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Contents

1 Functions 3
1.1 Basic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.2 Power Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.3 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.4 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.5 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.6 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 New Functions from Old Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.1 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.2 Transformations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.3 Inverse Functions and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2.5 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1
2 CONTENTS
12 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A exactly one


element, called f 共x兲, in a set B.

We usually consider functions for which the sets A and B are sets of real numbers.
The set A is called the domain of the function. The number f 共x兲 is the value of f
at x and is read “ f of x.” The range of f is the set of all possible values of f 共x兲 as x
varies throughout the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the
domain of a function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents
a number in the range of f is called a dependent variable. In Example A, for
Chapter 1 instance, r is the independent variable and A is the dependent variable.
x f ƒ It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine (see Figure 2). If x is in the domain
(input) (output) of the function f, then when x enters the machine, it’s accepted as an input and the
machine produces an output f 共x兲 according to the rule of the function. Thus, we can
Functions
FIGURE 2
Machine diagram for a function ƒ
think of the domain as the set of all possible inputs and the range as the set of all pos-
sible outputs.
The preprogrammed functions in a calculator are good examples of a function as a
machine. For example, the square root key on your calculator is such a function. You
press the key labeled s (or sx ) and enter the input x. If x ⬍ 0, then x is not in the
Definition 1. domain of this function; that is, x is not an acceptable input, and the calculator will
x ƒ indicate an error. If x 艌 0, then an approximation to sx will appear in the display.
A function f is a rule that assignsThus, to each element
the sx key oninyour
a setcalculator
A exactly onequite
is not element, called
the same f (x),
as the in mathematical
exact a
a f(a)
set B. function f defined by f 共x兲 苷 sx.
Another way to picture a function is by an arrow diagram as in Figure 3. Each
arrow connects an element of A to an element of B. The arrow indicates that f 共x兲 is
f associated with x, f 共a兲 is associated with a, and so on.
We usuallyAconsider functionsBfor which the The sets most
A and B are sets
common of real
method numbers. The
for visualizing set A is
a function is its
called theIfdomain
graph. f is a function
of the function.
FIGURE 3 The number f (x) is called with
thedomain
valueAof , then
f atitsx.graph is the set
The range of of
f ordered
is the setpairs
of all possible values of
f as x Arrow
varies diagram for ƒ the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function
throughout
f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number in theⱍ range of is called a dependent
兵共x, f 共x兲兲 x 僆 A其

variable. (Notice that these are input-output pairs.) In other words, the graph of f consists of all
The most common method for visualizing points a共x,function
y兲 in theiscoordinate
its graph. plane
If fsuch
is athat y 苷 f 共x兲
function anddomain
with x is in the
A, domain
then itsof f .
graph is the set of ordered pairs The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior or “life history”
of a function. Since2 the y-coordinate of any point 共x, y兲 on the graph is y 苷 f 共x兲, we
{(x, f (x)) ∈ R x ∈ A}.
can read the value of f 共x兲 from the graph as being the height of the graph above the
In other words, the graph of f consists ofpoint x (see Figure
all points (x, y) 4).
in The graph of f also
the coordinate allows
plane suchusthat
to picture
y = fthe (x)domain
and x of f on the
is in
x-axis and its range on the y-axis as in Figure 5.
the domain of f .
y { x, ƒ} y

ƒ
range y ⫽ ƒ(x)

f (2)
f (1)

0 1 2 x x 0 x
domain
FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5

3
共x, y兲 in the coordinate plane such that y 苷 f 共x兲 and x is in the domain of f .
e graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior or “life history”
unction. Since the y-coordinate of any point 共x, y兲 on the graph is y 苷 f 共x兲, we
4 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
ad the value of f 共x兲 from the graph as being the height of the graph above the
x (see Figure 4). The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the
and its range on the
The graph -axis
of f yalso as in
allows us Figure
to picture5.the domain of f on the x−axis and its range on the y−axis as in Figure.

{ x, ƒ} y

ƒ
range y ⫽ ƒ(x)

f (2)
f (1)

1 2 x x 0 x
SECTION 1.1 FOUR WAYS TO REPRESENT A FUNCTION
domain ◆ 13

E 4 FIGURE
EXAMPLE 1 The graph 5
of a function f is shown in Figure 6.
(a) Find the values of f 共1兲 and f 共5兲.
Example 1.
(b) What are the domain and range of f ?
y

0 1 x

FIGURE 6

SOLUTION
The graph of a function f is shown in Figure.
(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point 共1, 3兲 lies on the graph of f , so the value of
1 is f 共1兲
f atvalues
a) Find the of f苷
(1)3. and f (5).words, the point on the graph that lies above x 苷 1 is
(In other
three units above the x-axis.)
b) What areWhen x 苷 5, the
the domain andgraph
rangelies
of about
f ? 0.7 unit below the x-axis, so we estimate that
f 共5兲 ⬇ ⫺0.7.
(b) We see that f 共x兲 is defined when 0 艋 x 艋 7, so the domain of f is the closed
on for intervals is given in interval 关0, 7兴. Notice that f takes on all values from ⫺2 to 4, so the range of f is
Solution.
兵y ⱍ ⫺2 艋 y 艋 4其 苷 关⫺2, 4兴
a) We see from Figure that the point (1, 3) lies on the graph of f , so the value of f at 1 is f (1) = 3. (In other
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of each function.
words, the point on the graph that lies above x = 1 is 3 units above the x-axis.)
(a) f共x兲 苷 2x ⫺ 1 (b) t共x兲 苷 x 2
When x = 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the x−axis, so we estimate that f (5) ≈ −0.7.
SOLUTION
(a) The equation of the graph is y 苷 2x ⫺ 1, and we recognize this as being the
y
b) We see that equation of a line when
f (x) is defined with slope
0≤x 2 and
≤ 7,y-intercept ⫺1. (Recall
so the domain of f isthethe
slope-intercept form[0, 7]. Notice that f
closed interval
of the equation of a line: y 苷 mx ⫹ b. See Appendix B.) This enables us to sketch
takes on all values from −2 to 4, so the range of f is
the graph of f in Figure 7. The expression 2x ⫺ 1 is defined for all real numbers, so
y=2 x-1 the domain of f is the set of all real numbers, which we denote by ⺢. The graph
shows that the range is also ⺢. {y| − 2 ≤ y ≤ 4} = [−2, 4].
0 1 x (b) Since t共2兲 苷 2 2 苷 4 and t共⫺1兲 苷 共⫺1兲2 苷 1, we could plot the points 共2, 4兲
-1 2
and 共⫺1, 1兲, together with a few other points on the graph, and join them to produce
the graph (Figure 8). The equation of the graph is y 苷 x 2, which represents a
parabola (see Appendix B). The domain of t is ⺢. The range of t consists of all
values of t共x兲, that is, all numbers of the form x 2. But x 2 艌 0 for all numbers x and
any positive number y is a square. So the range of t is 兵y ⱍ y 艌 0其 苷 关0, ⬁兲. This can
also be seen from Figure 8.
y
(2, 4)

y=≈

(_1, 1) 1
and division by 0 is by
and division not0allowed,
is not allowed,
we see we
thatsee that
t共x兲 is not
t共x兲defined 苷 0 or
when xwhen
is not defined x 苷 0 or
x 苷 1. xThus,
苷 1.the
Thus,
domain
the domain
of t is of t is
ⱍ ⱍ
兵x x 苷兵x0, x 苷 0,
1其 x 苷 1其
5
which could
whichalso
could
bealso
written
be written
in interval
in interval
notationnotation
as as

Vertical Line Test 共⫺⬁, 0兲共⫺⬁,


傼 共0, 1兲⬁兲
0兲1兲傼傼共0,共1, 傼 共1, ⬁兲

The graph
The ofgraph
a function
of a function
is a curve the xy
is aincurve the xy-plane.
in-plane. But theBut
question
the question
arises: Which
arises: Which
The graph of acurves
function is xy
curves
in the the xyare
ain-plane
curve -plane
graphs
in the are graphs
of functions?
xy−plane. of But
functions?
This
the is This
answered
questionis answered
by theWhich
arises: following
by the following
test. in test.
curves the xy−plane are
graphs of functions? This is answered by the following test.
The Vertical
The Vertical
Line TestLine
A Test the xy
curveAincurve the xyis
in-plane -plane
the graph
is theof
graph
a function of x if of x if
of a function
A curve in the xy−plane is the graph of a 18 function
■theof x if and
CHAPTER 1curveonly if noAND
FUNCTIONS vertical
MODELSline intersects the curve more
and onlyandif only
no vertical
if no vertical
line intersects
line intersects
curve
themore than
moreonce.
than once.
than once.
If each verticalThe
linereason
xThe
= reason
for the for
truth
a intersects theofatruth
the Vertical
curveof only
the Vertical
Line
once, Test
Line
at canTest
(a, be can
b), seen
then beinexactly
seen
Figure in For
oneexample,
Figure
17. 17. If the
Iffunctional
each eachparabola
value x 苷 y 2 ⫺ 2 sh
is defined
linexx苷 苷 a intersects 共a,(a, 共a,and
vertical function of x because, as you can see, there a
by f (a) = b. But if avertical
line =a aintersects
line x intersects a curve
the acurve
only
curveonce,
onlyatonce,
twice, at b兲at, b)
then b兲exactly
, then exactly
(a, c), onethenfunctional
one
the functional
curve can’t represent a
value isvalue
defined by f 共a兲by苷 fb共a兲
is defined . But苷 bif. aBut
lineif xa 苷 x 苷 a intersects
a intersects
line the curve twice.
thetwice,
curve atThe 共a,parabola,
twice, b兲at 共a, b兲however, does contain
function because a function can’t assign two different values to a. 苷 2
2 implies y 2 苷 x ⫹ 2, so y
⫺ assign
and 共a,and 共a, c兲the
c兲, then , then
curvethe can’t
curverepresent
can’t represent
a function
a function
becausebecause a function that
a function x y
can’t assign
can’t
two different
two different
values to a. to a.
values halves of the parabola are the graphs of the f
y y y y 6(a)] and t共x兲 苷 ⫺s x ⫹ 2. [See Figures 18(
x=a ofx=a
(a, c) x and y, then the equation x 苷 h
x=a x=a
(a,the
c) roles
of y (with y as the independent variable an
(a, b) (a, b) parabola now appears as the graph of the fun
(a, b) (a, b)
y y

0 0 a a x x 0 0 a x a x
FIGURE FIGURE
17 17

(_2, 0) 0 x _2 0

Piecewise Defined Function


FIGURE 18 (a) x=¥-2 (b) y=œ„
x

The functions in the following examples are defined by different formulas in different parts of their domains.

Piecewise Defined Functions


Example 2. The functions in the following four example
ferent parts of their domains.
A function f is defined by 
1 − x, x≤1 EXAMPLE 7 A function f is defined by


f (x) =
x2 , x>1 1⫺x
f 共x兲 苷
x2
Evaluate f (0), f (1) and f (2) and sketch the graph.
Evaluate f 共0兲, f 共1兲, and f 共2兲 and sketch the
SOLUTION Remember that a function is a rule.
the following: First look at the value of the i
valuethe
Solution. If x ≤ 1 then the value of f (x) is 1 − x. On the other hand, if x > 1, then 共x兲 is of
of fvalue 1⫺ x. On
f (x) 2 other hand, if
the
is x .
Since 0 艋 1, we hav

Since 1 艋 1, we hav
y
Since 2 ⬎ 1, we hav

How do we draw the graph of f ? We ob


so the part of the graph of f that lies to the l
1
cide with the line y 苷 1 ⫺ x, which has slop
f 共x兲 苷 x 2, so the part of the graph of f that
1 x coincide with the graph of y 苷 x 2, which is
graph in Figure l9. The solid dot indicates th
FIGURE 19 graph; the open dot indicates that the point 共
information together, we ha

6 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

20 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS


Example 3.

EXAMPLE
Consider the cost C(w) of mailing a first-class letter with weight w. In effect, this is a piecewise defined 10 In Example C
We also see that
C共w 兲 ofthe grapha of
mailing f coin
first-clas
function because, from the table of values, we have the following.
information together, we have the ff


C defined function because,


 0.39, if 0 < w ≤ 1 1
f 共x兲 苷



0.63, if 1 < w ≤ 2

C(w) =


 0.87, if 2 < w ≤ 3
.


..

EXAMPLE 10 In Example C at the be
0 1 2 3 4 5 w兲w of mailing
C共 The graph is shown letter
a first-class in Figu
w
C
called step
defined function functions—the
because, from the
FIGURE 22 studied in Chapter 2.

Symmetric Function 1
Symmetry
Definition 2. C共w兲 苷
y If a function f satisfies f 共
If a function f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its domain, then is f called an even
called an even function. Fo
function.
0 1 2f (_x)3 4 5 w ƒ
The graph is shown in Figure 22. Y
_x 0 x called
x step functions—they jump f
For instance, the function f (x) = x2 is even because
FIGURE 22 studied in The geometric
Chapter 2. significance
f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x). respect to the y-axis (see F
f for x 艌 0, we obtain the
Symmetry
If f satisfies f 共⫺x兲 苷 ⫺
FIGURE 23 odd function. For example
y
An even function
If a function f satisfies f 共⫺x兲 苷 f
called an even function. For instanf
f (_x) yƒ The graph of an oddf 共⫺x兲
funct
_x 0 x x already have the graph of
The geometric significance
through 180⬚ about of
the an
orige
_x 0
ƒ
respect to the y-axis (see Figure 23
x x
f for x 艌 EXAMPLE 11 Determine
0, we obtain the entirewhe
gr
If f satisfies f 共⫺x兲 5苷 ⫺f 共x兲 for
neither even nor odd.
FIGURE odd function. 共x兲 苷
(a) fFor x ⫹ x the fun
example,
The geometric significance of an even function23is that its graph is symmetric with respect to the y−axis. This
An even
means that if we have plotted the graph function
of f for SOLUTION
x ≥ 0, we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting about the
y−axis. (a) f 共⫺x兲 苷
f 共⫺x兲
FIGURE 24
Definition 3. yAn odd function The graph of an odd function is sy
If f satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) for every number x in its domain, then f is called already have the graph of f for x
an odd function.
through 180⬚ about the origin.
_x 0
ƒ Therefore, f is an odd func
For example, the function f (x) = x3 is odd because x x
EXAMPLE 11(b)Determine whether t共⫺
eac
neither even nor odd.
f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = −f (x).
(a) f 共x兲 苷Soxt5 is
⫹even.
x (b) t共x兲
SOLUTION
FIGURE 24 (a) f 共⫺x兲 苷 共⫺x兲
If f satisfies f 共⫺x兲 苷 ⫺
FIGURE 23 odd function. For example,
An even function 7
f共
y The graph of an odd functi
already have the graph of
through 180⬚ about the origi
_x 0
ƒ
x x
EXAMPLE 11 Determine whet
neither even nor odd.
(a) f 共x兲 苷 x 5 ⫹ x (
SOLUTION
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. If we already have the graph of f for x ≥ 0, we
FIGURE
can obtain the entire graph by rotating 24180◦ about the origin.
through (a) f 共⫺x兲 苷
An odd function 苷
Example 4. 苷
Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd or neither even nor odd.
Therefore, f is an odd funct
a) f (x) = x5 + x
(b) t共⫺x
b) g(x) = 1 − x4

c) h(x) = 2x − x2 So t is even.

Solution.

(a) f (−x) = (−x)5 + (−x) = (−1)5 x5 + (−x)


= −x5 − x = −(x5 + x)
= −f (x)
SECTION 1.1 FOUR WAYS TO REPRESENT A FUNCTION ◆ 21
Therefore, f is an odd function.

(c) h共⫺x兲 苷 2共⫺x兲 ⫺ 共⫺x兲2 苷 ⫺2x ⫺ x 2


4 4
(b) g(−x) = 1 − (−x) = 1 − x = g(x). So g is even.
Since h共⫺x兲 苷 h共x兲 and h共⫺x兲 苷 ⫺h共x兲, we conclude that h is neither even nor
odd.
(c) h(−x) = 2(−x) − (−x)2 = −2x − x2 . Since h(−x) ̸= h(x) and h(−x) ̸= −h(x), we conclude that h is neither
The graphs of the functions in Example 11 are shown in Figure 25. Notice that the
even nor odd.
graph of h is symmetric neither about the y-axis nor about the origin.
y y y
1
1 f g 1 h

1
_1 1 x x 1 x

_1

FIGURE 25 (a) ( b) (c)

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

The graph shown in Figure 26 rises from A to B, falls from B to C, and rises again
from C to D. The function f is said to be increasing on the interval 关a, b兴, decreasing
on 关b, c兴, and increasing again on 关c, d兴. Notice that if x 1 and x 2 are any two numbers
between a and b with x 1 ⬍ x 2, then f 共x 1 兲 ⬍ f 共x 2 兲. We use this as the defining prop-
erty of an increasing function.
8 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

1.1 Basic Functions SECTION 1.2


SECTION 1.2 MATHEMATICAL
MATHEMATICAL ◆
MODELS MODELS 29 ◆ 29

1.1.1We Polynomials
therefore
We therefore
predict that
predict
the that
CO2thelevel
COwill
2 level
exceed
will 400
exceed
ppm400
by ppm
the year
by the
2020.
year 2020.
This prediction
This4.prediction
Definition is somewhat
is somewhat
risky because
risky because
it involves
it involves
a time quite
a time
remote
quite from
remote
ourfrom our
observations.
observations.
A function P is called a polynomial if

Polynomials
Polynomials
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

A function
where nAis afunction
is called
P isainteger
Pnonnegative called
polynomial
a polynomial
and theifnumbersifa0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants, which are called the
coefficients of the polynomial.n
P共x兲 苷 P共x兲
an x 苷
⫹ a nn⫺1
x nx⫹ a⫹
n⫺1
n⫺1 ⭈x⭈ ⭈ ⫹
n⫺1
⫹a⭈2⭈x⭈2 ⫹ a 21x 2⫹
⫹aa01 x ⫹ a 0
where nwhere
is a nonnegative
n is a nonnegative
integer integer
and the and
numbers
the numbers
a 0 , a 1, aa2 ,0 ,. a. .1, a 2n, are
. . . ,constants,
a n are constants,
which are
which
called
arethe
called
coefficients
the coefficients
of the polynomial.
of the polynomial.
The domain
The
The domain of any polynomial is R = (−∞, ∞). If the leading coefficient an ̸= 0, then domain
of any polynomial
of any polynomial
theisdegreeisof the
⺢ 苷 共⫺⬁,
polynomial is ⺢
n. 苷⬁兲.共⫺⬁,
For ⬁兲.leading
If the
example, If the
the leading
coefficient
function a n 苷 0, athen
coefficient n 苷 0 the
, then
degree the degree
of the polynomial
of the polynomial
is n. Forisexample,
n. For example,
the function
the function
2 √
P (x) 6= 2x64−6x42 +3 4 x3 +2 32
P共x兲 苷 P共x兲
2x ⫺ 苷x2x⫹ ⫺ 5 xx ⫹
5 ⫹s2 5x ⫹ s2
is a polynomial of degree 6.
is a polynomial
is a polynomial
of degree of 6.degree 6.
A polynomial
• A polynomial A of
polynomial
of degree
degree 1 is ofof1degree
is form
the of the
1Pis1form
of =
(x) theP共x兲
mx +苷
form mx ⫹
P共x兲
b and so苷it
bmx and
is a⫹ sobitand
linear isfunction.
asolinear
it is afunc-
linear func-
tion. A polynomial
tion. A polynomial
of degree of 2degree
is of the2 isform
of the 苷 P共x兲
form
P共x兲 ax 2 ⫹苷bx ax⫹ 2
⫹c bxand⫹isccalled
and isacalled a
• quadratic
A polynomial of degree
quadratic
function. 2 is ofgraph
function.
The the
The form P2 (x)
ofgraph
P is of=P ax2is+a
always bxparabola
+ c and
always isobtained
called aobtained
a parabola quadratic
by shifting byfunction.
the The
shifting thegraph
parabola y 苷 ax
parabola
of P2 is always 2
苷 we
y, as
a parabola 2
,will
as we
ax obtained seebywill
inshifting
theseenext
inthethe
section.
next section.
parabola The
y = ax 2
parabola
,The
as we parabola
opens
will seeupward
opens
in upward
if section.
the next if The
⬎ 0 and
aparabola ⬎downward
aopens0 and
upward if aa>⬍0 0and
downward
if ⬍ Figure
if. (See 0. (Seeif7.)
adownward Figure
a < 0. 7.)

y y y y

2 2 2 2

0 10 x 1 x 1 1x x

FIGURE 7FIGURE 7 Figure 1.1: y = x2 + x + 1 y = −2x2 + 3x + 1


graphs
quadratic
of quadratic
tions
parabolas.
are parabolas. (a) y=≈+x+1
(a) y=≈+x+1 (b) y=_2≈+3x+1
(b) y=_2≈+3x+1
• A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form P3 (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and is called a cubic function.
A polynomial
A polynomial
of degree
of 3degree
is of the
3 isform
of the form

P共x兲 苷 P共x兲
ax 3 ⫹苷bx
ax23⫹
⫹cx
bx⫹
2
⫹d cx ⫹ d
and is called
and isacalled
cubic afunction.
cubic function.
Figure 8Figure
shows8theshows
graphtheofgraph
a cubic
of afunction
cubic function
in part in part
(a) and graphs
(a) andofgraphs
polynomials
of polynomials
of degrees
of degrees
4 and 5 4inand
parts
5 in
(b)parts
and (c).
(b) and
We will
(c). We
see will
latersee later
why thewhy
graphs
the have
graphs
these
have
shapes.
these shapes.
y y y y y y

1 1 2 2 20 20
1 1
0 0 1 x 1 x x x 1 x1 x
1.1. BASIC FUNCTIONS 9

1.1.2 Power Functions


Definition 5.

A function of the form


f (x) = xa , where a is a constant,

is called a power function.

We consider several cases:

i) a = n, where n is a positive integer. SECTION 1.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS ◆ 31


The graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 3, 4, and 5 are shown in Figures below. (These are polynomials with only
SECTION SECTION
SECTION
1.2 1.21.2MATHEMATICAL
SECTION MATHEMATICAL
1.2
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
MATHEMATICAL
MODELS
MODELS◆◆ 31
MODELS◆ ◆31 31
31y=x%
one term.) y=≈ y=x# y=x$
y y y y y
y=x
y=≈ y=x# y=x$ y=x%
y y 1 y 1 y 1 y=x$ y 1
1y=xy=≈y=≈
y=≈ y=x#y=x#
y=x# y=x$y=x$ y=x%
y=x%
y=x%
y y y y y y y y y y y y
1 1 1 1 1
0 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
1

0 0 0 x x x 0 0 0 x1 x1 x 0 0 10 x 1 x1 x 0 0 10 x 1 x1 x
1 of1ƒ=x n for n=1, 2, 3, 4,1 5
FIGURE 11 1 Graphs

RE 11 Graphs of ƒ=x n for n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 The general shape of the graph of f 共x兲 苷 x n depends on whether n is even or
odd. If n is even, then f 共x兲 苷 x n is an even function and its graph is similar to the
The general
parabola y 苷 of
shape x 2.the
If ngraph
is odd, f 共x兲 苷
of then x n苷
f 共x兲 depends
x n is anonodd
whether
function n isand
evenitsorgraph is simi-
odd. If n is
lar even,
to that then
of y f苷共x兲x 苷
3
. x n
is
Notice an even
from function
Figure 12, and its
however,graph
that is
as similar
n to
increases,the the graph
for nn=1,
=x
ƒ=x fornn=1,
for
2, 3,
n=1,
2,
4, 3,
5Notice
2,4,3,5 4,from
5 parabola
ⱍ ⱍ
n
ofy 苷
the figure y below, nhowever, 共x兲
as 苷
thatfnear n increases,
an oddthe graph of1f.its
(x) x=isxsmall,
is becomes
then xflatter near 0 and
2
苷x x. nIfbecomes
is odd,flatter
then x n issteeper
0 and function
when 艌
x and (Ifgraph simi- 2
is
(Ifofxyis苷small,
3 2 3 4
steeper when |x| lar ≥
to 1.
thatsmaller, xx is
3 . Notice
even from
x isFigure
thensmaller, 4 12, xhowever,
x is smaller
smaller, isstill, that
evenand as on.)
so n increases,
smaller, x is smaller the graph
still, and so on.)
The The
general
The
general of y 苷 x n becomes flatter near 0 and steeper
shape
general
shape
of shape
the
3 of graph
the
of the
graph
of f 共x兲
graphof4 f 苷
共x兲
of xf n

共x兲 苷 n when
depends
x n x 艌 1. (If x is small, then x is
depends
x depends
on whether
on whether
on whether
n is yeven
n is n ⱍ ⱍ
even
or
is
2
even
or or
smaller, x is even nsmaller, x n is smaller still, and so on.)
odd.odd.
If nodd.
is
If even,
n Ifis neven,
is
theneven,f 共x兲
then thenf苷共x兲xf 苷
共x兲
n
isxan 苷isxeven
aniseven
an
function
even
function
function
and its
andgraph
and
its graph
itsisgraph
similar
is similar
is to
similar
theto theto the
parabola
parabolay 苷 yx 苷
parabola 2
. yIfx苷2
n. is
If 2
x odd,
n. Ifis nodd,
then
is odd, f 共x兲
then y
f苷
then共x兲xf y=x

共x兲
n
苷isxodd
isx$ann n
anisodd
function
an odd
function y
function
and its andgraph
and
its graph
itsisgraph
simi-
is simi-
is simi-
lar tolarthat
to
larthat
oftoythat苷 yxof苷
of 3
x苷. Notice
3
. yNotice 3
x .from
Notice
y from
Figure from
Figure
12,
Figurehowever,
12, 12,however,
however,
that that
as nthat
as
increases,
nasincreases,
n increases,
the graphthe the
graph
(1, 1) graph

ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ
y=x$ ^
苷 yxof苷becomes
of y of n
yx苷becomes
n n
x becomesflatterflatter
near
flatter
near
0 and near y=x
0 steeper
and0 and
steeper
when
steeper when
y=≈
艌x 1.艌
xwhen x(If1艌
.x(If
is1.small, y=x
x(Ifis xsmall,
isthen #
small, 2
then
x is x 2 isx 2 is
then
(1, 1)
smaller, x 3 isxeven
smaller,
smaller, 3
isx 3even
smaller,
is evensmaller, x 4 isxy=x
smaller,
(_1, 1)
4
is^x 4smaller
smaller is still,
smallerstill,
andstill,
(1, 1)
so
andon.)
and
so on.)
so on.) y=x # y=x %
y=≈ 0 x
y=x %
(_1, 1) (1, 1) y y y
0 x

y y y 0 x (_1, _1)
y=xy=x
$ y=x
$ $
FIGURE 12 0 x (_1, _1)
Families of power functions (1, 1) (1, 1)(1, 1)
FIGURE 12 y=xy=x
^ y=x
^ ^ y=xy=x
# y=x
# #
Families of power functions y=≈ y=≈ y=≈
(ii) a 苷 1兾n, where n is a positive integer y=xy=x
% y=x
% %
(1, 1) (1, f1)共x兲
(1, 苷
1) x 苷 sx is a root function. For n 苷 2 it is the square root
1兾n n
(_1, 1)(_1, (_1,
1) 1) The function
(ii) a 苷 function
1兾n, where f 共x兲n 苷 is asxpositive domain is 关0, ⬁兲 and whose graph is the upper half of
, whoseinteger
02 it values x x x
The function f 共x兲 苷 x 1兾n
the parabola 苷苷
n
x is Figure
y 2.s[See a root function.
13(a).] ForFor n 苷even
other is0 the0square root
of n, the graph of
function yf 苷 共x兲s苷
n
, whosetodomain
sxsimilar
x is that of is y苷 关0,sx
⬁兲. and n 苷 3 we
For whose graph
haveis the cube
upperroot
halffunction
of
f 共x兲 x苷苷s
the parabola 3 2
yx .whose
[See Figure
domain13(a).]is ⺢ (recall
For other
thateven
everyvalues of n, thehas
real number graph of root) and
a cube
y苷s n
x is similar
whose to that
graph of y 苷insx
is shown Figure n 苷 3 The
. For 13(b). we have
graphthe y 苷 _1)
ofcube root
sn
n odd 共n ⬎ 3兲 is
function
x for
0 f 共x兲
0 苷 0s x x3 x (_1, _1)
(_1, (_1,
_1)
of yis苷⺢s(recall
3
x whose
similar domain
to that x. that every real number has a cube root) and
whose graph is shown in Figure 13(b). The graph of y 苷 s n
x for n odd 共n ⬎ 3兲 is
URE
FIGURE
12
FIGURE
12 12 similar to that of y 苷 sx. 3
y y
nctions
power
er functions
functions
y y
(1, 1) (1, 1)

(ii)苷(ii)
(ii) a 苷a, 1兾n
a1兾n 苷 ,1兾n
where
where
,nwhere
is n
a positive
isna ispositive
a positive
integer
(1, 1)
integer
integer 0 x 0 x
(1, 1)
the xparabola x 苷 y . [See (_1,Figure
_1) 13(a).] For other even values of n,
y苷s n
x is similar to that of y 苷 sx. For n 苷 3 we have the cube ro
f 共x兲 苷 s x whose domain is ⺢ (recall that every real number has a
10 3 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

whose1 graph is shown


ii) a = , where n is a positive integer.
in Figure 13(b). The graph of y 苷 sn
x for n o
The
n
similar
function fto
(x) that
=x of√xyis 苷
1/n
= n s3
a root x. For n = 2 it is the square root function f (x) = √x,
function.
whose domain is [0, ∞) and whose graph is the upper half of the parabola x = y 2 .
a positive integer
苷s n
x is a root function. For y n 苷 2 it is the square root y
se domain is 关0, ⬁兲 and whose graph is the upper half of
Figure 13(a).] For other even values (1, 1)
of n, the graph of
(1, 1)
of y 苷 sx. For n 苷 3 we have the cube root function
0 x 0
n is ⺢ (recall that every real number has a cube root) and
Figure For
13(b). The
other even valuesgraph of ofy y苷
of n, the graph
n
= x sis for ton that
xsimilar
1/n odd of y 共n
√ ⬎ 3兲 is
= x.

RE 13 For n = 3 we have the cube root function f (x) =



3
x whose domain is R (recall that every real number
has a cube root) and whose graph is shown below.
tions (a) ƒ=œ„
x (b) ƒ=#œx„
y

1, 1) (1, 1)
x 0 x

x
œ„ √ (b) ƒ=#œx„ √
The graph of y = n
x for n odd (n > 3) is similar to that of y = 3
x.

iii) a = −1.
−1 1 1
The graph of the reciprocal function
32 f (x)
■ = x CHAPTER
= is shown in Figure. Its graph has the equation y =
x 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS x
or xy = 1, and is a hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its asymptotes.

y (iii) a 苷 ⫺1
The graph of the reciprocal
y=∆
graph has the equation y 苷 1
1 axes as its asymptotes.
This function arises in ph
0 1 x
which says that, when the te
proportional to the pressure:

FIGURE 14
The reciprocal function where C is a constant. Thus,
the same general shape as th
1.1. BASIC FUNCTIONS 11

1.1.3 Rational Functions


Definition 6.

A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:


FIGURE 15
Volume Pas (x) a function of pressure
f (x) =
at constant temperature
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials.


Anoth
The domain consists of all values of x such that Q(x) ̸= 0.
enon is d
A simple example of a rational function is the
function f (x) = 1/x, whose domain is {x|x ̸= 0}. The function

2x4 − x2 + 1
f (x) =
x2 − 4 Ra
is a rational function with domain {x|x ̸= ±2}.

y A ration

20

0 2 x where P
Q共x兲 苷 0
domain is
1.1.4 Algebraic Functions
Definition 7. FIGURE 16
2x$-≈+1
A function is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic operations (such as
ƒ=
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) starting with polynomials.
≈-4 is a ration
Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function. Here are two more examples:

x4 − 16x2 √
Alg
p
f (x) = x2 + 1 g(x) = √ + (x − 2) 3 x + 1
x+ x

A functio
operation
starting w
tion. Her
The Trigonometric Functio

12 For an acute
CHAPTER angle  the
1. FUNCTIONS six trigonome
hypotenuse ■
opposite A20
sidesAPPENDIX C TRIGONOMETRY
of a right triangle as follows (see
1.1.5 The Trigonometric Functions
¨ The Tri
opp
adjacent 4 sin  
For an acute an
hyp
hypotenuse
FIGURE
For an acute angle θ the six trigonometric 6
functions are defined as opposite sides of a righ
ratios of lengths of sides of a right triangle as follows adj
¨
cos  
adjacent 4 hyp
FIGURE 6
opposite hypotenuse opp
sin θ =
hypotenuse
csc θ =
opposite
tan  
adj
adjacent hypotenuse
cos θ = sec θ = (1.1)
hypotenuse adjacent
opposite adjacent This definition does not apply to o
tan θ = cot θ =
adjacent opposite
 in standard position we let P共x, y兲 b
This definition does not apply to obtuse or negative angles, so for a general angle bestandard
θr in the distance
position OP ⱍ ⱍ
we letas inThis
Figure 7.
definit
P (x, y) be any point on the terminal side of θ and we let r be the distance |OP | as in Figure.  in standard p
r be the distany
y 5 sin  
P (x, y) r
y 5
r P (x, y) x
cos  
¨ r r
¨ y
O x tan  
O x x
Then we define FIGURE 7
y x APPENDIX C FIGURE 7 ◆ A21
yTRIGONOMETRY
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ=
r r x Since division by 0 is notSince
defined,
(1.2) divisi
 and cot  are undefined
y The signs of the trigonometric functions for angles in each of the fourcsc
quadrants
sin ¨>0 all ratios>0 r r x when
csc  and cot y
can be rememberedcsc by θmeans
= of the rule
sec θ = “All Students
cot θ = Take Calculus” shown in
Figure 9. y x y are consistent when  is an acute ang
are consistent
cotθ is
Since0 division by 0x is not defined, tan θ and sec θ are undefined when x = 0 and csc θ andIf areaundefined
number,when
the If  is a nu
convention is
EXAMPLE 3 Find the exact trigonometric ratios for   2兾3. radian measur
y = 0. Notice that the definitions in (1.1) and (1.2) are consistent when θ is an acuteradian angle. measure is . For example, th
SOLUTION From Figure 10 we see that a point on the terminal line for   2兾3 is with an angle
an ¨>0 Note If θ is cosa¨>0
number,P(1,
the s3
convention
). Therefore,istaking
that sin θ means the sine of the angle whose with an anglemeasure
radian of 3 rad.
is θ.When finding
must remembe
IGURE 9
For example, the expression sin 3 implies that we are dealing with an angle of 3 rad.must When remember to set our calculator in
finding a calculator
x  1 y  s3 r2
approximation to this number we must remember to set our calculator in radian mode, and then we obtain
in the definitions of the trigonometric ratios, we have sin
y If we want to
P {_1, œ„
3} sin 3 ≈20.14112
2 1 2 culator in degr
 s3 If we want to know the sine of the an
s3
sin  cos  tan
3 2 3 2 3
If3 we
œ„
2
want to know the sine of the angle 3◦ we would write sin 3◦ and, with our calculator in degree mode, we find
culator in degree mode, we find that

2 2 2 2 1
that π
3
3 csc  sec  2 cot  The exact
sin t3
3 s3 3 3 s3 π
1 0 x ◦
sin 3 ≈ 0.05234 œ„
2 2 π Figure 8. For i
4 1 1 3
Theofexact
The following table gives some values of sin  and cos  found byπ the method π
trigonometric ratios for
IGURE 10 The following table gives some
Example 3. values ofœ„ sin θ and
2 π cos θ. 2 π 4 Figure 8. For
6 instance,
4 1 3 1 1 œ„3
 0
  π  2 π3 5

3
2  1
6 4 4 3 2 3 64 6 FIGURE 82 sin  si
1 1 1
s3 s3 1 œ„
3 1
4 s2
sin  0 1 0 1 0
2 s2 2 2 s2 2
FIGURE 8  1
cos  1
s3 1 1
0 
1

1

s3
1 0 1 cos  co
2 s2 2 2 s2 2 4 s2
EXAMPLE 4 If cos  
2
and 0    兾2, find the other five trigonometric func- 
tions of .
5
tan 1 ta
4
SOLUTION Since cos   5 , we can label the hypotenuse as having length 5 and the
2

adjacent side as having length 2 in Figure 11. If the opposite side has length x, then
the Pythagorean Theorem gives x 2  4  25 and so x 2  21, or x  s21. We can
1.1. BASIC FUNCTIONS 13

Trigonometric Identities

A trigonometric identity is a relationship among the trigonometric functions. The most elementary are the following,
which are immediate consequences of the definitions of the trigonometric functions.

1 1 1
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

sin(−θ) = − sin θ

cos(−θ) = cos θ

sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ

The remaining trigonometric identities are all consequences of two basic identities called the addition formulas:

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β.

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β


tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α

cos 2α = 2 cos2 α − 1

cos2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α
1 + cos 2α
cos2 α =
2
1 − cos 2α
sin2 α =
2

Example 5.

Find all values of x in the interval [0, 2π] such that sin x = sin 2x

Solution. Using the double-angle formula, we rewrite the given equation as

sin x = 2 sin x cos x or sin x(1 − 2 cos x) = 0


The graph of the function f 共x兲  sin x, shown in
given equation has five solutions: 0, 兾3, , 5兾3, and 2.
14  x  21. and
points for 0 CHAPTER then using the period
FUNCTIONS
tion 11) to complete the graph. Notice that the z
integer multiples of , that is,
Therefore, there are two possibilities:
Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions
sin x = 0 or 1 − 2 cos x = 0
graph of the function f 共x兲  sin x, shown in Figure 13(a), is obtained by plotting sin x  0 whenever x 
ts for 0  x  2 and then usingx the = 0,periodic
π, 2π or nature
1
cos x =of the
π 5π
⇒ x function
= , (from Equa-
2 3 3
11) to complete the graph. Notice that the zeros Because of the identity
of the sine function occur at the
The given equation has five solutions: x = 0, π, 2π, π3 , 5π .
ger multiples of , that is,

3

Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions cos x  sin x 


sin x  0 whenever x  n , n an integer
The graph of the function f (x) = sin x is obtained by plotting points for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π and then using the periodic
nature of the function to complete the graph. Notice that the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer
ause ofmultiples
the identity
of π, that is, (which can be verified using Equation 12a), the
the graph of sine by an amount 兾2 to the
inginteger
sin x = 0 whenever x = nπ, n an

Because of the identity


cos x  sin x cos 冉 冊
  both the sine and cosine functions the domain is
 x = sin x + π interval 关1, 1兴. Thus, for all values of x, we ha
2 2


the graph of cosine is obtained by shifting the graph of sine by an amount π/2 to the left. Note that for both the
ch cansinebeand
verified using Equation
cosine functions 12a),
the domain is theand
−∞, ∞ graph of cosine
the range is obtained
is the closed by1] shift-
interval [−1, . Thus, for all values of
1  sin x  1 
he graph of sine by an amount 兾2 to the left [see Figure 13(b)]. Note that for
x, we have
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1.
the sine and cosine functions the domain is 共, 兲 and the range is the closed
val 关1, 1兴. Thus, for all values of x, we y have y
π 3π 1
_ 1
2 2 _π
1  sin x  1 0
1π  cos x  1 x 0
_π π 2π 5π 3π π
_
_1 2 2 2 _1

y
1 (a) ƒ=sin x
_π π 3π
FIGURE 13
5π 3π x π 0 π 3π 2π 5π x
_
2 2 _1 2 2 2
The graphs of the remaining four trigonomet
and their domains are indicated there. Notice th
(b) ©=cos x 共, 兲, whereas cosecant and secant have rang
tions are periodic: tangent and cotangent have p
have period 2.
he graphs of the remaining four trigonometric functions are shown in Figure 14
their domains are indicated there. Notice that tangent and cotangent have range
, 兲, whereas cosecant and secant have range 共, 1兴 傼 关1, 兲. All four func-
are periodic: tangent and cotangent have period , whereas cosecant and secant
period 2.
1.1. BASIC FUNCTIONS 15

The graphs of the remaining four trigonometric functions areAPPENDIX


shown inC following
APPENDIX figures:
C TRIGONOMETRY
TRIGONOMETRY ◆ ◆ A25
A25

y y y y
APPENDIX
APPENDIX C TRIGONOMETRY ◆ ◆ A25
C TRIGONOMETRY A25

y y y y
1 1
_π_π 0 0
π π π π π π3π 3π x x _π_π _ π _ π 0 0 π ππ π x x
3π 3π
_ _
2 2 _1 _1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
_π_π 0 0
π π π π π π 3π3π x x _π_π π π 0 0 π π ππ 3π3πx x
_ _ _ _
2 2 _1_1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

(a)y (a)
y=tan
y=tan
= tan xx x (b) (b)
y=cot
y y=cot
x xx
= cot
y y y y

(a)(a)
y=tan
y=tan
x x (b)(b)
y=cot
y=cot
x x
y=sin
y=sin
x x y=cos
y=cos
x x
y y y y
1 1
π π1 1 3π 3π π π 3π 3π
_ _
2 2 0 0 2 2 _π_π_ 2 _ 2 0 0 2 2
y=sin
y=sinx xx x y=cos
y=cosx x x x
π ππ π π π π π
_1 _12 2 _1 1_11 2 2
π π 1 1 3π3π π π 3π3π
_ _
2 2 0 0 2 2 _π_π_ 2_ 2 0 0 2 2
π π ππ x x π π ππ x x
_1_12 2 _1_1 2 2

FIGURE
FIGURE
14 14 (c) (c)
y=csc
y=csc
x x (d) (d)
y=sec
y=sec
x x

Inverse
InverseTrigonometric
Trigonometric
Functions
Functions
FIGURE
FIGURE
1414 (c)(c)
y=csc
y=csc
x x
y = csc x (d)(d)
y=sec
y y=sec
= secxx x
are
reviewed
reviewed
in in When
1.1.6
When wewe trytry
to find
Exponential Functions
to find
thetheinverse
inversetrigonometric
trigonometric functions,
functions, wewe have havea slight
a slightdifficulty:
difficulty:
Because
Because thethetrigonometric
trigonometric functions
functions arearenotnot
one-to-one,
one-to-one, theythey
don’tdon’t have have
inverse
inversefunc-func-
The function Inverse
f Inverse
(x) = 2 x Trigonometric
is Trigonometric
called an exponential Functions
Functions
function because the variable, x, is the exponent. It
tions.
tions.
TheThe difficulty
difficultyis overcome
is overcome by by restricting
restricting thethedomains
domains of these
of these functions
functions so sothatthatnot
should
2
be confused
theythey with
become the one-to-one.
become power function g(x) = x , in which the variable is the base.
eare
reviewed
reviewed
in in When
When we we trytrytoone-to-one.
to
find
findthethe
inverse
inverse trigonometric
trigonometric functions,
functions, wewe have have a slight
a slight difficulty:
difficulty:
You
BecauseYou
Becausecan
Definition can
the see
the
8. see
fromfromFigure
trigonometric Figure
trigonometric 15 15
that
functions that
functions the the
sine
areare sine
function
notnot function
one-to-one,
one-to-one,y y 
sin
they sin
x
they is
don’tx not
don’tis not
one-to-one
have one-to-one
haveinverse
inverse (use
func-(use
func-
the the
Horizontal
tions.
tions.Horizontal
TheThe Line
difficulty Line
difficulty isTest).
is Test).
ButBut
overcome
overcome the
byby the
function
function
restricting
restricting f 共x兲
the 共x兲
domains
fdomains
the  x,of
sinsin 
x,of 兾2
these 兾2
thesefunctions
 x 兾2so兾2
xfunctions (see
so (see
that
that
In general,
Figure
Figure16), an
16),exponential
is one-to-one.
is one-to-one.function
The The is
inverse a
inversefunction
function of the
function of form
this
of this
restricted
restricted sine sine
function
function f exists
f exists
they
theybecome
become one-to-one.
one-to-one.
1 1
andandis
You denoted
is
You denoted
can can by
seesee by
sin
from
fromsin or
Figure or 15
arcsin
Figure 15. Itthat
arcsin
that .isthe
It called
issine
the called
the the
inverse
inverse
y ysine
 sine
function
xfunction orone-to-one
the
or the
arcsine
arcsine
f (x)sine
= function
axfunction sin x is
sin is
notnotone-to-one (use
(use
function.
thefunction.
theHorizontal
HorizontalLine LineTest).
Test).ButButthethefunctionfunctionf 共x兲 f 共x兲
 sinsin 
x, x, 兾2兾2 x  x 兾2 兾2(see(see
y y Figure
Figure
where 16),
a is a16), one-to-one.
is is
positive one-to-one.
constant. The Theinverse
inverse function
function ofofthis
y this
yrestricted
restricted sinesinefunction
functionf exists
f exists
1 1
andandis is
y=sin denoted
y=sinx denoted
x bybysinsin oror arcsin . It. It
arcsin is is
called
called thethe
inverse
inverse sine
sine
function
function oror
thethearcsine
arcsine
function.
function. _π_π2 2
y 0y 0 x x y 0y 0 π π x x
π π π π π
2 y=sin
2 y=sin
x x 2 2

_ π2_ π2

π 0 0 π π ππ x x 0 0 π π x x
FIGURE
FIGURE
16 16
Appendix C.

16 Exponential Functions CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

These are the functions of the form f 共x兲 苷 a x, where the base a is a positive constant.
The graphs x
of y = 2of
The graphs y 苷y 2=x and
and x
(0.5)y 苷 共0.5兲
are x in Figure below. In both cases the domain is (−∞, ∞) and the
shown are shown in Figure 20. In both cases the domain
is 共⫺⬁, ⬁兲 and the range is 共0, ⬁兲.
range is (0, ∞).

y y

1 1

0 1 x 0 1 x

FIGURE 20 (a) y=2® (b) y=(0.5)®

Exponential functions will be studied in detail in Section 1.5 and we will see that
they are useful for modeling many
1 x natural
y phenomena, such as population growth (if
a ⬎ 1) and radioactive decay (if a ⬍ 1兲.
( )
3
x
3
1 x
( ) 2
x
2

x
1.5

x
1
1

Laws of Exponent

If a and b are positive numbers and x and y are any real numbers, then

1. ax+y = ax ay .
ax
2. ax−y = .
ay
3. (ax )y = axy .

4. (ab)x = ax bx .

The Number e

The choice of a base a is influenced by the way the graph of y = ax crosses the y−axis. Following Figure shows
the tangent lines to the graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x at the point (0, 1).
The The
Number
Number
e e

Of allOfpossible
all possible
basesbases
for anforexponential
an exponential
function,
function,
therethere
is oneis that
one is
that
most
is most
convenient
convenient
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS
for the FROM
forpurposesOLD
the purposesFUNCTIONS
of calculus.
of calculus.
The choice
The choice
of a base
of a base
a is influenced
a is influenced
by the
byway
the the
waygraph 17
the graph
of y 苷
of ay x苷crosses
a x crosses
the y-axis.
the y-axis.
Figures
Figures
11 and
11 12
andshow
12 show
the tangent
the tangent
lineslines
to thetographs
the graphs
y y y y
y=2®y=2® y=3®y=3®

mÅ1.1
mÅ1.1
mÅ0.7
mÅ0.7
1 1 1 1
62 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

0 0 x x 0 0 ofx y 苷x 2 x and y 苷 3 x at t
Section 2.6. For present p
FIGURE FIGURE
11 11 FIGUREFIGURE
12 12
graph at a point as the lin
If we measure the slopes of these tangent lines, we find that m ≈ 0.7 for y = 2x andthe m ≈slopes
1.1 for yof x
= 3these
. tangen
y苷3.
Some of the formulas of calculus will be greatly simplified if we choose the base a so that the slope
x of the tangent
line to y = ax at (0, 1) is exactly 1.
It turns out, as we will
y be greatly simplified if w
y=´
y 苷 a x at 共0, 1兲 is exactly
m=1 denoted by the letter e. (T
hard Euler in 1727, proba
1 view of Figures 11 and 12
and 3 and the graph of y 苷
ure 14). In Chapter 3 we w
0 x

In fact, there is such a number andFIGURE 13 by the letter e.1 It comes as no surprise that the number e
it is denoted
lies between 2 and 3 and the graph of yThe
= exnatural exponential
lies between function
the graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x .
crosses the y-axis with a slope of 1.
1.2 New Functions from Old Functions
In this section we start with the basic functions we discussed in previous section and obtain new functions by
Module
shifting, stretching, and reflecting their graphs. We 1.5 enables
also show you to pairs of functions by the standard
how to combine
graph exponential functions with
arithmetic operations and by composition.
various bases and their tangent lines in
1.2.1 Composition of Functions
order to estimate more closely the value FIGURE 14
Definition 9. of a for which the tangent has slope 1.
EXAMPLE 4 Graph the func
Given two functions f and g, the composite function f ◦ g (also called the composition of f and g) is
defined by SOLUTION We start with the
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) about the y-axis to get the
The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the crosses
domain ofthe
f . y-axis with a s
factor of 2 to obtain the gr
graph downward one unit
In other words, (f ◦ g)(x) is defined whenever both g(x) and f (g(x)) are defined. and the range is 共⫺1, ⬁兲.

1 This
y y
notation was chosen by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1727, probably because it is the first letter of the word
exponential.

1 1
18 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

The best way to picture f ◦ g is by an arrow diagram in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2

Example 6.

If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 3, find the composite functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution. We have
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x − 3) = (x − 3)2

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 ) = x2 − 3

Note : You can see from Example that, in general, f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f . Remember, the notation f ◦ g means that the
function g is applied first and then f is applied second. In Example, f ◦ g is the function that first subtracts 3 and
then squares g ◦ f ; is the function that first squares and then subtracts 3.

Example 7.
√ √
If f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x , find each function and its domain.
(a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g

Solution.
√ p√ √
a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( 2 − x) = 2 − x = 4 2 − x The domain of f ◦ g is

{x|2 − x ≥ 0} = {x|x ≤ 2} = (−∞, 2]

√ p √ √ p √
b) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g( x) = 2 − x For x to be defined we must have x ≥ 0. For 2 − x to be
√ √
defined we must have 2 − x ≥ 0 that is, x ≤ 2 , or x ≤ 4. Thus, we have 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 , so the domain of
g ◦ f is the closed interval [0, 4].
√ p√ √
c) (f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f ( x) = x= 4x
The domain of f ◦ f is [0, ∞).

√ p √
d) (g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( 2 − x) = 2 − 2 − x This expression is defined when 2 − x ≥ 0, that is, x ≤ 2,
√ √
and 2 − 2 − x ≥ 0. This latter inequality is equivalent to 2 − x ≤ 2 , or 2 − x ≤ 4, that is, x ≥ −2. Thus,
−2 ≤ x ≤ 2, so the domain of g ◦ g is the closed interval [−2, 2].
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 19

Example 8.

Consider the functions f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 , discuss domains and ranges of the functions f ◦ g and
g◦f

Solution. For (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)), the function g takes any real number x and assigns it to a non-negative real
number g(x), and f takes this non-negative real number g(x) assigns it to a non-negative real number f (g(x)). It
means that, result of (f ◦ g)(x) is a non-negative real number. So domain of f ◦ g is (−∞, ∞) and its range is
[0, ∞).

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = x2 = |x|

In similar way, for (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)), f takes any non-negative real number x assigns it to a non-negative real
number f (x), and g takes this real number f (x) and assigns it to a non-negative real number g(f (x)). So domain
of f ◦ g is [0, ∞) and its range is [0, ∞).

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = ( x)2 = |x|

Example 9.

Given F (x) = cos2 (x + 9) ,find functions f , g and h such that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.

Solution. Since F (x) = [cos(x + 9)]2 the formula for F says: First add 9, then take the cosine of the result, and
finally square.
So we let
h(x) = x + 9 g(x) = cos x f (x) = x2

Then
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x + 9)) =

f (cos(x + 9)) = [cos(x + 9)]2 = F (x).

1.2.2 Transformations of Functions


By applying certain transformations to the graph of a given function we can obtain the graphs of certain related
functions. This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs of many functions quickly by hand. It will also enable
us to write equations for given graphs.

Translations

If c is a positive number, then the graph of y = f (x) + c is just the graph of y = f (x) shifted upward a distance
of c units (because each y−coordinate is increased by the same number c).
Likewise, if g(x) = f (x − c), where c > 0, then the value of g at x is the same as the value of f at x − c (c units
to the left of x). Therefore, the graph of y = f (x − c) is just the graph of y = f (x) shifted c units to the right.

Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph of


20 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

• y = f (x) + c, shift the graph y = f (x) a distance c units upward.

• y = f (x) − c, shift the graph y = f (x) a distance c units downward.

• y = f (x − c), shift the graph y = f (x) a distance c units to the right.

• y = f (x + c), shift the graph y = f (x) a distance c units to the left.


SECTION 1.3 NEW FUNCTI
Suppose c > 0.

y=ƒ+c

c y=f(_x)
y=f(x+c) y =ƒ y=f(x-c)

c c

0 c x

y=ƒ-c

FIGURE 1
Stretching and reflecting FIGURE 2
Translating the graph of ƒ Stretching and refle
If c > 1, then the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of y = f (x) stretched by a factor of c in the vertical direction
(because each y-coordinate is multiplied by the same number c).
of y 苷 ⫺f 共x兲 is the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 reflected
The graph of y = −f (x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected about the x-axis because the point (x, y) is replaced
by the point (x, −y). 共x, y兲 is replaced by the point 共x, ⫺y兲. (See Figu
the results of other stretching, compressing, and
Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting
given.)
Suppose c > 1. To obtain the graph of

• y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c.


In Module 1.3 you can see the Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting Sup
• y = (1/c)f (x), compresseffect of combining
the graph thevertically
of y = f (x) graph
transfor- by a factor of c. of
mations of this section. y 苷 cf 共x兲, stretch the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 ver
• y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c.
y
• y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c. 苷 共1兾c兲f 共x兲, compress the graph of y 苷 f
• y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis.
y 苷 f 共cx兲, compress the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 h
y 苷 f 共x兾c兲, stretch the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 ho
• y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis.
y 苷 ⫺f 共x兲, reflect the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 ab
y 苷 f 共⫺x兲, reflect the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 ab

Figure 3 illustrates these stretching transform


function with c 苷 2. For instance, to get the gr
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 21

SECTION 1.3 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS ◆ 39


Suppose c > 1.

y=ƒ+c y=cƒ
(c>1)

y=f(_x)
ƒ y=f(x-c)
y=ƒ

c y= 1c ƒ

x 0 x

y=ƒ-c

y=_ƒ

Example 10. FIGURE 2


Stretching
√ and reflecting the graph of√ƒ √ √ √
Given the graph of y = x, use transformations to graph y = x − 2, y = x − 2, y = − x, y = 2 x

and y = −x
of y 苷 ⫺f 共x兲 is the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 reflected about the x-axis because the point
共x, y兲 is replaced by the point 共x, ⫺y兲. (See Figure 2 and the following chart, where
the results of other The
Solution. stretching, compressing,
graph of the and freflecting
square root function (x) = x is: transformations are also

given.)
y

Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting Suppose c ⬎ 1. To obtain the


graph of
y 苷 cf 共x兲, stretch the graph of y 苷 f0共x兲 vertically by a factor of c
4 x
y 苷 共1兾c兲f 共x兲, compress the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 vertically by a factor of c
y 苷 f 共cx兲, compress the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 horizontally by a factor of c
y 苷 f 共x兾c兲, stretch the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 horizontally by a factor of c
-2
y 苷 ⫺f 共x兲, reflect the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 about the x-axis
y 苷 f 共⫺x兲, reflect the graph of y 苷 f 共x兲 about the y-axis

Figure 3 illustrates these stretching transformations when applied to the cosine


function with c 苷 2. For instance, to get the graph of y 苷 2 cos x we multiply the
y-coordinate of each point on the graph of y 苷 cos x by 2. This means that the graph
of y 苷 cos x gets stretched vertically by a factor of 2.

y y
y=2 Ł x
2
y=Ł x 2 y=Ł 21 x
22 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS


in the figure we sketch y = x − 2 = f (x) − 2 by shifting 2 units downward:

0
4 x

-2

y= x − 2 = f (x − 2) by shifting 2 units to the right:

2
0 x
2

y = − x = −f (x) by reflecting about the x-axis:

a
0
x
a


y = 2 x = 2f (x) by stretching vertically by a factor of 2:
y

2a
a

0
x
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 23


y= −x = f (−x) by reflecting about the y-axis:

a a

Example 11.

Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x2 + 6x + 10.

Solution. Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph as

y = x2 + 6x + 10 = (x + 3)2 + 1

This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola y = x2 and shifting 3 units to the left and
then 1 unit upward.

-3 0 x

Example 12.

Sketch the graph of the function y = |x2 − 1|.

Solution. We first graph the parabola y = x2 − 1 by shifting the parabola y = x2 downward 1 unit. We see that
the graph lies below the x−axis when −1 < x < 1, so we reflect that part of the graph about the x−axis to obtain
the graph of y = |x2 − 1|.
24 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

-1 0 1 x

Example 13.

Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 − 2x .

Solution. First we reflect the graph of y = 2x about the x−axis to get the graph of y = −2x . Then we shift the
graph of y = −2x upward three units to obtain the graph of y = 3 − 2x .

3
x
-2 +3
2

0 x

x
-2

Example 14.

1 −x
Graph the function y = e − 1 and state the domain and range.
2

Solution. We start with the graph of y = ex and reflect about the y−axis to get the graph of y = e−x . Then
1
we compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 to obtain the graph of y = e−x . Finally, we shift the graph
2
downward one unit to get the desired graph. The domain is R and the range is (−1, ∞).
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 25

1
-
2

1
-x
e -1
2
0 x

-1

Algebra of Functions

Let f and g be functions with domains A and B. Then the functions f + g, f − g, f g, and f /g are defined as
follows:

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) domain = A ∩ B


(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) domain = A ∩ B
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) domain = A ∩ B
(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x) domain = {x ∈ A ∩ B : g(x) ̸= 0}

Example 15.

√ √
If f (x) = x and g(x) = 4 − x2 , find the functions f + g, f − g, f g, and f /g.

√ √
Solution. The domain of f (x) = x is [0, ∞). The domain of g(x) = 4 − x2 consists of all numbers x such that
4 − x2 ≥ 0, that is, x2 ≤ 4. Taking square roots of both sides, we get |x| ≤ 2, or −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, so the domain of g is
the interval [−2, 2]. The intersection of the domains of f and g is

[0, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] = [0, 2].

Thus, according to the definitions, we have


√ p
(f + g)(x) = x+ 4 − x2 0≤x≤2
√ p
(f − g)(x) = x − 4 − x2 0≤x≤2
√ p p
(f g)(x) = x 4 − x2 = 4x − x3 0≤x≤2
  √ r
f x x
(x) = √ = 0≤x<2
g 4−x 2 4 − x2

Notice that the domain of f /g is the interval [0,2) because we must exclude the points where g(x) = 0, that is,
x = ±2.
(any two inputs in A have different outpu
26 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
twice (both 2 and 3 have the same output,
t共2兲
1.2.3 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Inverse Functions but f 共x 1 兲 苷 f 共x SECTIO
2兲

Definition 10.
Functions
(any that
twohave thisinlatter
inputs property
A have are
differe
A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the same value twice; that is,
twice (both 2 and 3 have the same
▲ In the
x1language
̸= x2 =⇒offinputs
(x1 ) ̸=and
f (xoutputs,
2 ).
1 Definition A function f is called a
this definition says that f is one-to- one if the same value twice; that is,
each output corresponds to only one
input. but f 共x 1 兲 兲苷
f 共x 兲 苷 f 共x
f
If a horizontal line intersects the graph of f in more than one point, then we see from Figure that there are1 2

numbers x1 and x2 such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). This means that f is not one-to-one.
Functions that have this latter pro
y If a horizontal line intersects the graph
from Figure 2Definition
that thereAare numbersf xis1 ca
function
▲ In the language of inputs and outputs, 1
this definition says that f is one-to- onethat
if f is not one-to-one. Therefore, we hav
the same value twice; that is,
each output corresponds to y=ƒonly one mining whether a function is one-to-one.
input.
fl ‡ f 共x 1 兲 苷 f
Horizontal Line TestA function is one-to
intersects its graph more than once.
0 y⁄ ¤ x If a horizontal line intersects t
from Figure 2 that there are 3numb
FIGUREmethod
Therefore, we have the following geometric 2 EXAMPLE
for determining whether a functionthat 1 f Is
isthe
notfunction
is one-to-one. f 共x兲 Therefore
one-to-one. 苷 x one-
This function isif not
andone-to-one
1 苷 x 2 , then x 1 苷 x 2 (two d
Horizontal Line Test : A function is one-to-one only if no horizontal line intersects
y=ƒ 1 Ifitsxwhether
mining
SOLUTION graph moreathan 3
function 3is one-
once. because f(⁄)=f(¤).
cube). Therefore, by Definition 1, f 共x兲 苷
fl ‡
Example 16.
y SOLUTION 2 From Figure 3 we see that no h
Horizontal Line TestA function i
Is the function f (x) = x3 one-to-one? y=˛ f 共x兲 苷 x 3 more than once. Therefore, by
intersects its graph more than o
0 ⁄ ¤ x

0 EXAMPLE 2 Is the function t共x兲 苷 x 2 one-t


Solution 1. If x1 ̸= x2 , then x31 ̸= x32 (two diferent
FIGURE
x
2 numbers can’t have the same cube).EXAMPLE 1 by
Therefore, Isdefinition,
the function f 共x兲 苷
f (x) = x3 is one-to-one. SOLUTION 1 This function is not one-to-one
This function is not one-to-one
SOLUTION 1 If x 1 苷 x 2 , then x 13 苷 x
From Figure we see that no because
horizontalf(⁄)=f(¤). 3
Solution 2. line intersects the graph of f (x) = x more than once. Therefore,
t共1兲 苷1,1
cube). Therefore, by Definition
by the Horizontal Line Test, f is one-to-one.
FIGURE 3 y 1 and ⫺1
and soSOLUTION 2 From Figure
have the same3 output.
we see t
ƒ=˛ is one-to-one.
y=˛ f 共x兲 苷 x 3 more than once. Theref
SOLUTION 2 From Figure 4 we see that there
y
graph of t more than once. Therefore, by
one.
0
y=≈
x EXAMPLE 2 Is the function t共x兲 苷
One-to-one functions are important be
SOLUTION
possess 1 functions
inverse This function is nottoone
according the
t
2 Definition Let f be a one-to-one fu
FIGURE 3 0 x
1 and ⫺1
anditssoinverse have the
Then function f ⫺1 same ou
has dom
ƒ=˛ is one-to-one.
FIGURE 4 SOLUTION 2 From Figure⫺14 we see t
f 共y兲 苷 x
©=≈ is not one-to-one. graph of t more than once. Theref
y
y=≈ forone.
any y in B.
One-to-one functions are impo
This function is not one-to-one
SOLUTION 1 If x 1 苷 x 2 , t
because f(⁄)=f(¤).
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS cube). Therefore,27by D
y SOLUTION 2 From Figure
Example 17.
y=˛ f 共x兲 苷 x 3 more than o
Is the function g(x) = x2 one-to-one?

0 x EXAMPLE 2 Is the funct


Solution 1. This function is not one-to-one because, for instance, SOLUTION 1 This function
g(1) = 1 = g(−1)

and so 1 and −1 have the same output.


FIGURE 3 and so 1 and ⫺1 have
there are is
Solution 2. From Figure we see thatƒ=˛ one-to-one.
horizontal lines that intersect the graph of g more than once.
Therefore, by the Horizontal Line Test, g is not one-to-one. SOLUTION 2 From Figure
y
graph of t more than o
y=≈ one.
One-to-one function
possess inverse functio

0 x 2 Definition Let f
Then its inverse fun
FIGURE 4
Definition 11. ©=≈ is not one-to-one.

Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. for any y in B.


Then its inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A and is defined by

f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y

for any y in B.
66 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS
domain of f −1 = range of f
range of f −1 = domain of f .

x This defi
A not one-to-o
f f –! ure 5 indica

B
y

FIGURE 5
For example, the inverse function of f (x) = x3 is f −1 (x) = x1/3 because if y = x3 , then

f −1 (y) = f −1 (x3 ) = (x3 )1/3 = x

For exam
then
28 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

CAUTION: Do not mistake the −1 in f −1 for an exponent. Thus f −1 does not mean 1/f .
The letter x is traditionally used as the independent variable, so when we concentrate on f −1 rather than on
f , we usually reverse the roles of x and y and write

f −1 (x) = y ⇔ f (y) = x. (1.3)

By substituting for y in Definition and substituting for x in (1.3), we get the following cancellation equations:

f −1 (f (x)) = x x∈A
−1
f (f (x)) = x x ∈ B.

How to Find the Inverse Function of a One-to-One Function

1. Write y = f (x).

2. Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible).

3. To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y. The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).

Example 18.

Find the inverse function of f (x) = x3 + 2.

Solution. According to steps in previous slide, we first write

y = x3 + 2

Then we solve this equation for x:

x3 = y − 2
p
x= 3 y−2

Finally, we interchange x and y:



3
y= x − 2.

is f −1■(x) =CHAPTER
Therefore, the inverse function68 3 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS
x − 2.

if f ⫺1共b兲 苷 a, the point 共a, b兲 is on the graph of f if


The principle of interchanging x and y to find the inverse function also graphusofthef ⫺1
the gives . But we
method the 共b, a兲 from 共a
get the point
for obtaining
graph of f −1 from the graph of f . y 苷 x. (See Figure 8.)
y
(b, a)

Since f (a) = b if and only if f −1 (b) = a, the point (a, b) is on the


graph of f if and only if the point (b, a) is on the graph of f −1 . But f–
we get the point (b, a) from by reflecting about the line y = x. So (a, b)
−1
the graph of f is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the 0
line y = x. x

y=x y=x

FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 29

0
68 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS
x

if f ⫺1共b兲 苷 a, the point 共a, b兲 is on the graph of f


the graph of f ⫺1. But we get the point 共b, a兲 from
y 苷 x. (See Figure 8.)
y
(b, a)

68 ■ CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS


Example 19. (a, b)
⫺1
Sketch the graphs of f (x) =

−1 − x and its inverse function using the same coordinate axes.
if f 共b兲 苷 a, the point 共a, b兲
0
x
the graph of f ⫺1. But we get
y=x
y 苷 x. (See Figure 8.) y=x

y
√ (b, a)
2 2
Solution. First we sketch the curve y = −1 − x (the top half of the parabola y =
FIGURE 8 −1 − x, , or x = −y − 1) and FIGURE
then we reflect about the line y = x to get the graph of f −1 . Therefore, as illustrated by Figure 9:

y
y=ƒ The graph of f ⫺1 is obtained by reflecting the
y=x
0
0 EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the graphs of f 共x兲 苷 s⫺1 ⫺ x
(_1, 0) x same coordinate axes.
(0, _1)
y=x
SOLUTION First we sketch the curve y 苷 s⫺1 ⫺ x
y=f –!(x) y 2 苷 ⫺1 ⫺ x, or x 苷 ⫺y 2 ⫺ 1) and then we refl
graph of f ⫺1. (See Figure 10.) As a check on our
for f ⫺1 is f ⫺1共x兲 苷 ⫺x 2 ⫺ 1, x 艌 0. So the grap
FIGURE 10 parabola y 苷 ⫺x 2 ⫺ 1 and this seems reasonable
FIGURE 8
As a check on our graph, notice that the expression for f −1 is f −1 (x) = −x2 − 1, x > 0. So the graph of f −1
Therefore,
Logarithmic
is the right half of the parabola y = −x2 − 1 and this seems reasonable from Figure. as illustrated
Functions by
If a ⬎ 0 and a 苷 1, the exponential function
y decreasing and so it is one-to-one by the Horizo
y=ƒ ⫺1 ⫺1 the logarit
Thef graph
inverse function , whichofis fcalledis obtain
y=x denoted by log a. If we use the formulation of an i
f ⫺1共x兲 苷 y &? f
then we have
0 EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the graphs
(_1, 0) x same coordinatelogaxes.
(0, _1) 6 ax 苷 y &? a

SOLUTION First we sketch the cu


Thus, if x 2⬎ 0, then log a x is the exponent to2 whi
y=f –!(x) y 苷 ⫺1 ⫺ x,苷or⫺3x because
x. For example, log10 0.001
苷 ⫺y10⫺3⫺苷
⫺1
graph of equations
The cancellation f . (See (4),Figure 10.)
when applied
⫺1 ⫺1
become for f is f 共x兲 苷 ⫺x ⫺ 1, 2

FIGURE 10 parabola y 苷 ⫺x 2 ⫺ 1 and th


7 log a共a x 兲 苷 x for ever
a log a x 苷 x for ever
Logarithmic Functio
FIGURE 14
_1 2 _1 2

30 Inverse Trigonometric Functions


CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

▲ Inverse functions are reviewed in When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we
1.2.4 Inverse Section 1.6.
Trigonometric Functions Because the trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they d
(c) y=csc x (d) y=sec
tions. x
The difficulty is overcome by restricting the domains of
When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we have a slight difficulty. Because the trigonometric
they become one-to-one.
functions are not one-to-one, they don’t have inverse functions. The difficulty is overcome by restricting the domains
You can see from Figure 15 that the sine function y  sin x
of these functions so that they become one-to-one.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions the Horizontal Line Test). But the function f 共x兲  sin x, 
Figure 16), is one-to-one. The inverse function of this restricte
Inverse of Sine Function 1
n we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we and is denoted
have by sindifficulty:
a slight or arcsin. It is called the inverse sine f
You can see from Figure that the sine function y = sin(x) is notfunction.
one-to-one (use the Horizontal Line Test).
ause the trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they don’t have inverse func-
. The difficulty is overcome by restricting the ydomains of these functions so that y
y=sin x
become one-to-one.
_ π2
ou can see from Figure 15 that the sine function y  sin x is not one-to-one (use
Horizontal Line Test). But the function _π f 共x兲 0 sinπ2 x, π兾2  x  兾2 (see
x 0 π
2
re 16), is one-to-one. The inverse function of this restricted sine function f exists
s denoted by sin 1 or arcsin. It is called the inverse sine function or the arcsine
tion. But the function f (x)
FIGURE 15
= sin(x), −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2, is one-to-one. FIGURE 16

y Since the definition of an inverse function says that


=sin x
f 1共x兲  y &? f 共y兲  x
_ π2

π x 0 π x
2

FIGURE 16 Figure 1.3


The inverse function of this restricted sine function f exists and is denoted by sin−1 or arcsin. It is called the
ince the definition of an inverse function says that
inverse sine function or the arcsine function. Since the definition of an inverse function says that

f 1共x兲  y &?
f −1 (x)f=共y兲
y ⇔x f (y) = x

we have
sin−1 (x) = y ⇔ sin(y) = x and − π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2

Thus, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, sin−1 x is the number between −π/2 and π/2 whose sine is x.

Example 20.

a) sin−1 (1/2)

b) tan(arcsin(1/3))

Solution.

(a) Since sin(π/6) = 1/2, and π/6 is in between −π/2 and π/2, we have

π
sin−1 (1/2) = .
6

(b) Let θ = arcsin(1/3). Then we can draw a right triangle with angle θ as in Figure and deduce from the
√ √
Pythagorean Theorem that the third side has length 9 − 1 = 2 2.
| sin x  Thus, if 1  x  1, sin x is the number between 兾2 and 兾2 whose s
sin x
s9  1  2 s2. This enables us to read from the triangle that
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate (a) sin ( ) and (b) tan(arcsin ).
1 1 1
TRIGONOMETRY ¨ 2 3

SOLUTION
1.2. NEW 2FUNCTIONS
œ„
2 FROM OLD FUNCTIONS (a) We have 1 31
we have
tan(arcsin 13 )  tan  
sin ( )  1 1
2
6 2s2
FIGURE 17
because sin共兾6兲  12 and 兾6 lies between 兾2 and 兾2.
 for inverse functions [see (1.6.4)] be
(b) Let   arcsin 13 . Then we can draw a right triangle with angle  as in F
sin1x  y &? sinThe
y cancellation
x and  equations
1  y 
3
and deduce from the Pythagorean Theorem that the third side has length
2 2 s9  1  2s2. This enables us to read from the triangle that
¨
2 œ„
2
)  tan  2 1 
sin1共sin x兲 tanx(arcsinfor
1

1 FIGURE 17
  s2 x 
3

Thus, if 1  x  1, sin 1x is the number between 兾2 and 兾2


Thewhose
cancellationsine is for
equations
2 [see (1.6.4)] become,
x.inverse functions 2 in
in x This enables us to read from the triangle that
 
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate (a) sin1 ( 12) and (b)tan(arcsin(1/3))
tan(arcsin 13 ). 1
sin共sin1x兲 sin x共sin x兲for
 x 1
1
for   x
2
x2 1
= tan θ = √ . sin共sin1x兲  x for 1  x  1
2 2
SOLUTION 1
(a) We have The inverse sine function,Thesin inverse ,sine
has domain
function, 关1,关1,
sin , has domain 1兴1兴and
1
关兾2, 关
range
and range 兾2
graph, shown in Figure 18, is obtained from that of the restricted sine funct
graph, shown  in Figure 18, is obtained from that
ure 16) by reflection about the line y  x. of the restricted
−1 sin
ure (
1 1
16)
2
The inverse sine function, sin , has domain [−1,
)  by reflection about
1] and range [−π/2, π/2],
6
theandline its y  x.shown in Figure
graph,
y
1.4, is
y
obtained from that of the restricted sine function (Figure 1.3) by reflection about the line y = x. y
because sin共兾6兲  2 and 兾6 lies between 兾2 and 兾2.
1 π
2

y
(b) Let   arcsin 13 . Then we can draw a right triangle with angle  as in Figure 17
_1 0 1 x _ π2 0 π x
1 and deduce from the Pythagorean Theorem that the third side has length 2

π
s9  1  2s2. This enables us to read from the2 triangle that _ π
2

1
tan(arcsin 13 )  tan  
2s2 FIGURE 18 y=sin–! x FIGURE 19 y=tan x, _ 2 <x< 2
π π

_1 0 1 x _ π2be made one-to-one0 by restrictingπ2 it to thex


The tangent function can
共兾2, 兾2兲. Thus, the inverse tangent function is defined as the inverse of
The cancellation equations for inverse functions [see (1.6.4)] become, in this case,
tion f 共x兲  tan x, 兾2  x  兾2. (See Figure 19.) It is denoted by tan o 1


 2 
sin1共sin x兲  x for  x
2 2
Figure 1.4
sin共sin1x兲  x for 1  x  1
π
FIGURE 18 y=sin–! x FIGURE 19 y=tan x, _ 2 <x<
The inverse
Inverse sine function,
of Tangent sin
Function , has domain 关1, 1兴 and range 关兾2, 兾2兴, and its
1

graph, shown in Figure 18, is obtained from that of the restricted sine function (Fig-
ure 16) by reflection about the line y  xThe
The tangent function can be made one-to-one
. bytangent function
restricting can be(−π/2,
it to the interval madeπ/2).
one-to-one by restricting
共兾2, 兾2兲 y
. Thus, the inverse tangent function is defined as the
tion f 共x兲  tan x, 兾2  x  兾2. (See Figure 19.) It is denoted
y

π
2

_1 0 1 x _ π2 0 π x
2

_ π2

FIGURE 18 y=sin–! x FIGURE 19 Figure x, _ π2 <x<π2


y=tan1.5

Thus,
Thethetangent
inverse function
tangent function is defined
can be made as the inverse
one-to-one of the function
by restricting f (x)
it to = tan(x),
the intervalπ/2 < x < π/2. (See
共兾2,1.5)
Figure 兾2兲
It is denoted
. Thus, tan−1 or
thebyinverse arctan. function is defined as the inverse of the func-
tangent
tion f 共x兲  tan x, 兾2  x  兾2. (See Figure 19.) It is denoted by tan1 or arctan.
tan−1 (x) = y ⇔ tan(y) = x and − π/2 < y < π/2
œ„„„„„
1+≈ Thus cos共tan1x兲  c
x
32 y CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
SOLUTION 2 Instead of using trigonome
1 easier to use a diagram. If y  tan1x
The inverse tangent function, tan−1 = arctan, has domain R and its range is (−π/2,
ureπ/2).
20 (which is shown in the case y 
Its graphillustrates
FIGURE 20
Figure.

y
π cos共tan1x兲
2

0 The inverse tangent function, ta


x 共兾2, 兾2兲. Its graph is shown in F
vertical asymptotes of the graph of tan
ing the graph of the restricted tangent
_ π2 lines y  兾2 and y  兾2 are hor
Of the six inverse trigonometric fu
Example 21. FIGURE 21 most useful for the purposes of calcul
y=tan–! x=arctan x Exercise 46. The remaining inverse tr
Simplify the expression cos(tan−1 x).

Solution. Let y = tan−1 x. Then tan y = x and −π/2 < y < π/2. We want to find cos y but, since tan y is known,
it is easier to find sec y first:

2
C 2
Exercises
2
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

sec y = 1 + tan y = 1 + x
p
sec y = 1 + x2 (Since sec y > 0 for − π/2 < y < π/2)
1–2 ■ Convert from degrees to radians. 5. Find the
Thus 1. (a) 210 (b) 9 兾12 ra
−1 1 1
cos(tan x) = cos y = =√ .
2. (a) 315 sec y 1 + (b)
x2 36 6. If a circ
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

tended
3–4 ■ Convert from radians to degrees.
1.2.5 Logarithmic Functions 3 7. A circle
3. (a) 4 (b) 
8
If a > 0 and a ̸= 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is either increasing or decreasing and so it is one-to-one by center o
−1
the Horizontal Line Test. It therefore has an inverse function f
7 , which is called the logarithmic
8 function
with base a and is denoted by loga4.x. (a) use the formulation of an inverse
If we (b) function 8. Find the
2 3 length 6
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

f −1 (x) = y ⇐⇒ f (y) = x

then we have
loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x.

Thus, if 0 < x, then loga x, a is the exponent to which the base must be raised to give x. For example, log10 0.001 =
−3 because 10−3 = 0, 001.
The cancellation equations, when applied to f (x) = ax and f −1 (x) = loga x become

loga (ax ) = x , x∈R

aloga x = x , x > 0.

In particular, if we set x = 1, we get


loga (a) = 1.
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 33

The logarithmic function loga x has domain (0, ∞) and range R. Its graph is the reflection of the graph of y = ax
about the line y = x.

y The logarithmic function


y=x
reflection of the graph of y 苷
Figure 11 shows the case
have base a ⬎ 1.) The fact th
is reflected in the fact that y
y=a®, a>1
Figure 12 shows the grap
log a 1 苷 0, the graphs of all
0 x
The following properties
y=log a x, a>1 properties of exponential fun

Laws
Figure shows the case where 1 < a. (The most important logarithmic functions have base a > of
1.) Logarithms If x and
FIGURE 11
y
1. log a共xy兲 苷 log a x ⫹ lo

冉冊
y log2 x
y=log™ x log5 x
x
y=log£ x
2. log a 苷 log a x ⫺
log10 x y
1
1 x
3. log a共x r 兲 苷 r log a x

0 1 x
y=log∞ x EXAMPLE 6 Use the laws of l
y=log¡¸ x
The fact that y = ax is a very rapidly increasing function for 0 < x is reflected in theSOLUTION
fact that yUsing
= loga xLaw 2, we
is a very ha
slowly increasing function for 1 < x. Figure shows the graphs of y = loga x with various values of the base a. Since
loga 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the point (1, 0).
log 2 80 ⫺
Laws of Logarithms
FIGURE 12

If x and y are positive numbers, then


because 2 4 苷 16.
1. loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
Natural Logarithm
 
x
2. loga = loga x − loga y
y
3. loga (xr ) = r loga x (where r ▲ Notation
is any for Logarithms
real number.) Of all possible bases a for lo
Most textbooks in calculus and the ient choice of a base is the nu
Natural Logarithm sciences, as well as calculators, use the with base e is called the nat
notation ln x for the natural logarithm
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and has a special notation:
and log x for the “common logarithm,”
log 10 x. In the more advanced mathe-
loge x = ln x
matical and scientific literature and in
computer languages, however, the
The defining properties of the natural logarithm function are
notation log x usually denotes the natural If we put a 苷 e and repla
logarithm. y
ln x = y ⇐⇒ e = x of the natural logarithm
(1.4) func

ln(ex ) = x x∈R
8
34 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS

Proof Let y 苷
e ln x
=x x > 0. (1.5) both sides of t
In particular, if we set x = 1, we get
ln e = 1.

For any positive number a, we have


ln x Scientific c
loga x = , a > 0, a ̸= 1.
ln a us to use a ca
Example 22.
example). Sim
graphing calcu
Solve the equation e5−3x = 10.
EXAMPLE 10 Ev

SOLUTION Formu
Solution. We take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation and use equation (1.5):

ln(e5−3x ) = ln 10
5 − 3x = ln 10
EXAMPLE 11 In
3x = 5 − ln 10 remains from
1 inverse of this
x = (5 − ln 10)
3
SOLUTION We ne
Since the natural logarithm is found on scientific calculators, we can approximate the solution to four decimal
the exponentia
places: x ≈ 0.8991.

Example 23.

1
Express ln a + ln b as a single logarithm.
2

Solution. Using Laws 3 and 1 of logarithms, we have

1
ln a + ln b = ln a + ln b1/2
2
√ So the inverse
= ln a + ln b

= ln(a b).

y This function
y=´ ticular, the tim
y=x

The graphs of the exponential function y = ex and its inverse func-


tion, the natural logarithm function, are shown in Figure 1.6. Because 1 y=ln x This answer ag
x
the curve y = e crosses the y−axis with a slope of 1, it follows that 0 tion 1.5.
the reflected curve y = ln x crosses the x-axis with a slope of 1. 1 x

The graphs
logarithm func
y-axis with a s
FIGURE 13 Figure 1.6 with a slope o
1.2. NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 35

Example 24.

Sketch the graph of the function y = ln(x − 2) − 1.

Solution. We start with the graph of y = ln x as given in Figure 1.6. Using the transformations, we shift it two
units to the right to get the graph of y = ln(x − 2) and then we shift it one unit downward to get the graph of
y = ln(x − 2) − 1.

y
lnx
ln(x-2)

ln(x-2)-1

0 2 3 x

-1

Although ln x is an increasing function, it grows very slowly when 1 < x. In fact, ln x grows more slowly than

any positive power of x. To illustrate this fact, we compare the graphs of the functions y = ln x and y = x1/2 = x
in Figure. You can see that initially the graphs of and grow at comparable rates, but eventually the root function
far surpasses the logarithm.

y
y

25
2.0

20
1.5 x
x
15 ln x
1.0 ln x
10
0.5

5
0.0 x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-0.5 x
200 400 600 800

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