3
1 1 functions
Graphs of the 1 functions
Graphs of the 1 1
in Example 2 in Example 2 2 Definition A function
2 Definition
f is continuous
A functionfrom
f is con
the
x 0 0x 1 2 x 0 1 20 x1 2 3 0x 1 2 3 x
lim f 共x兲 苷 f 共a兲 l
x l a xl
(c) h(x) (d) k(x)
≈-x-2 ≈-x-2 and f is continuous
and from
f is continuous
the left at afrom
if the le
1 冦
1/≈ if x≠0
ƒ= (c) ƒ=
if x=0
if x≠2
x-2 (c) ƒ= x-2
if x≠2
(d) ƒ=[ x ] (d) ƒ=[ x ]
1 if x=2 1 if x=2 lim f 共x兲 苷 f 共a兲 l
x l a
xl
2.3.1 Kinds of Discontinuity
Figures shows the graphs of the functions in previous example. In each case the graph can’t be drawn without
A functionDefinition
2 lifting f ispencontinuous
the A function
from the paperfrom
f is continuous
becausethe right
a hole aEXAMPLE
at from
or break ornumber
the
jump 3right
occurs aAt each
if the
in aEXAMPLE
integer
at graph.
number 3n,aAt
The kind the each
function
integer
if discontinuity
of f 共x兲
n, 苷
the冀x冁
fu
tinuouswefrom
illustrated in parts 2.3a and 2.3c is called removable because the right
could remove tinuousbut from
discontinuous
the discontinuity the right but
by redefiningfrom discontin
the left
function at just lim f 共x兲number
the single 苷 f 共a兲 lim
2. (The f 共x兲g(x)
function 苷 =f 共a兲
x + 1 is continuous.) The discontinuity in part 2.3b is
x l a x l a
lim f 共x兲 苷 lim 冀x冁 lim苷f n共x兲苷
x l n x l n x l n
nuous
andfrom f is continuous
the left at afrom if the left at a if
but but lim f 共x兲 苷 lim 冀x冁
lim苷f n共x兲
苷1
2.3. CONTINUITY 51

called an infinite discontinuity. The discontinuities in part 2.3d are called jump discontinuities because the
function “jumps” from one value to another.

2.3.2 Continuity from right/left

Definition 4.

A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a−

A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the interval.

Definition 5.

If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we understand continuous at the
endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous from the left.

Theorem 4.

If f and g are continuous at a, and c is a constant, then the following functions are also continuous at
a:

1. f + g

2. f − g

3. c · f

4. f · g
f
5. , g(a) 6= 0
g

Theorem 5.

(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on R = (−∞, ∞).

(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous on its domain.

As an illustration of this theorem, observe that the volume of a sphere varies continuously with its radius because
the formulaV (r) = 34 πr3 shows that V is a polynomial function of r.
Likewise, if a ball is thrown vertically into the air with a velocity of 50 f t/s, then the height of the ball in
feet after t seconds is given by the formula h = 50t − 16t2 . Again this is a polynomial function, so the height is a
continuous function of the elapsed time.
52 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Example 16.

x3 + 2x2 − 1
Find lim .
x→−2 5 − 3x

x3 + 2x2 − 1
Solution. The function f (x) = is rational, so by Theorem it is continuous on its domain, which is
5 − 3x
{x ∈ R|x 6= 35 }. Therefore

x3 + 2x2 − 1
lim = lim f (x) = f (−2)
x→−2 5 − 3x x→−2
(−2)3 + 2(−2)2 − 1 1
= =− .
5 − 3(−2) 11

The inverse function of any continuous function is also continuous. (The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the
graph of f about the line y = x. So if the graph of f has no break in it, neither does the graph of f −1 .) Thus, the
inverse trigonometric functions are continuous.

Theorem 6.

The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:

• polynomials

• rational functions

• trigonometric functions

• inverse trigonometric functions

• exponential functions

• logarithmic functions

• root functions

Example 17.

ln x + tan−1 x
Where is the function f (x) = continuous?
x2 − 1

Solution. We know from Theorem 6 that the function y = ln x is continuous for x > 0 and y = tan−1 x is continuous
on R. Thus by part 1 of Theorem 4, y = ln x + tan−1 x is continuous on (0, ∞). The denominator, y = x2 − 1,
is a polynomial, so it is continuous everywhere. Therefore, by part 5 of Theorem 4, f is continuous at all positive
numbers x except where x2 − 1 = 0. So f is continuous on the intervals (0, 1) and (1, ∞).
2.3. CONTINUITY 53

Example 18.

sin x
Evaluate lim .
x→π 2 + cos x

Solution. Theorem tells us that y = sin x is continuous. The function in the denominator, y = 2 + cos x, is the sum
of two continuous functions and is therefore continuous. Notice that this function is never 0 because cos x ≥ −1
for all x and so 2 + cos x > 0 everywhere. Thus, the ratio

sin x
f (x) =
2 + cos x

is continuous everywhere. Hence, by definition of a continuous function,

sin x sin π 0
lim = lim f (x) = f (π) = = = 0.
x→π 2 + cos x x→π 2 + cos π 2−1

Theorem 7.

If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then,

x→a

lim f (g(x)) = f (b).

x→a

In other words,  
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

Example 19.
 √ 
1− x
Find lim arcsin .
x→1 1−x

Solution. Lets start by taking limit of inside function:

√ √
1− x 1− x
lim = lim √ √
x→1 1 − x x→1 (1 − x)(1 + x)
1
= lim √
x→1 1 + x
1
=
2

Since arcsin is a continuous function, we can apply theorem:

 √   √ 
1− x 1− x
lim arcsin = arcsin lim
x→1 1−x x→1 1 − x
1 π
= arcsin =
2 6
 9 Theorem If t is continuous at a and f
54 positeAND
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS function f ⴰ t given by 共 f ⴰ t兲 共x兲
DERIVATIVES

Theorem 8. This theorem is often expressed informa

continuous function is a continuous functio
If g is continuous at a, f is continuous at g(a) then the composite function f ◦ g given by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a. Proof Since t is continuous at a, we have

lim t共x兲
Example 20. xla

Where are the following functions continuous? Since f is continuous at b 苷 t共a兲, we can a

lim f 共t共x兲兲


(a) h(x) = sin x2
x la


(b) F (x) = ln 1 + cos(x)
which is precisely the statement that the fu
that is, f ⴰ t is continuous at a.
Solution. (a) We have h(x) = f (g(x)), where g(x) = x2 and f (x) = sin x. Now g is continuous on R since it is a
EXAMPLE
polynomial, and f is also continuous everywhere. Thus, h = f ◦ g is continuous on R. 9 Where are the following functio
(a) h共x兲 苷 sin共x 2 兲
(b) We know from Theorem that f (x) = ln x is continuous and g(x) = 1 + cos x (because both y = 1 and
y = cos x are continuous). Therefore, by Theorem, F (x) = f (g(x)) is continuous wherever it is defined. Now
SOLUTION
ln(1 + cos x) is defined when 1 + cos x > 0. So it is undefined when cos x = −1 and this happens when
(a) We have h共x兲 苷 f 共t共x兲兲, where
x = ±π, ±3π, . . .. Thus, F has discontinuities when x is an odd multiple of π and is continuous on the
intervals between these values. t共x兲 苷 x 2 and
2
Now t is continuous on ⺢ since it is a poly
_10 10 where. Thus, h 苷 f ⴰ t is continuous on ⺢ b
(b) We know from Theorem 7 that f 共x兲 苷
is continuous (because both y 苷 1 and y 苷
Theorem 9, F共x兲 苷 f 共t共x兲兲 is continuous w
is defined when 1  cos x  0. So it is und
_6
pens when x 苷 , 3, . . . . Thus, F ha
FIGURE 7 tiple of  and is continuous on the interval
Theorem 9 (The Intermediate Value Theorem).
An important property of continuous fun
rem, whose
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N be any number proof
between f (a)isand
found in more advance
f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .
SECTION
SECTION
2.4 2.4 CONTINUITY ◆ ◆ 127127
CONTINUITY
10 The Intermediate Value Theorem Suppos
y y y y
interval 关a, b兴 and let N be any number
exists a number c in 共a, b兲 such that f 共c
f(b)f(b) f(b)f(b)

N N
y=ƒ
y=ƒ
N N The Intermediate Value Theorem states
f(a)f(a) y=ƒ
y=ƒ f(a)f(a) intermediate value between the function v
Figure 8. Note that the value N can be taken
0 0 a a c bc bx x 0 0 a c¡
a c¡ c™ c™
[as c£in c£part (b)].
b bx x

FIGURE
FIGURE
8 8 (a) (a) (b) (b)
The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate value between
the function values f (a) and f (b). Note that the value N can be taken on once (first graph) or more than once
If we
If we think
thinkof of
a continuous
a continuous function
functionas as
a function
a functionwhose
whosegraph
graph
hashasno no
holehole
or or
(second graph).
break,
break,
then then
it isit easy
is easy
to believe
to believe thatthat
thethe
Intermediate
IntermediateValue
ValueTheorem
Theorem is true.
is true.
In geo-
In geo-
=ƒ
y=ƒ metric
metric
terms terms
it says
it says
thatthat
if any
if any
horizontal
horizontal y 苷y N
lineline 苷 is
N given
is given
between
betweeny 苷y f苷共a兲f 共a兲
andand
y=N
y=N y 苷y f苷共b兲f 共b兲
as in
as Figure
in Figure
9, then
9, thenthethe
graph
graph
of of
f can’t
f can’t
jump
jump
overover
thethe
line.
line.
It must
It mustintersect
intersect
y 苷y N苷 somewhere.
N somewhere.
 following is true.

2.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 3 lim f 共x兲 苷 L if and only if 55 lim
f

xla xla

One use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is

y in locating roots of equations as in the following example.
EXAMPLE 7 The graph of a function t is shown in
4 values (if they exist) of the following:
Example 21.
3 (a) lim
t共x兲 (b) lim t共x兲 (c) lim
y=© xl2 xl2 xl2
Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 between 1 and
(d) lim t共x兲2. (e) lim t共x兲 (f) lim

xl5 xl5 xl5
1
SOLUTION From the graph we see that the values of
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
from the left, but they approach 1 as x approache
Solution. Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2. We are looking for a solution of the given equation, that is, a number c
between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0. Therefore, we take a = 1, b = 2 and N = 0.
FIGURE 10 (a) lim
t共x兲 苷 3 and
xl2

f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0 (c) Since the left and right limits are different, w
limx l 2 t共x兲 does not exist.
and The graph also shows that
f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0
(d) lim
t共x兲 苷 2 and
xl5
Thus, f (1) < 0 < f (2); that is, N = 0 is a number between f (1) and f (2). Now f is continuous since it is a
(f) This time the left and right limits are the sam
polynomial, so the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0.
lim t共x兲 苷 2
xl5

Despite this fact, notice that t共5兲 苷 2.

2.4 Limits Involving Infinity
1
EXAMPLE 8 Find lim if it exists.
2.4.1 Infinite Limits xl0 x2
SOLUTION As x becomes close to 0, x 2 also become
1
x very large. (See the table at the left.) In fact, it ap
x2
tion f 共x兲 苷 1兾x 2 shown in Figure 11 that the valu
1 1 large by taking x close enough to 0. Thus, the val
0.5 4 number, so lim x l 0 共1兾x 2 兲 does not exist.
0.2 25
0.1 100 y
0.05 400
0.01 10,000
0.001 1,000,000

As x becomes close to 0, 1/x2 becomes very large, see the table. In fact, it appears from the graph of the
function f (x) = 1/x2 that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x close enough to 0. Thus
the values of f (x) do NOT approach a number, so 0
FIGURE 11

1
lim
x→0 x2

does not exist. To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited, we use the notation

1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x2

This does not mean that we are regarding ∞ as a number, nor does it mean that the limit exists. It simply expresses
the particular way in which the limit does not exist: 1/x2 can be made as large as we like by taking x close enough
to 0. In general, we write symbolically
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

to indicate that the values of f (x) become larger and larger (or “increase without bound”) as x becomes closer and
closer to a.
 is given in Appendix D, Exercise 16.
▲ A more precise version of Definition 1 1 Definition The notation
is given in Appendix D, Exercise 16.
56 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
means that the values of f 共x兲 can
please) by taking
means that x sufficiently
the values clo
of f 共x兲 can
Definition 6.
please) by taking x sufficiently clo
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a
Another notation for lim x l a f 共x兲
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) byAnother notation
taking x sufficiently for lim x l a f 共x兲
f 共x兲 l
close to a, but not equal to a.
y f 共x兲 l
Again, the symbol is not a number
y y=ƒ as
Again, the symbol is not a number
y=ƒ as “the limit of f 共x兲,

or “the“ flimit of f 共x兲,

共x兲 becomes
0 a x
or
or “ f 共x兲 共x兲 becomes
“ fincreases wi
0 a x=a x
x=a or “ f 共x兲 increases wi
This definition is illustrated graphica
FIGURE 2 Similarly, asisshown in Figure 3,
This definition illustrated graphica
The symbol lim f (x) = −∞ can beFIGURE
lim ƒ=`
x→a
x read
a 2 limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is negative infinity” or “f (x)
as “the
Similarly, as shown in Figure 3,li
decreases without bound as x approaches a.”
lim ƒ=` xl
x a
y li
means that the values of f 共x兲 are as xl
y
x=a are sufficiently
means close toofa,f but
that the values 共x兲 not eq
are as
a f 共x兲 苷

areThe symbol close
sufficiently lim x lto a, but not eq c
x=a a, is
Thenegative
symbolinfinity”
lim x l a for f 共x兲
decc
共x兲“ 苷
a
0 x aexample we have
, is negative infinity” or “ f 共x兲 dec
a
y=ƒ x example we have
0
lim
x l0
y=ƒ
lim

1
 Similar definitions can be given
x l 0f
As an example we have limx→0 − FIGURE = −∞.
3 Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided infinite limits
x2 Similar definitions can
132 132 ■ ■ lim
CHAPTER 2ƒ=_`
CHAPTER 2 LIMITS
LIMITS AND AND
DERIVATIVES
DERIVATIVES
lim
bef 共x兲
given
苷 f
FIGURE
x a 3 x la
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a− lim ƒ=_`
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f 共x兲 苷
l a
f 共x兲 苷

x→a+
xlim
lim f (x)x =a −∞ = −∞“that

a
consider
x→a −
lim f (x) that
remembering
remembering
x→a
x l “+x
a l” means
a ” means
that
x lwe
that we cons
a, and a, similarly
and similarly
“x l“xa l  
” means thatxlim
a ” means we 共x兲 cons
fwe
thatconsider苷

l a

remembering that “x → a− ” means that we consider only values of x that are less than a, and similarly “x → a+ ”
four four
casescases
are given
are given
in Figure
in Figure
4. 4.
means that we consider only x > a.
y y y y y y

0 0 a ax x 0 a0 a x x 0 0 a a

(a) lim(a)ƒ=`
lim ƒ=` (b) lim
(b)ƒ=`
lim ƒ=` (c) lim(c)ƒ=_`
lim ƒ=_
x a_ x a_ x a+ x a+ x a_ x a_

FIGURE
FIGURE
4 4
remembering
remembering thatthat
“x l“x al


”ameans
” means we FIGURE
thatthat we 4 only
consider
consider only
values
values
of xofthat
x that
are are
lessless
thanthan
 
a, and
a, and
similarly
similarly
“x l
“x al”ameans
” means
thatthat
we we
2.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
consider
consider x x a
onlyonly . Illustrations
a. Illustrations
of these
of these 57
fourfour
cases
cases
are are
given
given
in Figure
in Figure
4. 4.
2 Definition The line x
y y y y y y y 苷 f 共x兲 if at least one

lim f 共x兲 苷
x la
0 0a a x x 0 0 a a x x 0 0a a x x
lim f 共x兲 苷

x la

(b) lim
(b) lim
ƒ=`ƒ=` (c) lim
(c) lim
ƒ=_`
ƒ=_` (d) lim
(d) lim
ƒ=_`
ƒ=_`
x a+x a+ x a _x a_ x a+x a+

Example 22.
For instance, the y-axi
lim x l 0 共1兾x 2 兲 苷 . In Fig
2x 2x four cases shown.
Find lim+ and lim− .
x→3 x−3 x→3 x − 3

2 Definition
2 Definition
TheThe x 苷x a苷isacalled
lineline is called
a vertical
a vertical
asymptote
asymptote
of the
of the
curve
curve
y 苷y f苷
共x兲f 共x兲
if atifleast
at least
oneone
of the
of the
following
following
statements
statements
is true:
is true: 2x
EXAMPLE 1 Find lim
l 3 x

Solution. If x is close to 3 but larger than 3 then the denominator x − 3 is a small positive number and 2x isx close
to 6. So the quotient 2x/(x − 3) is a large positive number. Thus, intuitively we see that
f 共x兲f 共x兲
limlim 苷 苷 f 共x兲f 共x兲
limlim 苷 苷 f 共x兲f 共x兲
limlim 苷 苷
x l ax l a x l a

x l a
x l a
x l a SOLUTION If x is close to 3 b
2x
lim =∞ positive number and 2x is
x→3+ x − 3

f 共x兲f 共x兲
limLikewise,
lim 苷if x

苷is close

to 3 but f 共x兲
limsmaller


lim f 共x兲
苷
苷
f 共x兲
limlim

than 3, then x − 3 is a small
f 共x兲
苷
苷
number. Thus, intuitively w
negative number but 2x is still a positive number
x l ax l a x l ax l a x l ax l a
(close to 6). So 2x/(x − 3) is a numerically large negative number.
y
2x
y= x-3
ForFor instance,
instance,
the the
y-axis
y-axis
is aisvertical
a vertical
asymptote
asymptote of the
of the
curve y 苷y 1兾x
curve 苷 1兾x
2 2
because
because
x l 0x共1兾x
l 0 共1兾x
兲 苷兲 苷. In. Figure x 苷5x a苷isaaisvertical
2 2
limlim In Figure
4 the
4 the
lineline a vertical
asymptote
asymptote
in each ofLikewise,
in each of the if x is close to 3
the
fourfour
casescases
shown.
shown. but 2x is still a positive nu
x
negative number. Thus
0
2x 2x 2x 2x x=3
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
1 Find
1 Find
limlim andand
lim
lim
. .
x l 3 x lx3
x 3
3 x l 3 x lx3
x 3
3

SOLUTION
SOLUTION
If xIfisxclose
is close
to 3tobut
3 but
larger
larger
thanthan
3, then
3, then
the the
denominator x
x 3
is3aissmall
denominator a small
positive
positive
number
number
andand
2x is
2xclose
is close
to 6.toSo
6. the
So the
quotient
quotient
2x兾共x
3兲
2x兾共x
is3兲aislarge
a large The graph of the curve y 苷
positive
positive
number.
number. Thus
Thus,
Thus,
intuitively
intuitively
we we thatthat FIGURE 5 2x
see see vertical asymptote.
lim = −∞.
x→3− x−3
2x 2x Two familiar functions
limlim 苷 苷
Example 23. x l 3 x lx3
x 3
3 y 苷 ln x. From Figure 6 w
2
Find lim ln(tan x).
Likewise,
Likewise,
if xifisxclose
is close
to 3tobut
x→0 3 but
smaller
smaller
thanthan
3, then x
x 3
is3aissmall
3, then a small
negative
negative
number
number
but but
2x is
2xstill
is still
a positive
a positive
number
number(close
(close
to 6).
to 6).
So 2x兾共x
3兲
So 2x兾共x
is3兲aisnumerically
a numerically
large
large
negative
negative
number.
number.ThusThus 2 2 2
Solution. We introduce a new variable, t = tan x. Then t ≥ 0 and t = tan x → tan 0 = 0 as x → 0 because tan
is a continuous function. So, we have
2x 2x
lim
lim
2 苷
苷

x l 3 xlim
x→0

x 3
x)3= t→0
lx3ln(tan lim ln t = −∞.
+

TheThe
graph
graph
of the
of the
curve y 苷y 2x兾共x
curve 苷 2x兾共x

3兲

is3兲given
is given
in Figure
in Figure
5. The
5. The x 苷x 3苷is3ais a
lineline
vertical
vertical
asymptote.
asymptote.
 meansmeans
that
means
the
thatvalues
the
thatvalues f 共x兲
theofvalues 共x兲
of fcan
of be 共x兲made
fcan be
canmade
be
as close
made
as close
to
as Lclose
to
as Lwe
to
aslike
Lweasby
like
wetaking
by
liketaking
byx taking
x x
sufficiently
sufficiently
sufficiently
large.large.large.

58 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Another
Another
notation
Another
notation
for
notation
forx l
lim 共x兲 xf苷
forxf l
lim lim 共x兲Lf苷
l 共x兲L 苷
is is L is

2.4.2 Limits at Infinity f 共x兲 fl

共x兲Lfl
共x兲as
Ll as
xL las
x lx l

Definition 7. The The

symbol
The
symbol
symbol
doesdoes
not does
represent
not represent
not represent
a number.
a number.
a Nonetheless,
number.
Nonetheless,
Nonetheless,
the expression
the expression 共x兲 flim
the expression
lim flim 苷共x兲Lf苷
共x兲L 苷 L
xl xl xl
is often
is often
read
is often
read
as read
as as
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then
“the “the
limit“the
limit 共x兲
of flimit 共x兲
of ,f as 共x兲x, as
of x,f as
approaches
approaches
x approaches
infinity,
infinity,
isinfinity,
L”is L”is L”
or or or “the “the
limit
lim “the
limit
f (x) 共x兲
of=flimit
L 共x兲
of ,f as 共x兲x, as
of x,f as
becomes
becomes
x becomes
infinite,
infinite,
isinfinite,
L”is L”is L”
x→∞
or or or “the “the
limit“the
limit 共x兲
of flimit 共x兲
of ,f as 共x兲x, as
of x,f as
increases
increases
x increases
without
without
bound,
without
bound,
isbound,
L”is L”is L”
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x “sufficiently large”.
The The
meaning
The
meaning
meaning
of such
of such
phrases
of such
phrases
isphrases
given
is given
by
is given
Definition
by Definition
by Definition
4. 4. 4.
Geometric
Geometric
Geometric
illustrations
illustrations
illustrations
of Definition
of Definition
of Definition
4 are4shown
are4shown
areinshown
Figure
in Figure
in9.Figure
Notice
9. Notice
9.that
Notice
there
that there
that
are there
are are
manymany
ways
Geometric illustrations of definition many
ways
for ways
given the
forFigures.
in graph
the
forgraph
the
of Notice
graph
f ofto approach
f of
to approach
f tothere
that approach
the are
line
the many苷 line
line
ythe 苷 yL 苷
(which
yLways (which
forListhe
(which
called
isgraph
called
is
a horizon-
called
ofafhorizon-
toa horizon-
tal asymptote).
tal asymptote).
tal asymptote).
approach the line y = L as we look to the far right of each graph.
y y y y y y y y y

y=Ly=Ly=L
y=ƒ
y=ƒ
y=ƒ y=Ly=Ly=L

y=ƒ
y=ƒ
y=ƒ
y y=ƒ
y=ƒ
y=ƒ
out bound, we can make
y=Ly=Ly=L
y=ƒ
0 0 0 x x x 0 0 0 x x x 0 0 0 x x x

In general, as shown in Figure, the notation

URE
FIGURE
9 FIGURE
9 9 y=L
lim f (x) = L In general, as shown in F
amples
Examples
Examples
illustrating
illustrating
illustrating
lim ƒ=L
lim ƒ=L
lim ƒ=L x→−∞
x ` x ` x `
0 x SECTION 2.5 LIMITS INVOLVING IN
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large negative.
Referring
Referring
Referring
backback
to Figure
back
to Figure
to8,Figure
we8,see
we8,that
see
we for
that
seenumerically
for
thatnumerically
for numerically
largelarge
negative
large
negative
negative
values
values
ofvalues
x,of x,of x,
the values
ythe values
the
of 共x兲
values
f of f 共x兲
are
of 共x兲
close
fare close
are
to 1.
close
to
By1.letting
to
By 1.letting
By x letting
decrease
x decrease
x decrease
through
through
negative
through
negative
negative
values
out bound, we can make f y共x兲 as close to 1 as we like. values
with-
values
with-with-
This is exp
means that the values of f
y=ƒ
x 2 large

1 negative.
lim 苷 1 the symbol

Again,
y=ƒ x l
x 2  1
y=L lim f 共x兲 苷 L is often re
x l

y=L In general, as shown in Figure 10, the notation
“the limit o
0 x 0 lim f 共x兲 苷 L
x
x l

y FIGURE 5 Definition The line

10 values of f 共x兲 can be made arbitrarily
means that the close to L by ta
Example 24. y 苷 f 共x兲 if either
largeExamples
negative.illustrating xlim
_`
ƒ=L

Find lim
1
and lim
1
. y=ƒ Again, the symbol
does not represent a number, but the exp lim
x→∞ x y=Lx→−∞ x lim f 共x兲 苷 L is often read as xl
x l

“the limit of f 共x兲, as x approaches negative infinity, i

0 is small.
x For instance, y For instance, the curv
Solution. Observe that when x is large, 1/x
π
2 asymptote because
FIGURE 10
1
= 0, 01
1
= 0, 0001 5 1
Definition The line
= 0, 000001 y 苷 L is called a horizontal asymptote o
100 10.000
Examples illustrating lim ƒ=L y 苷 f 共x兲
1.000.000if either
x _` 0
In fact, by taking x large enough, we can make 1/x as close to 0 as we please. Therefore, according to definition,
lim f 共x兲 苷 L x or lim f 共x兲 苷 L
we have xl x l

1 An example of a curve w
lim = 0.
x→∞ x In fact,
_ π2
Similar reasoning shows that wheny x is large negative, 1/x is small negative, so we also have
For instance, the curve illustrated in Figure 8 has the line y 苷
π
2 asymptote
1 because
lim = 0.FIGURE 11 6 li
x→−∞ x
y=tan–!x xl
x
1
2

0 lim 2 苷1
xl x  1
x
so both of the lines y 苷

An example of a curve with two horizontal asymptotes is y 苷 tan
1
2.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 59

Most of the Limit Laws that were given also hold for limits at infinity. It can be proved that the Limit Laws
(with the exception of Laws 9 and 10 are also valid if “x → a” is replaced by “x → ∞” or “x → −∞”. In particular,
if n is a positive integer, then
1 1
lim = 0, lim = 0.
x→−∞ xn x→∞ xn

Example 25.

3x2 − x − 2
Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 5x2 + 4x + 1

Solution. To evaluate the limit at infinity of a rational function, we first divide both the numerator and denominator
by the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator. (We may assume that x 6= 0, since we are interested
only in large values of x.) In this case the highest power of x is x2 , and so, using the Limit Laws, we have

3x2 −x−2
3x2 − x − 2 x2
lim
x→∞ 5x2 + 4x + 1
= lim
x→∞ 5x2 +4x+1 In this case the highest power o
x2
3 − x1 − x22
= lim
x→∞ 5 + 4 + 12
x x
3x 2
x
2
lim (3 − x1 − x22 ) lim 苷
= x→∞
4 1
xl 5x 2  4x  1
lim (5 + x + x2 )
x→∞
1 1
lim 3 − lim − 2 lim
2
3−0−0 3
x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x
= 1 1 = =
lim 5 + 4 limx→∞ x lim x2 5+0+0 5
x→∞ x→∞

A similar calculation shows that the limit as x → −∞ is also 3/5. Figure illustrates the results of these calculations 苷
by showing how the graph of the given rational function approaches y = 3/5.
y
y=0.6

0 1 x 苷

FIGURE 14 A similar calculation shows tha

3≈-x-2 the results of these calculations
y=
5≈+4x+1 function approaches the horizon

EXAMPLE 6 Compute lim (sx 2 

xl
SOLUTION We first multiply nume

lim (sx 2  1
x) 苷
xl

苷
 60 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Example 26.
√
Compute lim ( x2 + 1 − x).
x→∞

Solution. We first multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical:

√
138 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
p p x2 + 1 + x
lim ( x + 1 − x) = lim ( x + 1 − x) √
2 2
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + 1 + x
x2 + 1 − x2
The graph of= the √
limnatural exponential function y 苷 e x has the line y 苷 0 (the x-axis)
x→∞ x2 + 1 + x
as a horizontal asymptote.1 (The same is true of any exponential function with base
lim √ graph in =
a  1.) In fact,=from 0
x→∞ thex2 + 1 + x Figure 16 and the corresponding table of values, we
see that

Example 27.
8 lim e x 苷 0
x l

Since the graph of the natural exponential function y = ex , we may write

lim ex = 0. (2.2)
values of e x approach 0 very rapidly.
Notice that the x→−∞
y
x ex
y=´ 0 1.00000

1 0.36788

2 0.13534

3 0.04979
1
5 0.00674

8 0.00034
0 1 x
10 0.00005
FIGURE 16

EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate lim e 1兾x.

Example 28. x l 0

Evaluate lim e1/x . SOLUTION If we let t 苷 1兾x, we know from Example 4 that t l
as x l 0
.
x→0− Therefore, by (8),
lim e 1兾x 苷 lim e t 苷 0
x l 0
t l

Solution. If we let t = 1/x, we know that t → −∞ as x → 0− . Therefore, by (2.2),

EXAMPLE 8 lim
Evaluate
e1/x = xlim
limsinetx=
. 0
−
x→0 lt→−∞
SOLUTION As x increases, the values of sin x oscillate between 1 and
1 infinitely
often. Thus, lim x l sin x does not exist.
Example 29.

Evaluate lim sin x. Infinite Limits at Infinity

x→∞

The notation
y As x increases, the values of sin x oscillate between −1 and 1 infinitely often. Thus, lim sin x does not
Solution. lim f 共x兲 苷 x→∞
xl
exist.
y=˛
is used to indicate that the values of f 共x兲 become large as x becomes large. Similar
meanings are attached to the following symbols:

0 x lim f 共x兲 苷 lim f 共x兲 苷
lim f 共x兲 苷

x l
xl x l

 SOLUTION If we let t
■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES Therefore, by (8),
2.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 61

The graph of the natural exponential function y 苷 e x has the line y 苷 0 (the x-axis)
2.4.3 Infinite
as aLimits at Infinity
horizontal asymptote. (The same is true of any exponential function with base
a  1.) In fact, from EXAMPLE
the graph in Figure 16 and the corresponding table of values, we8 Evaluat
The notation
see that lim f (x) = ∞ SOLUTION As x incre
x→∞
often. Thus, lim x l
is used to indicate that the values of f (x) become large as x becomes large. Similar meanings are attached to the
following symbols: 8 lim e x 苷 0
x l

lim f (x) = ∞
x→−∞
lim f (x) = −∞
x→∞ x→−∞
lim f (x) = −∞ Infinite Lim

Notice that the values of e x approach 0 very rapidly. The notation

y
y
x ex
y=˛
y=´ 0 1.00000 is used to indicate

1 0.36788 meanings are attac

2 0.13534
0 x lim f 共

3 0.04979 x l

1
5 0.00674

8 0.00034 From Figures 1
0 1 x
10 0.00005
FIGURE 16 lim
xl

FIGURE 17
lim ex =lim
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate ∞ e 1兾x. lim x3 = ∞ lim x3 = −∞ but, as Figure 18 d
x→∞ x→∞ x→−∞
x l 0

than y 苷 x 3SECTION
. 2.5
x 3
But y = e becomes large as x → ∞ at a much faster rate than y = x .

SOLUTION If we let t 苷 1兾x, we know from Example 4 that t l
as x l 0 .
Therefore, by (8), y EXAMPLE 9 Find lim 共x 2
x兲.
xl
y=´
lim e 1兾x
苷 lim e t 苷|0SOLUTION Note that we cannot write
x l 0
t l

lim 共x 2
x兲 苷 lim
xl xl

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate lim sin x. 苷

xl y=˛
100
SOLUTION As x increases, the values of sin x oscillate between
The Limit Laws
1
1 and can’t be applied to infinite limi
infinitely
often. Thus, lim sin x does not exist. (
can’t be defined). However, we can wri
xl
0 x
1 lim 共x 2
x兲 苷 lim x共
xl xl

Infinite Limits FIGURE

at Infinity
18
because both x and x
1 become arbitrarily la
Example 30.
The notation x2  x
EXAMPLE 10 Find lim .
y Find lim (x2 − x). lim f 共x兲 苷 xl 3
x
x→∞
xl
SOLUTION We divide numerator and denominator
y=˛ occurs in the denominator):
is used to indicate that the values of f 共x兲 become large as x becomes large. Similar
meanings
Solution. Note that arewrite
we cannot attached to the following symbols: x2  x x
lim 苷 lim
xl xl 3
x 3
0 x 共x兲 (x
lim flim 苷2 − x) = limlimx2f−共x兲lim
苷 x
= ∞ − ∞ lim f 共x兲 苷
x
x l
xl x l

x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
because x  1 l and 3兾x
1 l
1 as x l
From
The Limit Laws can’t Figures
be applied to 16 and limits
infinite 17 webecause
see that
∞ is not a number (∞ − ∞ can’t be defined). However,
we can write x
lim elim苷(x2 − x) = lim 3
xx(x苷− 1) = ∞ lim x 3 苷

xl x lim
l x l

x→∞
2.5 x→∞
Exercises ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

17 because both x and − 1Figure

but,xas become18arbitrarily large. y 苷 e x becomes large as x l at a much faster rate
demonstrates,
than y 苷 x .
3 1. Explain in your own words the meaning of each of the (a) lim f 共x兲
x l2
following.
(a) lim f 共x兲 苷 (b) lim f 共x兲 苷
(c) lim f 共x兲
x l
1
x l2 x l1

(c) lim f 共x兲 苷 5 (d) lim f 共x兲 苷 3 (e) lim f 共x兲

xl x l
x l

62 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Example 31.

x2 + x
Find lim .
x→∞ 3 − x

Solution. We divide numerator and denominator by (the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator):

x2 + x x+1
lim = lim 3 = −∞
x→∞ 3 − x
x −1
x→∞

because x + 1 → ∞ and 3/x − 1 → −1 as x → ∞.

2.5 Tangents, Velocities, and Other Rates of Change

2.5.1 Tangents
If a curve C has equation y = f (x) and we want to find the tangent to C at the point P (a, f (a)), then we consider
a nearby point Q(x, f (x)), where x 6= a, and compute the slope of the secant line P Q:
y

f(x)
Q
f(x)-f(a)
P
f(a)

x
a x
x-a

f (x) − f (a)
mP Q =
x−a

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x approach a. If mP Q approaches a number m, then we
define the tangent t to be the line through P with slope m. (This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the
limiting position of the secant line P Q as Q approaches P .)

Definition 8.

The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (a, f (a)) is the line through P with slope

f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x−a

provided that this limit exists.

We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point as the slope of the curve at the
point. The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point, the curve looks almost like a straight line.
Figure illustrates this procedure for the curve y = x2 . The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a
line. In other words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from its tangent line.
 2.5. TANGENTS, VELOCITIES, AND OTHER RATES OF CHANGE 63

4 1.0201

0.9801
0.99 1.01
1

x
2 4 6

There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes easier to use. Let

h=x−a

Then
x=a+h
2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
so the slope of the secant line P Q is
f (a + h) − f (a)
mP Q =
(See Figure 3 where the case h  0 is illustrated
h and. Q is to the right of P. If it hap-
penedwhere
See Figure h case
that the 0, hhowever, Q would
> 0 is illustrated andbe
Q to the
is to theleft ofofPP.). If it happened that h < 0, however, Q
right
y
t
Q { a+h, f(a+h)}
f(a+h)-f(a)
P { a, f(a)}

0 a a+h x
FIGURE 3

would be Notice
to the leftthat x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h 苷 x
a) and so the
of Pas
.
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h = x − a) and so the expression for the slope of the
expression for the slope of the tangent line in Definition 1 becomes
tangent line in definition becomes
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim .
h→0
f 共a  hh兲
f 共a兲
2 m 苷 lim
h l0 h

EXAMPLE 2 Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y 苷 3兾x at the
point 共3, 1兲.
SOLUTION Let f 共x兲 苷 3兾x. Then the slope of the tangent at 共3, 1兲 is

f 共3  h兲
f 共3兲
m 苷 lim
h l0 h
64 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Example 32.

Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point P (1, 1).

Solution. Here we have a = 1 and f (x) = x2 , so the slope is

f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
m = lim = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 x − 1
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→1 x−1 x→1

Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we find that an equation of the tangent line at (1, 1) is

y − 1 = 2(x − 1) or y = 2x − 1.

2.5.2 Velocities
Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion s = f (t), where s is the
displacement (directed distance) of the object from the origin at time t. The function f that describes
SECTION 2.6the motion VELOCITIES, A
TANGENTS,
is called the position function of the object.

position at position at function of the object. In the time interval f

time t=a time t=a+h position is f 共a  h兲
f 共a兲. (See Figure 5.) T
val is SECTION 2.6 TANGENTS, VELOCITIES,

0 s displaceme
positionf(a+h)-f(a)
at position at function of the object.
average In the 苷
velocity time interval
time
position is f 共a  h兲
f 共a兲. (See Figure 5.) T
f(a)time t=a time t=a+h
val isis the same as the slope of the secant li
which
f(a+h)
0 s displacem
f(a+h)-f(a) Now supposeaveragewe compute the苷average
velocity ve
FIGURE 5 intervals 关a, a  h兴. In other words, we let h time
In the time interval from t = a to t = a + h thef(a)change in position is f (a + h) − f (a). The average velocity over
falling
whichball,
is thewesame
define the slope
as the velocity (or secant
of the instan
this time interval is s
displacement
f(a+h)
Q { a+h,=f(a+h) be the limit of these average velocities:
f (a +} h) − f (a)
average velocity =
time h Now suppose we compute the average v
FIGURE
which is the same as the slope of the secant line 5P Q in
P {a, f(a)} Figure. intervals 关a, a  h兴. In other words, we let
共a 
(or finsta
s
falling
3 共a兲 苷 lim
ball, we define the vvelocity
h h l0
Q { a+h, f(a+h)} be the limit of these average velocities:

P {a, f(a)}
0 a a+h t This means that the velocity at time t 苷 af 共a is e
3 v 共a兲 苷 lim
h P (compare Equations 2 and 3). h l0
f(a+h)-f(a)
mPQ= h
Now that we know how to compute limits,
⫽ average velocity ing ball.
0 a a+h t This means that the velocity at time t 苷 a is
FIGURE 6 EXAMPLE 3 Suppose
P (compare Equationsthat 2a and
ball 3).
is dropped from
f(a+h)-f(a)
mPQ= CN Tower,
Now that 450wemknow
abovehow the to
ground.
compute limits
f (a + h) − f (a) h
mP Q = = average velocity (a) What
ing ball. is the velocity of the ball after 5 sec
h ⫽ average velocity
(b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits
Now suppose we compute the average velocities
FIGURE 6over shorter and shorter time intervals [a, a + h]. In other words,
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that a ball is dropped fro
▲ Recall from Section 2.1: The distance SOLUTION
we let h approach 0. We define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at time t = We a to first uselimit
be the theofequation
these of motion s
CN Tower, 450 m above the ground.
(in meters) fallen after t seconds is 4.9t 2. v 共a兲 after a seconds:
(a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 se
(b) How fast is the ballf 共a  h兲
when
traveling f 共a兲 it hit
v 共a兲 苷 lim 苷 li
h l0 h h
2.6. DERIVATIVES 65

average velocities:
f (a + h) − f (a)
v(a) = lim (2.3)
h→0 h
This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the slope of the tangent line at P .

2.6 Derivatives
In previous sections, we defined the slope of the tangent to a curve with equation y = f (x) at the point where
x = a to be
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim
h→0 h
We also saw that the velocity of an object with position function s = f (t) at time t = a is

f (a + h) − f (a)
v(a) = lim .
h→0 h

In fact, limits of the form

f (a + h) − f (a)
lim
h→0 h
arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the sciences or engineering, such as a rate of reaction in
chemistry or a marginal cost in economics. Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special name and
notation.

Definition 9.

The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 0 (a), is

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h

if this limit exists.

If we write x = a + h, then h = x − a and h approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore, an equivalent

way of stating the definition of the derivative, as we saw in finding tangent lines, is

f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim .
x→a x−a

Example 33.

Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at the number a.

Solution. From definition we have

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
[(a + h)2 − 8(a + h) + 9] − [a2 − 8a + 9]
= lim
h→0 h
a2 + 2ah + h2 − 8a − 8h + 9 − a2 + 8a − 9
= lim
h→0 h
2ah + h2 − 8h
= lim = lim (2a + h − 8) = 2a − 8.
h→0 h h→0
 Interpretation
Interpretation
of the
of Derivative
the Derivative
as the
as Slope
the Slope
of a of
Tangent
a Tangent

66 In Section
In Section
2.6 we2.6defined
we defined
the tangent
the tangent
line toline
theto
curve y 苷CHAPTER
the curve f y共x兲苷atf 共x兲
the at
point
2. the point 共a兲兲
P共a, f P共a,
LIMITS AND f 共a兲兲
DERIVATIVES
to be to
thebeline
thethat
linepasses
that passes
through
through
P andPhas andslope
has slope
m givenm given
by Equation
by Equation
1. Since,
1. Since,
by by
Definition
Definition
2, this2,isthis
the issame
the same
as theasderivative f 共a兲, fwe
the derivative 共a兲can
, wenow can say
nowthesayfollowing.
the following.
2.6.1 Interpretation of the Derivatives as Slope of a Tangent
Thetangent
We defined the tangent
The tangent
line y 苷curve
linetotoline
the tof y共x兲苷yatf=共x兲
共a, f 共a兲兲
at
f (x) 共a, f 共a兲兲
at is
thethe is
line
pointthe
Pthrough 共a,tof be
linef (a))
(a, through 共a兲兲
共a,the
f 共a兲兲
whose
linewhose
that passes through P and
slope slope
is equal to f 共a兲
is equal f (x) 共a兲derivative
−
to, fthe f (a)
, the derivative
of f atofa.f at a.
has slope m given by m = lim . Since, by the Definition, this is the same as the derivative f 0 (a), we
x→a x−a
can now say the following.
0
The tangent linegeometric
Thus,Thus,
the to
they = f (x) at (a,
geometric f (a)) is
interpretation ofthe
interpretation line
of a through
a derivative [as (a,
derivative f (a))
defined
[as whose
defined
by byslope
either (2) is
orequal
either (3)]oristo
(2) asf (a),
(3)] is asthe derivative
of f at a.shown
Thus, theFigure
shown
in geometric
1. interpretation
in Figure 1. of a derivative is as shown in Figure.

y y y y
y=ƒy=ƒ y=ƒy=ƒ

P P f(a+h)-f(a)
f(a+h)-f(a) P P ƒ-f(a)
ƒ-f(a)

h h x-a x-a

0 0 0 0
a a+h
a a+h x x a ax x x x

f(a+h)-f(a)
f(a+h)-f(a) ƒ-f(a) ƒ-f(a)
(a) f ª(a)=lim
(a) f ª(a)=lim (b) f ª(a)=lim
(b) f ª(a)=lim
FIGUREFIGURE
1 1 h=0 h=0 h h x=a x-a x-a
x=a
f (a + h)
of tangent− at P(a) at P
f
of tangent 0 of tangent − Pf (a)
atf P(x) at
ometric
c interpretation
interpretation 0
f (a) = =slope
lim =slope =slope (x) = of
f=slope limtangent
f the of
derivative
the derivative h→0
=slope of curve
=slope h
ofatcurve
P at P =slope =slope x→a
of curve P at P a
ofatcurve x −
= slope of tangent at P = slope of tangent at P
If we If
use =use
wetheslope
theofpoint-slope
curveform
point-slope at P of
form
theofequation
the equation
of a line,
of a we
line, can = slope
wewrite
can of an
write curve
an equation at P
equation
If we use of
thethe
point-slope
of
tangent form
the tangent
line of the
toline
the to
curve
the y 苷 f y共x兲
equation
curve of苷 共x兲
aatfline, we
the at
point
the 共a,write
f 共a兲兲
canpoint 共a,an
: f 共a兲兲
equation
: of the tangent line to the curve
y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)):
y
fyy共a兲
−
f苷
f 共a兲
(a)f 共a兲共x
=苷f 0f(a)(x
共a兲共x

a兲−
a).a兲

EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
2 Find
2 an
Find
equation
an equation
of theof
tangent
the tangent
line toline
theto
parabola y 苷 xy2

the parabola 苷 8x
x2

 8x
9 at 9 at
the point 共3,
6兲
the point 共3,.
6兲.
Example 34.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
From From
Example
Example
1 we know
1 we know
that the
that
derivative of f 共x兲
the derivative of 苷f 共x兲 苷 8x
x2
x2

 8x
9 atthe
9 at the
number
Find a is f a共a兲
number
an equation 苷f 共a兲
ofisthe 2a 苷

2a
tangent
8to
8. line
Therefore,
. Therefore,
the slope
theyslope
the parabola of
= the
x2 of
−tangent
the+tangent
8x 9line 共3,
atline
at the
6兲
at
point 共3,
(3,is
6兲
−6). is

Solution. We know that the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at the number a is f 0 (a) = 2a − 8. Therefore, the
slope of tangent line at (3, −6) is f 0 (3) = 2(3) − 8 = −2. Thus, an equation of the tangent line is
152 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
y − (−6) = (−2)(x − 3) or y = −2x.

y f 共3兲 苷 2共3兲
8 苷
2. Thus, an

y=≈-8x+9
y
共
6兲 苷 共

EXAMPLE 3 Let f 共x兲 苷 2 x. Estimate

0 x
(a) By using Definition 2 and takin
(b) By interpreting f 共0兲 as the slo
(3, _6)
zoom in on the graph of y 苷 2 x.
y=_2 x SOLUTION
(a) From Definition 2 we have
FIGURE 2

f 共0兲 苷 lim
h l0
2.6. DERIVATIVES 67

2.6.2 The Derivative as a Function

In the preceding section we considered the derivative of a function f at a fixed number a:

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim (2.4)
h→0 h

Here we change our point of view and let the number a vary. If we replace a in Equation (2.4) by a variable x, we
obtain
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim (2.5)
h→0 h
Given any number x for which this limit exists, we assign to x the number f 0 (x). So we can regard f 0 as a new
function, called the derivative of f and defined by Equation (2.5). We know that the value of f 0 at x, f 0 (x), can
be interpreted geometrically as the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f (x)). The function
f 0 is called the derivative of f because it has been “derived” from f by the limiting operation in Equation (2.5).
The domain of f 0 is the set {x|f 0 (x) exists} and may be smaller than the domain of f .

Example 35.
√
If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f . State the domain of f 0 .

Solution.

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √
x+h− x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
(x + h) − x 1 1
= lim √ √ =√ √ = √
h→0 h( x + h + x) x+ x 2 x

We see that f 0 (x) exists if x > 0, so the domain of f 0 is (0, ∞). This is smaller than the domain of f , which is
[0, ∞).

2.6.3 Other Notations

If we use the traditional notation y = f (x) to indicate that the independent variable is x and the dependent
variable is y, then some common alternative notations for the derivative are as follows:

dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = f (x) = Df (x)
dx dx dx

The symbols D and d/dx are called differentiation operators because they indicate the operation of differen-
dy
tiation, which is the process of calculating a derivative. The symbol , which was introduced by Leibniz, should
dx
not be regarded as a ratio (for the time being); it is simply a synonym for f 0 (x). Nonetheless, it is a very useful
and suggestive notation, especially when used in conjunction with increment notation. The definition of derivative
in Leibniz notation in the form
dy ∆y
= lim .
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
68 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

dy
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative in Leibniz notation at a specific number a, we use the notation
dx

dy dy
or
dx x=a dx x=a

which is a synonym for f 0 (a).

Definition 10.

A function f is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval (a, b)

[or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)], if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

Example 36.

Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?

Solution. If x > 0, then |x| = x and we can choose h small enough that x + h > 0 and hence |x + h| = x + h.
Therefore, for x > 0 we have

|x + h| − |x|
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h) − x h
= lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

and so f is differentiable for any x > 0. Similarly, for x < 0 we have |x| = −x and h can be chosen small enough
that x + h < 0 and so |x + h| = −(x + h). Therefore, for x < 0,

|x + h| − |x|
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
−(x + h) − (−x) −h
= lim = lim = lim −1 = −1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

and so f is differentiable for any x < 0. For x = 0 we have to investigate

f (0 + h) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim
h→0 h
|0 + h| − |0| |h|
= lim = lim (if it exists)
h→0 h h→0 h

Let’s compute the left and right limits separately:

|0 + h| − |0| |h| h
lim = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1
h→0+ h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

and
|0 + h| − |0| |h| −h
lim = lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1.
h→0− h h→0 − h h→0 − h h→0−

Since these limits are different, f 0 (0) does not exist. Thus, f is differentiable at all x except 0. A formula for f 0 is
given by (
0 1, if x > 0
f (x) =
−1, if x < 0

and its graph is shown in Figure (b). The fact that f 0 (0) does not exist is reflected geometrically in the fact that
the curve y = |x| does not have a tangent line at (0, 0).
 and its graph is shown in
0 x geometrically in the fact
2.6. DERIVATIVES [See 69
Figure 6(a).]
SECTION 2.8 THE DERIVATIV

(a) y=ƒ=| x | Both continuity and d

y A formula for f  is given by The following theorem s

再
y
1 if x  0
f 共x兲 苷
1
1 if Ifx fis0dif
4 Theorem
and its graph
0 is shown in xFigure 6(b). The fact that f 共0兲
0 x geometrically
_1 in the fact that the Proof y 苷prove
curve To x does
that not
f is ⱍ ⱍ
[See Figure 6(a).] We do this by showing th
The given information
(a) y=ƒ=| x | Both
(b) continuity
y=fª(x) and differentiability are desirable prop
The following theorem shows how these properties are re
y FIGURE 6
Both continuity and differentiability are desirable properties for a function to have. The following theorem shows
how these properties are related. 1 exists
4 Theorem If f is differentiable at (see Equation
a, then 2.7.
f is contin
Theorem 10. multiply f 共x兲
f 共a兲 by
0 x
_1
If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a. Proof To prove that f is continuous at a, we have to show
We do this by showing that the difference f 共x兲
f 共a兲 ap
The given information is that f is differentiable at a, t
(b) y=fª(x) Thus, using the Product
f 共x兲
f 共a兲
Note The converse of theorem is false; that is, there are functions that are continuous but not differentiable.
FIGURE 6 f 共a兲 苷 lim
For instance, the function f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0 because x l a x
lim
a 关 f共
x la
exists (see Equation 2.7.3). To connect the given and the
lim f (x) = lim |x| = 0 = f (0)
x→0 x→0 multiply f 共x兲
f 共a兲 by x
a (which we can do when x
164
164 ■■ CHAPTER
CHAPTER
But 2in
2 LIMITS
LIMITS AND
AND DERIVATIVES
example DERIVATIVES
we showed that f is not differentiable at 0. f 共x兲
f 共a兲
f 共x兲
f 共a兲 苷 共x

x
a
How
How Can Can aa Function
Function Fail
2.6.4 How Can a Function Fail to be Fail toto be
be Differentiable?
Differentiable? Differentiable?
Thus, using the Product Law and (2.7.3), we can write
To use what we have jus

• If the graph of We
We saw
saw that
a functionthatfthe
the function
hasfunction
a “corner” 苷 ⱍⱍxxor
yy 苷 ⱍⱍ inin“kink”
Example
Examplein 66it,isisthen
not
not differentiable
differentiable
the graph ofatatf00has and
andno Fig-
Fig-
tangent fat lim
ure
ure6(a)
6(a)shows
showsthatthatits
itsgraph
graphchanges
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directionabruptly
abruptly when
when xx 苷
苷 00. .In
In general,
general, if
ifthe
the 共x兲this

f 共a兲x l
point and f, is not differentiable 0
findlim 关 f the
共x兲
f 共a兲兴
and 苷 limlimits are 共
graph
graph of functionthere.
ofaafunction hasaa(In
ff has tryingor
“corner”
“corner” orto“kink”
compute
“kink”in it,fthen
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then wegraph
the graph that
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of
a ff has
lefttangent
hasno
no tangent right
x la x
a
yy different.) atatthis
thispoint
pointand and ff isisnot
notdifferentiable
differentiablethere.there.[In[Intrying
tryingto compute ff共a兲
tocompute 共a兲,,wewefind
findthatthat
vertical
verticaltangent
tangent f 共x兲
f 共a兲
line
line the
theleftleftand
andright
rightlimits
limitsare aredifferent.]
different.] 苷 lim l
• The last theorem givesTheoremanother
Theorem wayanother
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gives for a function
another way
wayfor foranot to have
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haveaaderivative.
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says fthat x
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a x

ff isisnot
at a, then f is not notcontinuous
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differentiable atataa.
a,,then
then
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isnot
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differentiableatat(for
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anydiscontinuity
instance, discontinuity (for
(for
a jump discontinuity)
苷 f 共a兲 ⴢff0isfails
Therefore, 苷continuou
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instance,
instance,
to be differentiable. aa jump
jump discontinuity)
discontinuity) f f fails
fails to
to be
be differentiable.
differentiable.
AAthird
thirdpossibility
possibilityisisthat thatthe
thecurve
curvehas hasaavertical
vertical
To usetangent
tangent
what we line
line when
when
have justxx 苷
苷 aa|
,,that
proved,thatwe NOTE
is,
is, start with f 共x兲 and
● The converse o

ff is
is continuous
continuous at
at aa and
and
• A third possibility is that the curve has a vertical tangent line when x = a, that is, f tinuous is continuousbut notatdifferenti
a
lim f 共x兲 苷becauselim 关 f 共a兲  共 f 共x兲
f 共
lim ⱍⱍ ff共x兲
共x兲ⱍⱍ 苷
00 aa and xx
lim 苷 x la x la
xxllaa
lim |f 0 (x)| = ∞
x→a 苷 lim f 共a兲  lim 关 f 共x兲

This
Thismeans
meansthat
thatthe
thetangent
tangentlines
linesbecome
becomesteeper
steeperand
andsteeper
steeperas
asxx l
l aa..Figure
Figure77shows x la
shows x la
FIGURE
FIGURE 77
This means thatone the tangent
oneway
waythat lines
thatthis
thiscan become
canhappen; steeper
happen;Figure and
Figure8(c) steeper
8(c)shows as
showsanother.x → a.
another.Figure
Figure88illustrates
illustratesthe
the苷three
three
(See
f 共a兲Example 7 in Secti
 0 苷 f 共a兲
possibilities
possibilitiesthat
thatwe
wehave
havediscussed.
discussed. tiable at 0.
Figure illustrates the three possibilities that we have discussed.Therefore, f is continuous at a.
yy yy yy
| NOTE The converse of Theorem 4 is false; that is, ther
●

tinuous but not differentiable. For instance, the function f

because

x l0 x l0
ⱍ ⱍ
lim f 共x兲 苷 lim x 苷 0 苷 f 共0
00 aa xx 00 aa xx 00 aa xx
FIGURE
FIGURE 88 (See Example 7 in Section 2.3.) But in Example 6 we sh
Three
Threeways
waysfor
forƒƒnot
nottotobe
be
(a)
(a)AAcorner
corner (b)
tiable at 0.
(b)AAdiscontinuity
discontinuity (c)
(c)AAvertical
verticaltangent
tangent
differentiable
differentiableatataa

AAgraphing
graphingcalculator
calculatorororcomputer
computerprovides
providesanother
anotherwaywayofoflooking
lookingatatdifferentia-
differentia-
bility.
bility.IfIf ff isisdifferentiable
differentiableatataa,,then
thenwhen
whenwewezoom
zoomin intoward
towardthe point共a,
thepoint 共a,ff共a兲兲
共a兲兲the
the
graph
graphstraightens
straightensout outand
andappears
appearsmoremoreand
andmore
morelike
likeaaline.
line.(See
(SeeFigure
Figure9.9.We
Wesaw
sawaa
specific
specificexample
exampleof ofthis
thisin
inFigure
Figure33in inSection
Section2.7.)
2.7.)But
Butno
nomatter
matterhow
howmuch
muchwe wezoom
zoom
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intoward
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likethe
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Figures77and
and8(a),
8(a),we
wecan’t
can’teliminate
eliminatethe
thesharp
sharppoint
point
or
orcorner
corner(see(seeFigure
Figure10).
10).