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DAVID GARDNER
JO COLES
KEY STAGE 3
ELEANOR HOPKINS
JOHN LYON
CATHERINE OWEN

' -

SERIES EDITOR:
DAVID GARD NER ••• •• I, HODDER
B00St 'EDUCATION
AN HACHETTE UK COMPANY
The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material.
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Introduction 3.3 Why is manufacturing all about choosing
the right site? 46

1 What is a geographer? 3.4 Why did Nissan locate in the UK? 48

3.5 Why is the tertiary sector increasing? 50
1.1 What is a geographer? 2 3.6 How does a chocolate bar connect
1.2 How has our knowledge of the world the sectors of the economy? 52
progressed over time? 4 3.7 How does the UK trade with other countries? 54
1.3 What locational knowledge do you have 3.8 What is globalisation? 56
of the world?
3.9 How has containerisation accelerated
1.4 How can we locate places around the world? globalisation? 58
1.5 Why do we use OS maps to 3.10 What is an economy, from local to global?
investigate places? 10 Review 60
1.6 How do we locate features on OS maps? 12
1.7 How do OS maps show height, direction
and slopes? 14
1.8 How can we use aerial photos with OS maps? 16 4.1 What is weather and climate? 62
1.9 How do you investigate a locality 4.2 How do we measure weather? 64
by conducting fieldwork? 18 4.3 How can weather data be recorded 66
1.10 What is a geographer? Review 20 and presented?
4.4 What are clouds and why does it rain? 68
2 Is Earth running out of natural 4.5 What are air pressure and anticyclones? 70
res ources? 4.6 What are depressions and how do
they affect our weather? 72
2.1 How do we use our planet as a natural 4.7 How do I conduct a weather enquiry? 74
resource? 22
4.8 What is the climate of the UK? 76
2.2 What are rocks and how are they
4.9 How does climate vary across the world? 78
a natural resource? Part 1 24
2.3 What are rocks and how are they
4.10 What is weather and climate? Review 80
a natural resource? Part 2 26
2.4 Why are soils the root of life? 28
2.5 How does the biosphere provide
natural resources? 30
5.1 Is the geography of Russia a curse or a benefit? 82
2.6 How does the hydrosphere provide
natural resources? 32 5.2 What is the physical landscape of Russia? 84
2.7 Why is the world so dependent 5.3 What is the climate of Russia? 86
on oil resources? 34 5.4 What biomes exist in Russia? 88
2.8 What natural resources can be used 5.5 Where do people live in Russia? 90
to generate electricity? 36 5.6 Does geography help or hinder the
2.9 How can we use natural resources Russian economy? 92
sustainably? 38 5.7 What is GIS and how can I use it to
2.10 How do we use our planet as a natural investigate Russia? 94
resource? Review 40 5.8 Why did Russia plant their flag on the
seabed of the North Pole? Part 1 96
3 What is an economy? 5.9 Why did Russia plant their flag on the
seabed of the North Pole? Part 2 98
3.1 What is an economy, from local to global? 42 5.10 Is the geography of Russia a curse
3.2 What's happening down on the farm? 44 or a benefit? Review 100
6 Why are rivers important? 9 What happens where the land meets
6.1 Why are rivers important? 102
the sea?
6.2 How does water flow into rivers? 104 9.1 What happens where the land meets
6.3 What work do rivers do? 106 the sea? 162

6.4 How do rivers change from source 9.2 What shapes our coastal landscape? 164
to mouth? 108 9.3 What forms of erosion take place on
6.5 How do rivers shape the land? 110 the coast? 166

6.6 How do I conduct a river fieldwork enquiry? 112 9.4 What landforms are created by forces
of erosion? 168
6.7 How are rivers important to people? 114
9.5 How does transportation change
6.8 How do river floods create problems? 116
170
the coastline?
6.9 How can flooding be managed? 118
9.6 How does deposition change the coastline? 172
6.10 Why are rivers important? Review 120
9.7 How has life on the Holderness
coast changed? 174
7 What is development? 9.8 What defences can be used to protect
the coast? 176
7.1 What is development? 122
9.9 Weighing it up: are the benefits worth
7.2 How is money spread around the world? 124 the cost? 178
7.3 What other ways can be used to 9.10 What happens where the land meets
measure development? 126 the sea? Review 180
7.4 How can development change over time? 128
7.5 What is the global development map
missing? 130 10 How is Asia being transformed?
7.6 Why do people live in poverty? 132 10.1 Diverse and dynamic: how is Asia
7.7 How can gender equality increase being transformed? 182
development? 134 10.2 How does India rely on the monsoon
7.8 How do countries and organisations climate? 184
support development? 136 10.3 How do floods threaten lives in Asia? 186
7.9 What are Sustainable Development Goals? 138 10.4 How does life adapt to the mountain biome? 188
7.10 What is development ? Review 140 10.5 Why is the population of Asia diverse
and dynamic? 190
8 How are populations changing? 10.6 How is urbanisation changing lives
I in Karnataka, India? Part 1 192
8.1 One planet, many people: 10.7 How is urbanisation changing lives
how are populations changing? 142 in Karnataka, India? Part 2 194
8.2 Where does everyone live, and why? 144 10.8 Is China helping to create
8.3 How can we describe the structure an interdependent world? 196
of a population? 146 10.9 How is Asia developing into the
8.4 Can we control population size? 148 most important global economic region? 198
8.5 Why do people migrate? 150 10.10 Diverse and dynamic: how is Asia being
8.6 Where do people migrate to? 152 transformed? Review 200
8.7 What is urbanisation? 154
8.8 How did urbanisation change 11 Can we ever know enough about
Southampton? Part 1 156
earthquakes and volcanoes to live safely?
8.9 How did urbanisation change
Southampton? Part 2 158 11.1 Can we ever know enough about
8.10 One planet, many people: how are earthquakes and volcanoes to live safely? 202
populations changing? Review 160 11.2 Do continents fit together like jigsaw pieces? 204
11.3 Where are the world's earthquakes, 14 Why is the Middle East an important
volcanoes and mountain belts? 206
world region?
11.4 What is happening beneath our feet? 208
11.5 What happens at plate boundaries? 210 14.1 Why is the Middle East an important
world region? 262
11.6 What do we know about earthquakes? 212
14.2 How does physical geography influence
11.7 Can people manage risk living
the region? 264
in earthquake zones? 214
14.3 What problems does the climate of the
11.8 What do we know about volcanoes? 216
Middle East create for the region? 266
11.9 Can people manage risk living
14.4 Why is the population of the Middle East
near volcanoes? 218
so diverse? 268
11.10 Can we ever know enough about earthquakes
14.5 Why is the Middle East a major economic
and volcanoes to live safely? Review 220
region of the world? 270
14.6 How has the United Arab Emirates
12 What are the challenges and developed? 272
opportunities facing Africa? 14.7 Why is Yemen the poorest country in
the Middle East? 274
12.1 What are the challenges and opportunities
14.8 Why is there ongoing conflict in the
facing Africa? 222
Middle East? 276
12.2 What is the physical landscape of Africa? 224
14.9 Why is the Middle East an important
12.3 How has Africa's past shaped its present? 226 world region? Part 1 278
12.4 How developed are African countries? 228 14.10 Why is the Middle East an important
12.5 What is the pattern of climate and world region? Part 2 280
biomes in Africa? 230
12.6 Is there a future for the Sahel? 232
12.7 What are the challenges and opportunities 15 Climate change and the Earth's Future
of population change in Africa? 234 15.1 What is the future for the planet? 282
12.8 What are the challenges and opportunities 15.2 What is the evidence for climate change? 284
of urbanisation in Africa? 236
15.3 What are the causes of climate change? 286
12.9 Does China want to help develop Africa? 238
15.4 What are the consequences of climate
12.10 What are the challenges and opportunities change for our planet? Part 1 288
facing Africa? Review 240
15.5 What are the consequences of climate
change for our planet? Part 2 290
13 How does ice change the world? 15.6 What are the consequences of climate
change for the UK? 292
13.1 How does ice change the world? 242
15.7 Antarctica - the frozen continent?
13.2 How and why do glaciers form and move? 244 A geographical enquiry 294
13.3 How do glaciers change landscapes? 246 15.8 What can we do about climate change? 296
13.4 How are landforms shaped by glacial 15.9 What is the future for the planet?
erosion? Part 1 248 Review 298
13.5 How are landforms shaped by glacial 15.10 What is a geographer? Review 300
erosion? Part 2 250
13.6 How do we know the Lake District
was glaciated? 252 Glossary 302
13.7 How are landforms shaped by
Index 308
glacial deposition? 254
13.8 How do people use glacial landforms? 256 Photo credits 315
13.9 How do we investigate how glaciers
are changing? 258
13.10 How does ice change the world? Review 260
In this unit, you will learn about:
► being a geographer
► asking geographical questions
► conducting geographical enquiries
► key aspects of studying people and places
► how to use geographical data, including maps.
Where? Why?
How?

Welcome to Progress in Geography:

KeyStage3
This book has been designed to help you make progress across
Key Stage 3. It will help you to think like a geographer!
It is full of different types of geographical data, such as Photo B.
There are also lots of maps in the book, including four big Ordnance
Survey (OS) maps that open out from the cover as flaps, to use
across different lessons. The Activities box on each lesson spread
provides questions and activities to help you make sense of the
geographical data and the new ideas and knowledge presented in
each lesson. The back cover of the book explains the book layout -
have a look.

() A satellite image of the world taken from space (9 Asking geographical questions

- "
 1 Look at the vision statement flap
(A) for Progress in Geography:
Key Stage 3.
a) What is a geographer?
b) Create your own poster to
show what a geographer
knows, understands, values
and can do.
2 What three aspects of the world
does a geographer study?
3 Look at the front cover of this
• Where is this place? textbook.
• What is it like? a) How does it show the world?
• Why is it like this'? b) What do you feel about this
• How is it changing?
image?
• Who is affected by the changes?
• How do I feel about it? c) Which aspects of the world
does the image show?
4 Geographers use questions
to investigate places. Use the
Geography helps you make sense of: enquiry questions in Image C
to describe what you can see in
• the physical world - what our planet is like, the work of
Photo B.
rivers, the sea and ice
5 Look at the satellite image of
• the human world - how and where people live, develop the world in Photo A. Name the
and earn a living continents and oceans of the
• the environmental world - habitats, such as mountains, world, 1-11.
forests, oceans, and how they develop and change.
A good geographer: Stretch and challenge
• investigates and understands all these aspects of the Geography is happening every
world in which we live minute of the day. Before next
lesson, find a news report in a
• develops a locational knowledge of where places are in
newspaper or on a website.
the world
Describe what the story is about
• asks questions, and uses a wide range of geographical and why you think it is geographical.
data to investigate places. What type of geography is it about?
Progress in Geography: Key Stage 3 has been designed to Share your discovery next lesson
help you become a good geographer and we have provided with the class.
a vision of what this looks like on the vision statement flap
(A) on the inside front cover. Take a look.
 1.2 How has our knowledge of the world
progressed over time?

Learning objective Mapmaking

► To understand that our
knowledge of the world has
progressed over time.
Cartography, or mapmaking, has been an important aspect of
human history for over 8,000 years. Geographers define a map as
a graphic representation, presenting a spatial understanding of
places, ideas, or events in the human and physical worlds. An
accurate map of the world could not be constructed before the
fourteenth century, because half of the planet had yet to be
explored, or discovered. Maps A-C show examples of maps which
demonstrate how our knowledge and understanding of the world
has evolved through time.

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to Eratosthenes Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar, was the first person to use the term
'geography'. He was also the first person to calculate the
circumference of the Earth, with amazing accuracy. His original
map was drawn about 194sc. It was lost long ago. Map A is a
reconstruction. It shows the known world 2,300 years ago.
1658 Activities
Map B was published in 1658 by the Dutch
cartographer, Nicolaes Visscher. This map shows 1 a) What is cartography?
more of the world than Map A because by the b) What is a map?
seventeenth century new areas of the world had 2 Why has the development of maps been an
been discovered and explored. Sailing ships had important aspect of the development of the
allowed explorers from Europe to travel across the human race?
oceans and discover new lands in North and South 3 Look carefully at Map A.
America, and parts of Australia. But look closely at
a) When was the map drawn?
Map B. You will notice that the coastlines of these
continents suddenly stop, as though the map is b) Who constructed the map?
unfinished. c) What new knowledge was incorporated
into the drawing of the map?
d) Describe how the world is shown on the
map, and which parts are missing.
0 K II I \ 1 f K KA ll ti )I NO\' A t T AC' • II ll ,\ I I � \ I M � l ,\ 11 U 1 .\ ...... ••••• ,_,.,

e) Explain why this was not an accurate

representation of the world.
4 Look carefully at Map B.
a) When was the map constructed?
b) Describe how the world is depicted in
this map.
c) Explain why this is a more detailed and
accurate view of the world than Map A.
d) Which parts of the world are missing on
this map?
5 Look carefully at Image C.
a) Explain how this image shows the world
in a different way to Maps A and B.
b) Why do you think the first images of
Earth from space affected how people
thought about the planet?
6 Explain how mapping the world today has
0 World map published in 1658 become much more detailed, accurate and
readily available to people than at the time
of Maps A and B.
1969 and beyond
A new age of exploration began in the 1960s,
leading to the NASA Apollo 11 space mission
landing a man on the Moon for the first time, in
1969. The images they sent back of Earth from
space changed human perspectives about our
planet. Space travel has become more
commonplace today. Many satellites now circle
the Earth sending back real-time images, like C,
that are used to accurately map the planet. They
are also used to monitor the changing
environment and weather systems. Google Earth
uses massive amounts of data to allow us to view
the planet in great detail, as you will discover in
this book. e A satellite image of Earth taken from space
 1.3 What locational knowledge do you
have of the world?

Learning objectives In Lesson 1.1 you named all of the continents of the Earth. Chart A
and Tables Band C give you details of the size of each continent
► To compare the size of the and the number of people living there. In this lesson you will remind
world's continents and oceans.
yourself of what you know about North and South America and
► To know about the geography Europe - the continents that you investigated in your primary school.
of North and South America, As you work your way through this book you will complete your
and Europe. world regional studies by investigating Africa, Asia, the area known
as the Middle East, and the largest country in the world, Russia.

North
Africa America South America 3.5% Continent Area (millions of km2) Continent Millions of people
6.0% 4.8% Antarctica 2.7%
Southern I Europe 2% Asia 44.6 Asia 4300
4% I
I Oceania 1.9%
Arctic
3%
I -
Africa 30.1
-
Africa 1111
North America 24.5 Europe 743
I ,___
■ Oceans
>--
South America 17.8 North America 565
■ Continents
Antarctica 13.2 South America 407
,......_ ,......_
Europe 9.9 Oceania 38
,___ ,___
Oceania 8.1 Antarctica 0

0 The continents and seas by Q The continents by land area (j The continents by population
area

Arctic Ocean
• The Americas cover 8.3 per cent of the Earth's
total surface and 28.1 per cent of its land area.
• A long mountain chain runs down the western
sides of both North and South America.
• The lower eastern sides are dominated by huge
�
�

North Atlantic
J2 <:;
river basins such as the Amazon, Mississippi and
La Plata.
Ocean • The voyages of Christopher Columbus from
,_
1492 to 1502 opened up what became known
North Pacific as the 'New World' and people moved from
Ocean
Europe (the 'Old World') in great numbers to live
here.
• Today the population of North and South
to,. America is nearly a billion, with over 65 per
cent living in the three largest countries by
population USA, Mexico and Brazil.
South Pacific
Ocean

A South Atlantic
N Ocean

G)
0 4000 km
t=:::3:=::E==3:::::::J North and South America
 Barents Sea
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Activities
1 Look carefully at Chart A. c) Which are the largest five countries by area
a) What percentage of the world is covered in the two continents?
by i) oceans ii) continents? d) Which five countries border Bolivia?
b) Which is the largest feature of the world? 4 Write a paragraph about what you know and
2 Look carefully at Tables B and C. have learnt about North and South America in
a) Draw a bar chart to show the area of each your primary school.
continent. 5 Look carefully at Map E.
b) Draw a bar chart to show the population of a) Name the countries labelled 1 to 5 and the
each continent. seas, 6 and 7.
c) Write a paragraph to describe what you b) Name the four countries of the United
have learnt about the world's continents Kingdom.
from your charts. c) Which six countries border France?
3 Look carefully at Map D of the Americas. 6 Write a paragraph about what you know and
a) Name the countries labelled 1-6. have learnt about the continent of Europe at
b) Name the mountain ranges that run down your primary school.
the western side of North and South
America.
 1.4 How can we locate places around
the world?

Learning In Lesson 1.1 you were introduced to enquiry questions. Today we will be
focusing on one of these: Where is this place?
objectives
In ancient times, people located themselves using landmarks and simple maps.
► To understand the
This worked well locally, but a different method was needed when people began
difference between
latitude and to explore the planet and trade, crossing featureless areas such as oceans and
longitude. deserts. Explorers and traders needed a frame of reference, or co-ordinates, to
fix their position. Initially various instruments were invented to use the stars as
► To be able to locate
fixed points, but eventually methods of calculating latitude and longitude were
places on a world
map using developed. These are imaginary gridlines drawn around the world (Map A).
co-ordinates. In 1884, the Greenwich Observatory was chosen as the Prime Meridian,
0 degrees - a starting point for measuring longitude. The grid of numbered lines
of latitude and longitude allows us to accurately locate any place in the world.

0 Lines of latitude and longitude 8

The line of longitude which divides the
Earth into the eastern and western
hemisphere is known as the Prime
Meridian. Lines of longitude to the
east of the Prime Meridian are
labelled E. Those to the west are
labelled W.
The line of latitude
which divides the
Earth into the 0°
northern and southern
hemisphere is known
as the Equator. Lines of
latitude above or to
the north of the
Equator are labelled N.
Those below or to the
south are labelled S.
Latitude is always found
and written before
longitude - e.g. Libreville,
Gabon is 0° 23'N 9° 27'E
What is GPS?
Today, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provide a world-wide
navigation system made up of 24 satellites and their ground
stations. These 'artificial stars' are used as reference points to
work out a precise position on Earth. Navigation around the
world is now much easier, and can also be used for fun by keen
geographers (see Article B)!
North Pole
Prime Meridian or
The Degree
(90 °N)
Greenwich Meridian Confluence Project
66½ 0 N
Lines of
A new breed of explorer is
roaming the globe. Armed
with a GPS, these men and women
����-r�t'" latitude are seeking out the spots on the
� Tropic of Earth's surface where lines of
Cancer latitude and longitude cross.
Alex Jarrett, a web programmer
- ,,.._ Equator from the USA, started the
project in February 1996 simply
because he liked the idea of using
14----+--�---+...::::;,,- Linesof
longitude his new GPS device to visit a
location represented by a round
�-Tropic of number, such as 43 degrees north
Capricorn 72 degrees west. The exact spot
where a degree of latitude and a
degree of longitude meets is known
Libreville South Pole (90° S)
as a degree confluence. Before long
... the project went viral. People
travel to a confluence point, take
360 degree photographs of the
location, and an all-important
photo of their GPS reading to
act as proof. They then describe
what the location is like. This is
then posted on the conflt1ence
website. There is a conflt1ence
within 79 km of each of us ... and
there are still 9885 to be found.
 140°W 100°W 60°W
Tropic of
Cancer,__1--ir--1--,1--+-,�,_,._.,,�=--l'--i--t-+--
Equator----------
Tropic of --- -- --
Capricorn
e World map showing main lines of latitude and longitude
Activities
1 What are lines of latitude and longitude?
2 a) Which line of latitude divides the world
into two halves or hemispheres?
b) What are these hemispheres called?
3 a) Which line of longitude divides the world
into two halves or hemispheres?
b} What are these hemispheres called?
4 T here are five particularly important lines of
latitude: Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of
Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle.
Write these as a list, and next to each write
the number of the line.
5 What is the Prime Meridian, and why was it
created?
6 Look carefully at Map C and the location of
points A-1.
a} Which place is in Antarctica?
b} Which places are north of the Arctic
Circle?
c) Match the following co-ordinates to places
on the map:
40N 120W; 0 SOW; 40S 170E; SOS 0.
7 What is a Global Positioning System?
20°W 0° 20° E 60° E 100° E 140° E
-• ---------
8 Read Article B.
a} What is a degree confluence?
b} What is the Degree Confluence Project
.
trying to ac h.1evP.7
9 Go to the Degree Confluence website: www.
confluence.org
a} Use the Search facility to find these two
locations:
30N 130E; 66N 18W
b} For each location complete the following:
i} Name the place, country, and
co-ordinate.
ii} Read the description of each place.
iii} Look at one of the photos of each place
and use the enquiry questions from
Lesson 1.1 (pages 2-3) to describe the
place.
10 The volunteers who have contributed to the
Degree Confluence website are excellent
geographers. Go to the vision statement flap
for Progress in Geography. Which aspects of
the vision are they showing in action?
 1.5 Why do we use OS maps to
investigate places?

Learning objectives The Ordnance Survey (OS) is the national mapping agency of the
United Kingdom. The name Ordnance Survey hints at how the
► To understand the idea of scale. organisation began, as part of a military strategy, mapping the
► To understand that different Scottish Highlands following rebellion in 1745. The OS produces
scales of map can be used for maps at a range of scales for people and businesses who use maps
different purposes. in different ways.
Maps A-C and Map-flap E show OS maps at different scales focused
on the village of Mappleton. Scale is shown on a map in three ways:
Oo
�'SI"
::::, <D

w8
"O(")

.... o
e
;�.---------------�
OS map of Mappleton
• As a line called a linear scale.
• As a statement of scale .
Q) .....

�� 45
-
"O ,._

L. - ···1 � • As a ratio - a scale of 1: 50 000 means that one unit on the

"O Q)

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0 .0
IE
<X) �
map represents 50,000 of the same unit on the ground .
)
0 Q)

. ua;
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.!!l ·-
.c A large-scale map shows a lot of detail, but not much area; a

=
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Mapplet �'" Mappleton
small-scale map shows a lot of area, but not much detail.

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e 1: 2 500 OS map of Mappleton 0 25

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50 75 100 m

Activities
1 a) Who are the Ordnance Survey?
b) When was the organisation formed, and for what purpose?
2 a) Why do we draw maps to scale?
b) What are the three ways that the scale of a map is shown?
c) The scale of Map B is 2 cm to 1 km. Draw a linear scale for this map.
d) Which of the four maps of Mappleton, A-C and Map-flap E are large-scale
maps and which are small-scale maps?
e) Find where Mappleton is located in the UK. Which map helped you?
3 Look carefully at Map A.
a) Imagine you live in Beverley. Your family decide to visit Mappleton by car.
Plan the best route to get there. Write a paragraph to describe the route.
b) Why is A the best map to use for planning the route?
4 Look carefully at Map C.
a) How is it different to Map A?
b) Write the scale of this map as a statement.
c) What new information does it provide about Mappleton compared to the
other maps?
d) Who might use this scale of map?
 1.6 How do we locate features on
OS maps?

Learning objectives To be able to identify and label different features, such as buildings
or roads, on a map, we use symbols. Using symbols means we
► To understand why and how can find features quickly and clearly without the map being too
OS use symbols on maps.
cluttered or confusing. OS has developed a wide range of symbols
► To be able to locate places on using different colours, shapes, lines, drawings and abbreviations
an OS map using four- and six­ to represent different features. There are different symbols for each
figure grid references. scale of OS map. Diagram A shows some of the symbols used on 1:
50 000 maps. OS maps have a key, or legend, explaining what each
symbol represents.
0 OS Landranger examples of symbols

Tourist Information ABBREVIATIONS

�' Viewpoint 180° CG Cattle grid p Post office

�,,
CH Clubhouse PC Public convenience (in rural areas)

,, Viewpoint 360° Coll

Fm
Ho
College
Farm
House
PH
Sta
Sch
Public house
Station
School
Visitor centre

••
Hospl Hospital TH Town Hall, Guildhall or equivalent
MP Milepost Univ University
Walks / trails

Nature reserve

WATER FEATURES Contour values In lakes are in metres

Picnic site
Cliff High Water mark
Marsh or salting
Youth hostel
Low water m ant
A lighthouse (in U!e)
--
Golf course or links
Beacon
..n. Lighthouse (disused)
Garden / arboretum
Canal (dry)
Parking

Park & Aide, all year / seasonal

OS has developed a website called Mapzone to help you use

LAND FEATURES their maps. You can also download a full set of the symbols from
""'"'"'
,uuuuu ::::::::::: Cutting, embankment Mapzone for 1: 50 000 and 1: 25 000 maps. www.ordnancesurvey.
A A x Electricity transmission line co.uk/mapzone/
(pylons shown at standard spacing)

> - -> - -> Pipe line

f
{arrow Indicates direction of ftow)

Bufldings

Important building (selected)

C

• Bus or coach station oo

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ro -.r
0 (0

(> Glass Structure ::I

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Wo
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.... o
@ Heliport Cl) .....
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Current or former place of worship; IE
i5 with tower - ::I
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• with spire, minaret or dome 0 Cl)

en
l!l- a;
N

+ Place of worship t)
.c. ·-
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"i:: >,.
Triangulation pillar Cl) Cl)
en C:
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::i

Mast
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OS mapzone website @
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Working out grid references
OS maps are covered in a series of numbered blue lines that
make up a grid. These gridlines allow you to identify the
exact location of a place or symbol on a map by givi1ng a
unique number known as a grid reference. The vertical lines
are called eastings, because they increase in value eastwards
on the map. The horizontal lines are called northings,
because they increase in value northwards on the map.
There are two main types of grid reference: four-figure and
six-figure. The grid reference is always for the bottom left­
hand corner of the grid square you are locating.
Four-figure grid references
To give a four-figure grid reference for
the shaded square:
• Read along the easting line until you
reach the bottom left corner of the shaded
square. Read off the number: 62.
• Now read along the lines to the side at the
numbered line at the bottom of the shaded
square, 33.
• These numbers combined provide the four-figure
grid reference 6233.
Six-figure grid references
To locate a feature more precisely within a

t"'
35 square, such as the small green shaded square
shown, we can use a six-figure grid reference:
• First, imagine that each grid square is divided
.--. into tenths (as shown on the grid).
:i... • Read along from square 62 to count the tenths.
-� 34 There are 5. Read off the number: 625.
"' • Now read up from square 33 to count the tenths.
QJ 7
.c 6 There are 3. Read off the number: 333.
...., 4 • These numbers combined provide the six-figure
C. 3
::, 2 grid reference 625333.
1
�
"' 33 0 1 2 3 45 6 7 8 9

·-
.c
....,
2 32 I
61 62 63 64
Eastings (along the corridor) ► 0 OS grid squares

Activities
1 Look carefully at the OS symbols shown in A.
a) Draw a table with four columns headed:
Drawings; Lines; Abbreviations; and Colours.
b) Draw and name three symbols in the
correct columns in your table.
2 Look at Map 1 of Flamborough Head on Map­
flap E.
a) What evidence can you find on the map
using symbols that suggests this area is
used for tourism?
b) Identify and name three features on the
map from the land features section of the
key shown in A.
3 Look at Map-flap C of Teeside.
a) What is the four-figure grid reference for
the following:
i) Bran Sands ii) steel works iii) oil terminal?
b) What is the six-figure grid reference for the
following:
i) a viewpoint ii) a roundabout on an
A-road iii) a mast iv) a beacon v) a nature
reserve?
4 Visit the Mapzone website, download and print
your own copies of the symbols for 1: 50 000
and 1:25 000 OS maps (click 'Map skills' then
'Resources and links').
You will be using these scales of map in a
number of units in Progress in Geography
to further develop your map skills. You will
be expected to use six-figure grid references
and identify features using the symbols as a
matter of routine.
 1.7 How do OS maps show height,
direction and slopes?

Learning objectives Height on OS maps is always shown in metres above sea level.
There are three ways height is shown (see Legend A):
► To understand how height is
shown on OS maps. 1 Spot height: marked by a black dot with the height in metres
alongside it.
► To identify contour patterns.
► To recap the points of a
2 Triangulation pillars: often found on hill tops, shown by a blue
compass and direction. triangle with a dot in the middle and the height marked next to it.
These pillars were used by OS surveyors to measure the land, but
they are not used any more.
3 Contour lines: thin brown lines that join together places at the
same height. The height is printed along the line. It is possible to
use them to see the shape of the land (see Band E).
0 OS Landranger symbols for • If contour lines are close together the slope is steep; if they
showing height are far apart the slope is gentle (see Band C).

HEIGHTS • Contour lines are usually drawn at 10 m intervals on a

1:50 000 scale map and at 5 m intervals on a 1:25 000 scale map.
Contours are at 10
metres vertical interval • Thicker contour lines appear every 50 m.

Heights are to the

• The numbers on contour lines are always displayed in
·144 nearest metre ascending height; if the numbers increase it indicates an uphill
above mean sea level
slope, and if they decrease it indicates a downhill slope.

G) Using contours to identify slope

---100---·------------------------------------
--------·---------------------------------- - 30--------------------------------------------------
--------·------------------------------- -25 --
---�----~-------------------------
---75--- -20--
--------·------------
--- 50---·-----------
-15--
- 10--
Steep slope Gentle slope

- -- - - , ---
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0 Imagining contours in 3D
 4:) Contours shown in 3D generated by a computer

0.

N
Visualising contours
A map is flat, but the land it is representing is three dimensional. The three
NE
ways OS maps show height allow you to get a mental picture from the map of
what the landscape looks like. Image D shows what you need to imagine W --•
when looking at contour patterns - this is an OS map draped across a 3D
computer representation of the landscape. Imagining this is a skill that takes
real practice.
C) Compass points s
Activities
1 In your primary school, you will have been b) Explain your choice, and the evidence you
introduced to and used the points of the used.
compass, shown here. Make your own copy c) Give the six-figure grid reference for a spot
of the compass rose (E) and add the full name height - the triangulation pillar on top of
of the direction for each point. Helvellyn.
2 Look carefully at Map-flap B of Helvellyn. 6 Look carefully at Map 1 of Flamborough on the
Give the following directions from the map-flap (E) of the Holderness coast.
mountain peak of Helvellyn to: a) Compare this map with Helvellyn, give
a) Keppel Cove b) Nethermost Pike c) Red map evidence about height to describe
Tarn d) Harrop Tarn at 312136 e) the bridge how the landscape and relief are different.
over the river at 316210. b) The B1259 running east from the village of
3 Describe the three ways OS shows height Flamborough has four spot heights marked
on maps. along the road. Write them down and next to
4 Use diagrams B and D to help you decide each locate them with a six-figure grid
whether the slopes labelled 1-4 are steep or reference.
gentle. c) Describe how height changes from
5 Look at the Helvellyn map-flap again. Flamborough to Selwicks Bay.
a) Give four-figure grid references for an area d) Why are there no triangulation pillars at
that you think has a steep slope, and one Flamborough Head?
that has a gentle slope.
 1.8 How can we use aerial photos with
OS maps?

Learning objectives
► To compare a vertical aerial
photo with an OS map of the
same scale.
► To identify features and land uses
on an aerial photograph.
► To research and analyse a vertical
aerial photo of your local area.
► To draw a sketch map to show
different land uses.
Aerial photographs show what the land looks like from above. They
are taken from an aeroplane, or more commonly from satellites.
It is possible to view vertical photographs of most places in the
world, using computer software such as Google Earth. Image A is a
vertical photograph of Southampton, showing the same area and
using the same scale as Map-flap D.
You can use maps and photos like these to identify both physical
and human geographical features. It is also possible to identify
different land uses, such as buildings, roads, fields and industry.
The city of Southampton is near the coast. It is a built-up area and
most of the land is used for housing and industry. Towns and cities
like this are called urban areas. Look carefully at the area in the
south-west corner of the photo. You should be able to identify lots
of fields. More open areas like these in the countryside are called
rural areas.

Activities
1 What is a vertical aerial photograph? 4 Draw a sketch map to show the area shown
2 What are urban and rural areas? in the vertical Photo A.
3 Ten features are marked on Photo A with a) Compare the photo and Map-flap D and
letters. Find these features on the photo and identify different land uses.
ulso on the OS Mup flup D of Southumpton b) Create your own key for each land use.
and your key of symbols for 1: 50 000 Mark the land uses and shade and label
maps. Copy and complete the following them according to your key.
table to provide the name and six-figure grid
reference for each feature. Stretch and challenge
Ii(=-r:I IllII •
:.J
-
li:"r:1111::..J • 1(,r:,-;utu:.l �•.,�--;�...:.l1[t('!l You can find similar maps and aerial photos for
Town A your local area. Either use your school access to
OS Digimap for Schools, Google Earth, or copies
Water area B
of photos and OS maps of your local area. If
-
River C using a computer, enter your postcode using the
Land use D search engine of the software.
Type of road E Create your own labelled map and photo for
-
Land use F
your local area showing land uses and key
- features of physical and human geography.
Land use G

Land use H

Land use I

Building J
0 Aerial photograph of Southampton
 1.9 How do you investigate a locality by
conducting fieldwork?

Learning objectives A good geographer investigates places by conducting fieldwork.

When visiting a location you can use maps and observation to
► To locate photographs on an OS map. collect, record and present data. A group of students conducted
► To compare ground level photos with fieldwork at Seaford, a seaside resort on the East Sussex coast.
an OS map. They used a 1: 50 000 OS map of the area (Map D), and took
► To follow a route on an OS map. photographs to record physical and human features they saw
(photos E-K). Photos Band C show the group observing and
recording features as a field-sketch.
() Location map of Seaford
e
0

4:) OS map extract

of Seaford,
A scale 1: 50 000
N
0 '� <:::. z.�.r,r 111" -
' Cradlo Hill _,;t
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and
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BISHOPST ©'
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. 0

VEHICLE FERRY (:,

FROM NEWHAVEN TO 0

�:-n �-
--
Dieppe 4 hours
u� ""_, ?:.:

SEAFOR
The group began the Martello
(Mus)
.......,.._,

fieldwork along <>..,,.v -.�

�---·••·....:
Seaford seafront, ,_
, ..!
,.-- �- .
walking in a south­ . .-;-.� Sc"ttk�,,mJt�
.�
,.....,..-", : 0�
aeon
easterly direction He.a ..
towards the Martello •
Tower, and beyond av n

that, Seaford Head

46 47 48 49 51 50 5

0 View looking down South

Hill footpath towards
famous chalk cliffs

4) View of man-made groyne at the end

of Seaford beach looking towards cliff
 Activities
Read the route taken by the students, and
answer the questions that follow.
1 The group walked from Seaford seafront,
along the footpath up to Seaford Head,
being careful to keep away from the edge
of the cliff, having seen the warning sign.
2 They then followed the cliff top path
down South Hill, stopping to marvel at
the fantastic view of the cliffs called Seven
Sisters to the east, and on to the groynes
at Cuckmere Haven.
3 The group recorded their observations
at the beach before resuming their walk
along the path, Vanguard Way, following
the valley of the River Cuckmere.
4 They completed the walk at the public
house next to the bridge across the river
carrying the A259.
1 Look carefully at the 1: 50 000 OS map of the fieldwork
study area and follow the route the students followed.
2 Rewrite the description of the route followed, adding
the six-figure grid reference and the direction they
walked at each point.
3 Photograph B was taken at 491982. Compare this view
with the OS map. The students drew a field-sketch to
record the view and key features.
a) In which direction were they looking at the view?
b) What two towns will they label on their sketch, at
points 1 and 2 shown on the photo?
4 Look carefully at photos E-1< and read the clues to
identify where each one is on the OS map. In each case,
give a six-figure grid reference for the feature shown.
5 You could conduct fieldwork like this for the locality
of your new secondary school. You could use an OS
map, plan a route, describe it, take photos and draw a
field-sketch to record key features.

-- -

0 End of the fieldwork walk

0 Walking along Vanguard Way

0 A man-made feature to protect the beach
2 53 54 55

SEAFORD HEAD COASTAL PATH

e ENJOY YOUR WALK IAFELY
e STAY AWAY FROM THE CLIFF EDGI!
e STICK TO THE MARKED NTH
e GOLF COURSE AD.IACl!NT
I o, AU.
DANGER e KeeP TO TNI! LAND SID
WAIIHINO -
CLIFF EDGE IIAIIKell POSTS AND
 1.10
What is a geographer? Review

0
In this unit, you have learnt: The OS map (A) and Photo B
show Scarborough in North
► what it means to be a geographer Yorkshire. The headland and
► to ask geographical questions two sweeping bays, beautiful
scenery and places to visit make
► to conduct geographical enquiries
it an exciting place to be. It has
► key aspects of studying people and places long been a favourite place for
► how to use geographical data, including maps. many people.
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood!

01: 25 000 OS map extract of-��

Scarborough in North Yorkshire
..
•

AA , North Bay

90
•
N
0 0.5 1km

89

Cliff Lift

J;t �SCARBOROUG
J

Spa Complex
�
Lift
South Bay

Disk
•1

87

1 �."'
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\
..
..
./'4..

01 02 03 04 05
 1 What is a geographer?

0 €) Scarborough in
0 0 North Yorkshire

0
0

1 Make a list of the places you have investigated in this unit.

2 Why do you think maps are so important to our
understanding of places?
3 How do you locate places:
a) on a map of the world
b) on an OS map?
4 What is the scale of OS map A, expressed as a statement and
as a ratio?
5 Look carefully at Map A of Scarborough. Use the map and
your key for maps at this scale to answer the following
Ins of
questions:
:::offclJf
I.AN
a) What features or symbols are at the following grid
.TATION C:
oo
:;:::
ro r--..
'<t"
references?
(.) <O
::, C")
"Oo
Wo
i) 028896 ii) 039884 iii) 022869 iv) 047891 v) 051893
... a
Q)
"O
"O
.....
...
Q)
b) Give the six-figure grid reference for the following features
•
on the map:
0 .0
I E
-
::,
.....
<X) C:
0 Q)
i) a viewpoint ii) a superstore iii) Throxenby Mere
- a;
N en

.l!l ·­
.c
Cl
(.)
-l iv) a lighthouse
,H "i::
Q)
en
ro ::,
>­
Q)
i::
c) Look at the contour patterns on the map and describe
� Cl)
ro u
- Q)
"O C:
what happens to the landscape on the western side of the
u ro
- ...
C: C:
ro u town of Scarborough.
... -
.c 0
.2> 0 6 Look carefully at Photo B showing a beach at Scarborough
and compare it with the OS map.
>, Q)
a. (.)
0
C:
(.) Q)
:s: =
C: (.)

0 ...
... Q)
0 "O
a) Name and give the grid references of the locations
numbered 1-7 on the photo.
C:
@ ::,

b) Look closely at OS map A and Photo B and use the enquiry

You will be provided
opportunities to use and
develop your map skills
using the OS map-flaps
throughout Progress in
Geography.
questions - the 4Ws and 2Hs, to describe Scarborough.
c) In which direction was the camera pointing?
7 Where is your favourite place? Describe what it's like, and why
you like it so much.
8 Look again at Map-flap A: the vision statement for Progress in
Geography. What have you learnt about being a geographer
in this unit?

06
In this unit you will learn:
► the different elements that make up our planet and how they interact
► how rocks and soils form and their importance to life
► what a biome is and how the rainforest biome works
► how people use the Earth's natural resources such as water, oil and
energy supplies
► the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources.

Natural resources are materials found in nature that Q The Earth's spheres and natural resources
we need to live. These include: clean drinking water;
fuel for energy; wood and rocks for building; fertile
soil for growing crops and keeping animals; fish; and
minerals. Humans have always depended on the -
Earth's natural resources. Humans can use natural
resources as raw materials to produce something else
to meet these needs. We can use a tree, for example,
to produce timber, which is then used to make I I

furniture. Every item in your home was made from a Atmosphere

raw material that came from a natural resource.
In this unit you will investigate our needs and how we
-
Air
use the Earth's natural resources to provide them. •
Rain
0 The Earth's spheres

Atmosphere:
the thin, fragile
layer of gases that -.a......... Bi2_sphere
surrounds the Earth
Quarry

·�•-
Forest

Granite s Oi 1--------
Biosphere:
living matter on
Earth, including Coal
all plant and Lithosphere
animal life

Lithosphere: Hydrosphere:
the Earth's crust, the water on the
including surf
.
ace of the. Earth
landforms, rocks 1n oceans, rivers,
and soils lakes, rain and mist
 The Earth systems
The Earth is a complex system that has evolved
over millions of years. A system is a combination
of interdependent and interacting elements
working together to form an entity. The Earth has
four major parts, all working and evolving in
harmony to make the planet function properly.
These four parts are called spheres (see Diagrams
A and B). The Earth's natural resources are
formed and exist in these spheres.
Renewable and non-renewable
resources
The time taken for a resource to be replaced
determines whether it is described as renewable
or non-renewable.
A renewable resource is one that is replaced by
the natural processes of the Earth's spheres,
which take place in less time than an average
human life. These are air, water, wind, sunlight
and living things.
Some resources like coal and oil take millions of
years to be replaced naturally. Within a human's
lifetime these resources would seem like they are
never replaced.
You will investigate these two groupings of
resources throughout this unit.

- , Activities
1 What are the basic needs that humans require to
survive?
2 What are natural resources?
3 Look carefully at diagrams A and B.

-- Clouds
-
a) Name the four spheres of the Earth.

r
b) Write a description for each sphere.
Sunshine c) Draw an annotated sketch diagram to explain
t 1uw yuu U lir 1k U 1e fuur �fJt 1ere� dre
vo!ca interconnected.
Wind turbines 4 Diagram B shows that different natural resources
\ \ lgne�s can be found in each sphere.
Create a mind map like the one below, for as many
rosph
Fishing natural resources as you can think of.
Sea

-----------------------------.� Oxygen to
Trees �
'

breathe
- Biosphere - - Atmosphere -
Cereal plants ..... - Rainfall
to eat
I
�
I
Earth's natural I
I
I
I resources I

y
Rocks for Drinking
..... r-
building water
.... Lithosphere .... - Hydrosphere
Oil for fuel - Oceans for
fish

5 a) Write definitions of the terms renewable and

non-renewable natural resources.
b) What is the key factor in deciding whether a
resource is renewable or non-renewable?
 2.2 What are rocks and how are they
a natural resource? Part 1

Learning objectives In Lesson 1.1 (pages 2-3) you discovered that geography helps
you make sense of different aspects of the world. In today's
► To understand the concept of lesson you will learn about the physical world, in particular, how
geological time.
the Earth has changed or evolved. This is very complicated to
► To understand the qualities of the understand because we believe the Earth is 4.6 billion years old.
three rock types. During this time the spheres of the Earth have evolved to their
► To understand how rocks are current state, to create our beautiful, diverse and dynamic planet.
weathered.
The Earth and the lithosphere are studied by geologists, see
► To understand how we use rocks Image A. In this and the next lesson you will investigate what they
as a natural resource. have discovered about the Earth's history, its rocks, and how we
can use them ars natural resources.

I'm a geologist. Here I'm taking a sample of fresh lava from a volcano
in Hawaii. Geologists collect evidence like this to work out when a
volcano is likely to erupt. We also study layers of rock around the
world, looking at fossils, and minerals in them, to understand the
Earth's history. By studying how the planet changed in the past we
can better understand how the Earth works now and in the future.
We also locate rocks around the world that contain valuable minerals
and metals, which can be mined to use as natural resources.

4.44 billion years

4.3 billion years

23:40:48
Last mass extinction, in which dinosaurs disappear Geological timescale
22:56
Mammals appear 23:59 Geologists have created a
4.27 billion years ..------- Genus Homo appears geological timescale to explain
22:47 23:59:56
Dinosaurs appear--�
how the planet evolved, which is
..---------Modern humans appear
divided into blocks of time. All
,----400-700 million years geologists in the world work with
4.05 billion years 02:08-03:44
the same timescale, so that
23 24
21:36 Heavy meteorite
Land plants appear 1 different geological features and
22 0years l 2
bombardment
rock layers can be compared
00:00 30years
4 billion years
21 The Earth 00:10
3 around the world. As a length of
21:20
Fish appear 20 is formed The Moon is formed
from debris resulting 4 time, 4.6 billion years is difficult to
4.1 billion grasp. To help you better
19
from the collision of
years
21:52
Earth and the planet
Theia
5 understand events over this
Insects appear immense span of time, Diagram B
18 6 presents this timescale as a 24-
hour clock. It compresses all
7
3.5 billion years Earth's history into one imaginary
18:40
First plant appears 8 day; each hour represents
(thought to be green
algae) 15 approximately 192 million years.
1
4 13 1 2 11
10
"'---------1.1 billion years
09:04
Bacteria begin to
2 billion years
0
produce oxygen
10:41 Geological time presented
Earth's atmosphere begins to form with
oxygen being pumped into the air as a 24-hour clock
Types of rocks
Rocks are natural material made of grains of one or more minerals. A mineral is a
natural compound that usually exists in rocks as crystals. Geologists classify rocks into
three groups according to how they were formed: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic. We use rocks from each group as natural resources.

Igneous rock Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

This is formed from molten
rock often linked to volcanoes.
The molten rock may cool
slowly, allowing time for
minerals to form large crystals,
which lock together. Granite
and basalt are types of igneous
rock.
Igneous rocks are very hard
and durable. In the UK they
form mountainous areas.
People use igneous rocks to
construct some buildings.
Crushed granite is often used
to surface roads. Igneous rocks
are also important sources of
minerals like diamonds.
Most of these types of rocks are
formed under the sea. Rock
particles carried by rivers were
washed out to sea, and settled on
the sea floor. On the sea bed they
were buried by newer sediment,
squeezed and cemented together
over thousands of years to form
new rock. These rocks also include
the fossilised remains of sea
creatures. Chalk and limestone are
examples of sedimentary rocks
that are made up almost entirely
from fossils.
Sedimentary rocks include valuable
rocks such as coal and iron ore.
Salt and potash are also important
raw materials for the chemical
industry. Sand and gravel are used
for making concrete and cement.
Clay is used to make house bricks.
These rocks form from existing
rocks that are transformed by
great heat or pressure. These
changes lead to the existing
minerals melting and forming
new minerals. Marble and slate
are examples of metamorphic
rocks. The sedimentary rock,
mudstone, is transformed into
slate, and limestone into
marble.
Slate is very durable and is
formed in thin layers, which
can be cut into thin, strong
tiles, ideal for making roof tiles.
Marble is used as a building
stone, and to make sculptures.

Types of weathering
Rocks on the lithosphere are exposed to the Earth's
other spheres. Air, water, changing temperatures,
plants and animals all attack rocks causing them to
break down and rot away. This process is called
weathering. There are three types:
Freeze-thaw weathering occurs when water gets
into a crack in a rock and freezes. As the water
turns to ice it expands and causes the crack to
widen. Repeated freezing and thawing weakens
the rock, which eventually splits into pieces.
Chemical weathering occurs when rainwater, which
is slightly acidic, comes into contact with rock. The
acid attacks the rock, causing it to rot and crumble.
Biological weathering is when plants and animals
break down rock. The roots of plants and trees can get
into cracks in rocks, causing them to split. Burrowing
animals and worms can also weaken rock.
You will learn more about weathering and erosion in
Unit 9.
 2.3 What are rocks and how are they a
natural resource? Part 2

Rocks provide shelter

Thousands of years ago people sought shelter in rocks and caves.
Today we still use rocks and stones to build our homes. Photo G
shows a house which is built from a wide range of different rocks.
The walls and chimneys are built with bricks, which are made from
clay. The roof is made of slate. The gutters and downpipes are
made of cast iron, which is made from iron ore. The bricks are held
together with cement and mortar, which are made from sand and
chalk or limestone. The road surface is made with crushed granite.

Q The formation of coal

Water

0 Semi-detached
house in the UK
How coal was formed
• Plant matter fell to the bottom
Sediment n of the swamp and began to
a d rock
decay.
• The levels of decaying plant
matter built up.
• More water and dirt washed
into the swamp and halted the
decay.
• The plant matter became peat.
• The weight of the water and
dirt compacted the peat.
• Under the heat and pressure
oxygen was farced out of the
100 to 400 peat.
million years ago
100 million • Rich hydrocarbon deposits
years ago were left
Today behind.
• The plants had gradually
turned into coal.
Rocks provide fuel for energy
Coal was formed millions of years ago from dead plants, which decayed in
swamps, see F. For hundreds of years we have used coal for energy production. In
1750, the world's Industrial Revolution began in the UK, later spreading to the
USA, and other countries in Europe. These factories developed the use of steam­
powered machines to mass produce manufactured goods. The steam was
produced by burning coal in vast quantities.
Before 1700 coal was used locally in homes. Coal mines were small-scale, using
coal that was near the surface and easy to get at. As coal was needed in greater
quantities, coal mines got much deeper, and bigger, and new sources needed to
be discovered (see F). People began to realise the importance of understanding
the distribution of rocks and minerals, and a new type of science, geology,
developed. As coal was difficult and expensive to move, the new factories located
on coalfields. Towns and cities grew rapidly around the mines and factories to
house the workers, for example, Manchester and Swansea.
 Activities
1 Look carefully at Image A.
a) What work does a geologist do?
b) Why do geologists find out about the Earth's history?
2 Study B.
a) How old do geologists think the Earth is?
b) What is the geological timescale?
c) With a partner discuss and write a list of the key events in the
Earth's history. In each case, identify when they took place.
Justify your choices.
3 Explain what rocks are and the three rock categories.
4 Look carefully at images C, D and E, the photos of rock samples.
Your teacher might also have samples of these rocks.
a) For each rock, write a sentence to describe what it is like.
0 House gatepost in the UK b) T he photos show limestone, slate and granite. From the evidence
match the photos to the rock types. Justify your choices.
0 UK Coal production, 5 Copy and complete the table below to show how different
1700-1900 categories and types of rocks are used as natural resources.
Year Coal production
Millions of tonnes Category of rock Example of rock Use as a natural resource
1700 2.7
1750 4.7
6 a) What is weathering?
1800 10
b) Write a definition for each of the three types of weathering.
1850 50
c) For each type of weathering, draw your own annotated
1900 250
diagram to describe how it changes rock.
d) Think back to Lesson 2.1. How does weathering show how the
Force Garth Quarry, Earth's spheres are interconnected?
Teesdale 7 Look carefully at Photos G and H.
Rocks can be quarried at the a) Draw a fieldsketch of Photo G.
surface (see J). Here, whinstone, b) Annotate your sketch to show all the different ways rocks are
a hard igneous rock, is cut from used. For each rock, include which category of rock it is.
a cliff face to be used for road c) Wood is another natural resource, how is this used to build the
chippings and building material. house? Label this on your sketch.
d) T he gate post in Photo H shows evidence of weathering.
0 Whinstone quarry, Teesside
Explain what has happened to it and the type of weathering
that is likely to have changed it.
8 Study Image E and Table I.
a) Draw your own diagram to help explain how coal is formed.
b) What was the Industrial Revolution?
c) Draw a line graph using Table I.
d) How does your graph show how coal was important to the
Industrial Revolution in the UK?
9 Compare Photo J with Map-flap C Map 2.
a) Find the quarry on Map 2 next to the River Tees. Locate it
using a six-figure grid reference.
b) In which direction was the camera pointing?
c) Describe the quarry using your geographical enquiry questions.
10 Do you think rocks and minerals are renewable or non-renewable
natural resources? Justify your choice.
 2.4 Why are soils the root of life?

1 Without the soil I can't grow anything.

Learning objectives
► To know what soil is.
► To understand why soils are an important natural resource.
► To identify different views people have about using soil.
Soil is a thin layer on the Earth's surface between the lithosphere
and biosphere. It is a layer of minerals, water and organic matter
that forms from the weathered rock below, and decaying
vegetation above. Soil is very precious. Plants root in it, and
take up minerals and water to grow. In Lesson 2.1 you were
introduced to the four interconnected spheres that work together
to allow the Earth to function. Soil, you might be surprised to
learn, has a vital role to play in these processes. In this lesson you
will discover how and why soil is such a vital natural resource.
I must look after it if I am to successfully
grow crops and earn a living. It provides
minerals and water plants need to grow.
2 I'm interested in studying the
underlying rock that a soil forms
from, and how this rock affects the
type of soil that forms.
3 The nature of the soil has a big effect
on what happens to water falling onto it
as rain. Sandy soils are porou� so that
rain falling on them usually enters the soil
easily and quickly, because it has plenty of
pores to flow through. Clay soils can be
impermeable and not let rainwater into the

0 A soil profile
soil, so it has to flow across the surface,
which can lead to floods.

(j Soil layer descriptions

Humus

Topsoil , 1 This layer is 5-20 cm thick. It consists of organic

matter and minerals. This is the soil layer where
most plants and organisms live.

Subsoil
2 This layer is made up of a solid mass of
underlying rock.

Weathered
Q Earthworms burrowing 3This is a layer of organic matter that is about 2-3
rock through the soil cm thick and is made up of dead plant material,
such as leaves and twigs.

Bedrock 4 This layer contains rocks from the lowest layer,

weathered and broken into chunks. The upper soil
layers have developed from this.

A typical soil profile

There are many different types of soil. It is usually
1-3 metres deep. It can take between 100 and
1,000 years for just one centimetre of soil to build
up. If you dug down through any soil, however,
you would find the layers shown in Diagram A.
Soil is alive with organisms, like fungi, bacteria,
insects, earthworms (B) and burrowing animals,
that all have a role to play in developing the soil.
Scientists believe that there are probably more
5 This layer has minerals as well as organic matter,
which have been washed down by rainwater. It has
little humus. Tree roots reach down to this layer.
individual species living below ground than above
the surface. Worms, like those shown in Diagram B,
digest decaying leaves and clay; their waste puts
nutrients into the soil; the tunnels they dig help
the circulation of air and water through the soil.
e) Gillian Wright, civil engineer 0 David W ilson, farmer

Chemical fertiliser
manufacturer

Dr Liu, soil scientist

Joseph Mutingwa,
environmentalist

Katherine Jones,
geologist

4 We are a major company manufacturing chemical

fertilisers. These replace the nutrients that crops
remove from the soil. Without the addition of
fertilisers, crop yields would be significantly reduced.

7 Our soil research has shown that

5 I specialise in studying the ground
and soil on which a structure is built.
The amount of weight a soil can
support will help decide the types of
foundations a building will need.
6 It's important we better
understand soil and how it forms. I
study its colour, the minerals in it, its
texture and the different forms of life
that exist in it and the jobs they do.
widespread use of chemical fertiliser
damages soil. At flrst they lead to bumper
harvests, but the long-term effect has
damaged the soil which now has fewer
minerals. This leads to weaker plants,
which are more easily diseased.

Activities
1 What does soil mean to you? e) How is the bedrock layer weathered?
a) Make a list of six words related to soil. 3 Look carefully at images D-J and the
b) Compare your list with a partner. Are they numbered speech bubbles.
different? If so, how? a) Match the speech bubble points of view
c) Write a definition of soil. with the people in images D-J.
2 Look carefully at Diagram A showing a soil b) Justify your choice in each case.
profile. c) Two speech bubbles provide conflicting
a) What is a soil profile? views about the use of chemical fertilisers
b) Draw your own diagram of the profile, to grow crops. Explain why they disagree.
labelling the five layers. 4 Write a paragraph to explain why soil is a
c) The textboxes in Diagram C provide natural resource.
descriptions for each layer. Add each one 5 Answer the enquiry title question: 'Why is soil
to the correct layer in your diagram. the root of life?'
d) How do organisms like worms help 6 Do you think soil is a renewable or non­
develop the soil? renewable natural resource? Justify your choice.
 2.5 How does the biosphere provide
natural resources?

Learning objectives 0 The location of the world's tropical rainforests

► To know what a biome is.
► To understand how the Earth's
spheres interact to create
biomes.
► To understand how biomes
provide natural resources.
Equat

A biome is a large-scale
community of organisms
that has evolved from the
interaction of the Earth's
spheres. In this lesson you will
investigate a rainforest biome,
the most diverse and luxuriant
environment in the biosphere. e The layers of a rainforest
Atmosphere - almost daily heavy
You will discover what natural rainfall and high temperatures
resources it provides for people Hydrosphere - high throughout the year, which is ideal
to use. humidity in the air, heavy for continual rapid plant growth
rainfall, water on the
The rainforest vegetation, and rivers
Emergent Layer Isolated tall trees, that
biome rise above the canopy

The rainforest biome, see Map A,

contains 75 per cent of the
world's plants, and about 50 per Canopy Layer Consists of fully grown trees, which
cent of the animals. The largest grow long and straight and branchless to great
rainforest, the Amazon, is 5.5 heights, in competition to capture the sunlight
million km 2. The different
vegetation layers found in every
rainforest are shown in Photo B.
Plants and animals of the
biosphere have to adapt to the
conditions, coping with too
much water, the poor soils, and
lack of daylight on the forest
floor. The dense trees protect
the fragile soil from the rainfall. Under Canopy Layer Consists of
This is a system in harmony, small trees waiting their chance
with all of the Earth's spheres to shoot upwards into canopy

working together.

( Lithosphere - rainforests
tend to have poor soils, but Shrub Layer Consists of
the climate means that the ferns, shade loving plants
top humus layer is rich in and fungi, due to lack of light
minerals, due to the rapid
decay of vegetation on the
forest floor
Forest Floor Layer
Tropical rainforests in our daily lives
D o you think of tropical rainforests as faraway places
that have nothing to do with your daily life? T hink
again.You rely on forests n1.ore than you know.
Food
The world's most popular fruit, the banana, co1nes fro111
the rainforest as do avocado, cashews, Brazil nuts, spices
like vanilla, and st1gar, coffee, tea, and cocoa.
Medicine
Many of the Western 1nedicines that we use today are
derived fron1. plants found in tropical forests including
medications to treat or ct1re rheu1natis111, diabetes, 111uscle
tension, surgical co111plications, malaria, heart conditions,
skin diseases, arthritis, glaucoma and 1nany others.
e Leaves with drip tips in the wet environment.
These tips allow rainwater to run off the leaf
quickly before the plant is damaged
Trees roots are shallow, as most of the
nutrients are in the humus layer of the
soil. Trees develop with large buttress
roots above the surface to add support
Timber
Tropical forests grow son1.e of the 1nost beautiful and valuable
woods in the world, such as teak, mahogany, rosewood, balsa,
sandalwood, and countless lesser-known species.We use this
wood for furniture, doors and panelling. Other forest products
show t1p in your ho1ne and office, too. Tropical forest fibres
are fot1nd in rugs, 111attresses, ropes, strings, and fabrics.
Cosmetics
Tropical oils are key ingredients in cosn1.etics, soaps,
sha1npoos, perfumes, disinfectants and detergents.
Role in the Earth's system
Rainforest 1nake a vital contribution to the Earth's systems.
T he thick vegetation protects the soil fro1n the heavy rainfall.
T he dense forests absorb carbon dioxide fro1n the at111osphere.
Q Article from the Rainforest Alliance, 5 December
2017
Activities
1 What is a biome?
2 Look at Map A.
a) Locate the world's rainforests, by continent
and latitude and longitude.
b) Write a paragraph to describe the distribution
of the world's rainforests, using your answers
from a).
3 Study Photos 8-D.
a) Write five words to best describe your
feelings towards the rainforest scene.
b) Draw your own sketch of the rainforest
structure.
c) Annotate your sketch to show how the
Earth's spheres interact to create the biome.
d) Use your sketch to describe the vertical
structure of the rainforest.
e) Identify and explain the way that the
vegetation has adapted to the environment.
4 Read the Rainforest Alliance article, E.
a) Create a table to summarise all the natural
resources we get from rainforests.
b) Why is dense rainforest important for the
atmosphere?
5 Is the rainforest a non-renewable or
renewable source of natural resources?
 2.6 How does the hydrosphere provide
natural resources?
Learning objectives
► To understand how water is used as a natural
resource.
► To identify which water can be used and where it is
found.
► To appreciate the consequences of water insecurity.
Water is our most basic need. It accounts for
71 per cent of the Earth's surface. It exists in three
states: gas, liquid and solid. Water lubricates
the Earth's system, interconnecting its spheres.
It is continuously flowing between the ocean,
atmosphere and land, powered by the Sun,
through the water cycle. You may have studied
this at your primary school.
Until recently many people thought that water
was limitless. However, 97 per cent of the
Earth's water is saltwater and only 2.5 per cent
is freshwater. Of this freshwater, 79 per cent is
frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. Only 0.01
per cent of Earth's water is freshwater that is easily
accessible to us, in rivers and lakes, see B. About
2 billion people actually suffer water shortages.
0 How we use our water
The average person uses 150 litres of water and
this is how it is used:
•
•••• •
•••••
-· 2
toilet flush clothes washing personal washing personal washing
(showers)
...._.......::-
1ft
•
washing up outdoor dnnKing
...i_other
(Saltwater) All water
Ocean 97.5%
........- Freshwater
2.5%
Ice caps Freshwater
and glaciers 79%
Groundwater
20%
-- Water in Lakes
52%
Water in Soil---,---
Surface freshwater
38%
Water vapour Water in living
in atmosphere organisms
8% 1%
C) Where our planet's water is found
Water management in the UK
It was only from the late eighteenth century that
most people in the UK had access to piped water.
Today, over 50 million households receive good
quality water, sanitation and drainage services. These
services are provided by 32 water companies in
England and Wales. This water is cleaned, treated
and pumped from reservoirs, rivers and underground
supplies, to your tap. We take for granted what
seems like an endless supply of high-quality water,
')
for use in the home, industry, farming and the
generation of electricity. Our daily consumption of
water increases with the development of new
(baths & taps)
time-saving technologies, like dishwashers and
washing machines. Many of our homes now have
more than one toilet and bathroom.
Water is not evenly shared
There is a relationship between water availability
- supply - and its use - demand. In many parts of
the world water demand already exceeds supply.
This is called water scarcity. Fresh water is not
evenly spread around the world. In some places
there isn't enough water to meet people's needs.
This can be due to a number of factors such as
low rainfall, too many people, or overuse of the
existing water. Some places have enough water but can't access the 4:) A girl in Ethiopia collecting
water due to poverty. These people can't afford the technology to water
pump and pipe water from underground supplies. In many parts of
the world life is very different to ours, see C and D.

(9 Article from The Guardian online, 21 March 2018

More than 800 million people need to travel

30 minutes for safe water

E ight hundred nullion people need to travel and queue for at least
30 nunutes to access safe supplies. By far the worst affected country is
Eritrea, where only 19 per cent of the population have basic access to water.
It is followed by Papua New Gt1inea, Uganda, Ethiopia, the Den1.ocratic
Republic of the Congo and Somalia, all of which have rates of between
37 per cent and 40 per cent. Gender is also a key factor because won1.en and
girls bear the brt1nt of the burden of collecting water. The ti111e-const11ning I live in Ethiopia. Our village is near a
task of fetching the UN-reco1mnended SO-litres per day for a fan1.ily of four desert - we don't get much rain. Early
takes the equivalent of two and half months each year, the report says. every morning I take our camel to
Collecting water redt1ces tune in school and raises the risks of disease. Children collect water from wherever I can -And
are often the victims, with close to 289,000 dying each year fro111 diarrhoeal it. I spend eight hours each day -Anding
and collecting water.
illnesses related to poor sanitation, touching and drinking unsafe water.
Aysha, 13

Activities
1 Why is wutcr so importcint to us?
2 What is the water cycle?
3 Write a paragraph to explain how water
interconnects the lithosphere, biosphere and
atmosphere.
4 Look carefully at Diagram B. You have learnt
that 71 per cent of the world is covered in
water and yet only 0.01 per cent of the world's
water is easily accessible freshwater.
Use the diagram to help you write five
sentences to explain this fact.
5 a) Think about a typical day. Write a diary
including times, showing when and how
you use water.
b) Compare your diary with the uses shown in
Diagram A. List similarities and differences.
c) How does water get to your tap?
6 a) What is water scarcity?
b) List the reasons why, in many countries in the
world, water demand exceeds supply.
7 Look ccircfully cit D cind E.
a) Describe what life is like for girls like Aysha.
b) How much time a day is spent finding water?
c) How does this affect access to education for
girls in these countries?
8 Use an atlas or use the internet to research
water scarcity.
a) Which parts of the world have water scarcity?
b) Which parts of the world do not have water
scarcity?
c) Suggest three reasons for this distribution
pattern.
9 Do you think water is a renewable or non­
renewable natural resource? Justify your choice.
Stretch and challenge
Find out how much your family pays a year for water
and which water company supplies your home.
a) Go to the company's website and find out
what services your family receives for this cost.
b) Do you think the service is worth the cost?
 2.7 Why is the world so dependent on
oil resources?
Learning objectives
► To understand what oil is and
how it forms.
► To understand how oil is refined
in order to make different oil­
based products..
► To understand the varied uses of
oil in our daily lives.
Oil is used to fuel cars, ships and
planes, to generate electricity,
and to produce plastics and
fertilisers, even clothes, see
Diagram C. However, up until
the middle of the eighteenth
century people burnt whale oil
to produce artificial light with
lamps. This almost led to the
extinction of whales. In the
USA at this time it was noticed
that a black substance seeping
from rocks had a slow-burning
quality. People began to use this
in lamps, calling it kerosene or
coal oil. The invention of the
car and the electric light bulb
helped transform us into an oil­
dependent world.
Small marine
organisms
�
Ocean
Ocean
How petroleum and natural
gas were formed
• Tiny sea plants and animals
died and were buried on the
ocean floor
• Over a long period of time,
they were covered by layers of
Sediment and sediment and rock
rock • Over millions of years the
enormous heat and pressure
lrnperrneab1e rock from the layers pressing down
··v ... · .· .
• • _ p-orous· � on them turned them into oil
• .sed·
. 1· rrreritt1r . . • and gas
· • ' � ' • · y !Ocl( ·
Organisms turn into
300 to 400
oil and natural gas
million years ago
50 to 100
m1illion years ago
Today
0 How petroleum and natural gas are formed
What is oil and how is it formed?
Oil and coal are fossil fuels. They are called this because they are
formed from the fossils of plants and sea creatures, see Diagram A.
Geologists search the planet to find traps of oil and gas to drill into
and bring to the surface. While just about every country in the
world depends on oil, not all countries produce it, as the deposits
are unevenly spread globally. In future units of Progress in
Geography you will investigate countries that produce oil.
Oil refineries
Crude oil is the term used to
describe the oil extracted from
the ground. Once brought to
the surface, it is transported by
ship or pipeline to an oil refinery
(see Photo B). Here the crude oil
is processed and separated into
refined oil and other raw
materials, shown in Diagram C.
Petrochemical factories also
tend to locate next to the
refinery to make oil-based
products. There are six operating
oil refineries in the UK, all
located on the coast. Teesside,
shown in Photo B, stopped
refining in 2009, due to a drop in
world oil prices. Today, it is still
used as an oil and gas depot.
0 Teesside oil refinery
 What can just one barrel of oil produce? Activities
Wax for 170 birthday candles
1 What are crude oil and natural
or 27 crayons gas?
2 Look carefully at Diagram A.
Use it to help you draw your
own annotated diagram to
show how oil and gas are
Distillate fuel to keep a large Enough petrol to keep a medium-sized car formed and extracted from
truck going for nearly 40 miles going for more than 280 miles underground.
3 Look carefully at Diagram C.
a) Write a list to show the
Four pounds of charcoal briquettes
different products we use oil
for.
b) Use this list to identify all the
ways you personally use oil.
Two pints of motor oil Almost 70 kilowatt-hours of Liquefied gases to fill 12 4 Compare Photo B with Map­
electricity at a power plant small cylinders which can be
that is generated by residual fuel used for camping flap C Map 3.
Asphalt to make about one a) Identify, name, and give the
gallon of tar for streets or roofs six-figure grid reference for
features 1-6 on B.
b) In which direction was the
camera pointing?
c) Use the map and photo to
describe the oil refinery.
d) Why are UK oil refineries
located on the coast7 (LJse
evidence from the OS map
to help you.)
e) Using the enquiry questions,
What can be made from the petrochemicals that are left? describe what an oil refinery
is like and what happens
39 polyester shirts 540 toothbrushes there.
f) Why are petrochemical
195 one cup works often located next to
measuring cups
the refinery?
750 pocket
combs I 65 plastic
135 rubber 000 dustpans
balls 000
65 plastic 000
drinking cups
23 hula hoops 11 plastic telephone housings

(g The products that can be made from one barrel of oil

 2.8 What natural resources can be used
to generate electricity?

Learning objectives
► To identify sources of generating
electricity.
► To classify these sources into renewable
and non-renewable groups.
► To evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of each source.
Heat, light and cooking all require energy. At the flick of
a switch we can have instant energy in our homes and at
school and work. Electricity plays a huge part in our everyday
lives. Diagram A shows how this energy is produced, and
supplied to our homes. Many different natural resources can
be used to generate electricity (Photos B-1, and text J). Each
resource has
l both advantages and disadvantages in their use.
Governments need to make decisions about which methods
to use for energy, now and in the future.

••
• .... n,••• ,... •••• ....�

0 The National Grid carries electricity from power stations to customers

0 Natural resources that
can generate electricity
( Solar power is the conversion of
the Sun's energy into electricity.
This method is ideal in hot,
cloudless conditions, but less
effective in areas that have a lot of
cloudy days or are located at high
latitudes, which effects the angle
of the Sun. Locations at mid­
latitudes are more suitable.
Wind power is becoming
more and more common. The
wind turns the large turbine
blades to generate electricity.
The turbines need to be located
in areas with regular strong
winds. This method will
obviously only generate
electricity when there is wind,
Nuclear reaction releases
energy. Atoms of the mineral
uranium are split creating heat
energy, which turns water to
steam and drives huge turbines
to create electricity. This is
expensive to build and there are
risks of radioactive leaks.
Fossil fuels such as natural gas,
coal and oil are all used to
produce electricity on a large
scale. They can generate huge
amounts of electricity in just a
single location. They are efficient
and have been cheap. They can
keep generating all the time. The
process involves burning the fuel
to produce steam that drives the
turbines. This unfortunately
pollutes the atmosphere. The
Geothermal energy uses heat
produced continuously inside
the Earth's crust. Hot rocks
present below the Earth's surface
heat up the water that produces
steam. The steam is then
captured to turn the turbines.
There are limited locations
where this is possible. These
power stations are expensive to
build and maintain and these
sorts of locations are prone to
volcanoes and earthquakes.
Tidal energy uses the rise and
fall of tides to convert incoming
and outgoing tides into electrical
energy. Barrages have to be built
across coastal estuaries and this
can be expensive, disruptive for
shipping and damaging to the

l
so it is inconsistent. Wind farms
are expensive to build and they
have a negative visual impact
on the landscape.
fossil fuel reserves are also environment. There are also
running out, and are expected to limited coastal locations with a
last only another 100 years, given wide enough tidal range.
our current rate of consumption.

Biomass burns plants, trees

Hydroelectric power uses fast-flowing water to turn generators to and organic matter to heat
produce electricity. A reliable supply of fast-flowing water is needed. This steam to drive turbines. This
may be near a waterfall. The dams are expensive to build and can lead to method releases a lot of carbon
the flooding of farmland. There is a limited choice of locations with the dioxide, a greenhouse gas, into
necessary requirements. This method produces very little pollution. the atmosphere.

Activities
1 Write a list of all the different ways you have used electricity so far today.
2 Look carefully at Diagram A.
Write a paragraph to explain how electricity gets from the power station to your
home.
3 Compare Photos 8-1 with the descriptions in J.
a) Match the photos to the descriptions for eight natural resources that can be
used to generate electricity.
b) Copy and complete the table below to compare each natural resource. The
first method, shown in Photo C, has been done for you.
Photo jNatur�I Renewable Earth's Advantages . Disadvantages.
,resource or non­ sphere
renewable
C Uranium, Non- Lithosphere Efficient, can produce Radioactive leaks
nuclear renewable electricity on a large Expensive to build
scale and continuously

c) Work with a partner to consider and discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of renewable and non-renewable energy sources in your table.
d) Imagine you are a government adviser. Formulate a recommendation for the
UK's future electrical energy generation.
 2.9 How can we use natural resources
sustainably?

Learning objectives Sustainability is an important concept for geographers. They use

► To understand the idea of
sustainability.
► To consider the UK
Government's energy policy.
► To identify a global challenge to
the Earth's future.
the term to investigate how natural and human systems work, and
to understand how resources can be managed in such a way that
they will be available in the future. As you have discovered, non­
renewable resources, such as oil, are being used up very quickly,
see A. In this lesson you will consider the challenges the world
faces because of this, and what actions can be taken to create
energy sustainability. Your understanding of this concept will be
progressed in future units of Progress in Geography.

Middle Asia and North South

Eurasia Africa East Europe Oceania America America

0 Production remaining on global oil reserves

How can we use resources sustainably?

Sustainability encourages us to think more carefully about different types of natural
resources, the ways in which they are formed, and the speed at which they are being
used. For example, we could slow down the rate we use non-renewable resources,
or consider ways of recycling them, rather than just throwing them away once used.
Actions to improve sustainability can operate at a number of levels.
• Local - by individuals, schools and communities, for example recycling resources
as part of waste disposal or savi1ng energy by using low-energy lightbulbs.
• National - the UK Government has begun to encourage sustainable use of energy
by offering incentives to companies and people to use renewable energy sources.
• International - organisations like the United Nations are working with countries
to encourage them to work together to tackle global issues. You will investigate
actions at this scale in future units.
 How do we ensure our green and pleasant land is protected both to respect the efforts of
generations past and as a responsibility to generations to come? Investment in renewables
has increased by 42 per cent since 2010. In 2014, 30 per cent of all of Europe's renewable
energy investment took place in the UK. We remain committed to new nuclear power in the
UK - to provide clean, secure energy, preparing for a -Aeet of new nuclear stations. And we
made a commitment to closing inefficient coal--Ared power stations.

C) Home Secretary, Amber Rudd's, speech outlining the government's

energy policy, 29 June 2016
T he National Grid is responsible for transporting NG Control Room NGContrOIRoem n7
, 1111.1 solar btOmass h� aro, tlfealung anotner reCOfO .i• 1 pm
gas and electricity from where it is produced to IOcla\l pr0Vk11ng 18 7 GW (50 7% o· oeman<11

where it is consumed. T his involves overhead

lines, underground cables and substations. Every NG Control RoomO GControlRoom Jun 7 V

For tlie 'irst tll"'e ever thts lunch� v,lrld nuclear anO solar were• generating
day, on the National Grid control room Twitter NG Control RoomO iiiiiiii fTIOfe Ulan both gas ana coal combined
feed, they publish the energy balance between
renewable and non-renewable sources. On 7 NG control Room GContrOlRoom J n 7 v
GS rn>nf'f onn r-t.c 11 2 OOpm \',Ind 24 21. nuclear 23 2% g.,s 20 7% solar
June 2017, they announced a historical event, 20 0% irnportS 7 6% t>tomass 4 7% $!Ofage 1 0%

never before achieved in the UK. t.'l

�-••---- I
Challenges to the planet
T he human relationship with our planet is e National Grid Twitter feed, 7 June 2017

constantly evolving. In Lesson 1.2 (pages 4-5)

you investigated how we got to know our planet.
We have now developed new ways to locate,
extract, transport and use natural resources, all at
a much larger scale. Today we have the same
needs as our ancestors, but there are far more of
us - the world's population has doubled in the
last 50 years - and we also want more than we
need. As a result, some of our actions are
threatening the harmony of the Earth's systems,
using natural resources too quickly.
NOIPAL
Rmeud!S

(:) Cartoon on the world's natural resources

Activities
1 Write a definition of sustainability.
2 Look carefully at Diagram A.
a) Create a table to show the distribution of the
world's oil reserves. For each location, show
the size of the remaining oil reserve and
how many years production it has left.
b) Explain what major world issue is shown in A.
3 How does sustainability help us think about the
way we use natural resources?
4 What actions do you and your family take at a
local level to use resources sustainably?
5 Read Speech B.
Explain how the UK Government is acting to
improve sustainability.
6 Look carefully at C.
a) What is the National Grid?
b) What historically important information did
they publish on their Twitter feed in 2017?
c) Draw a pie chart to show the energy
generation mix on that day.
d) Visit their Twitter feed and find out the energy
mix for today. Is it similar or different?
7 How are people challenging the sustainability of
the Earth's system and spheres?
8 Look carefully at Image D.
a) What do you think '7 billion' refers to?
b) What point of view is being made by the
cartoonist?
 2.10 How do we use our planet as
a natural resource? Review

In this unit, you have learnt:

► the different elements that make up our planet and how they
interact
► how rocks and soils form and their importance to life
► what a biome is and how the rainforest biome works
► how people use the Earth's natural resources such as water, oil,
food and energy supplies
► the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources.
Let's see what you have remembered and understood!

0
Most
important

Least
important
 2 Is Earth running out of natural resources?

Activities
1 Natural resources satisfy our needs and wants. Think back through your
investigation of natural resources in this unit.
a) Identify nine natural resources that allow you to survive and have a good quality
of life. Write each on a piece of card.
b) Now arrange these cards as a diamond nine by placing them in the spaces
provided on Diagram A. Place the most important natural resource at the top
and the least at the bottom.
c) Discuss and compare your choices with a partner.
d) Write a paragraph to explain and justify your choices.
2 Describe how you would feel if your most important natural resource was to
become used up or unavailable.
3 Draw your own rough copy of Diagram B.
a) Think about what you have learnt about the Earth's spheres and how they
are interconnected and interact to create a planet in harmony.
b) Annotate your diagram to summarise what you have learnt about these
interactions.
4 The cover of this textbook has been created by a graphic designer.
a) What image does it present of the planet?
b) What evidence of the Earth's spheres and natural resources can you identify?
5 Now imagine you are a graphic designer. You have been employed by the
United Nations to produce a poster to explain how the Earth's system works.
Use your rough diagram from Question 3 as a starting point to design your
poster.

Future learning
Atmosphere In the next unit you will
(air) progress your understanding
by investigating how people
use natural resources in the
economy.
You will investigate how natural
resources are used and how
people's actions are affecting the
planet throughout Progress in
Biosphere Geography.

, ('

Lithosphere Hydrosphere �

(earth) (water)
 Every day, millions of people set off to work
In this unit, you will learn: throughout the UK. From office workers and nurses
► about economic activities and what they to engineers and computer programmers, everyone
are like at different scales, from local to who is working is contributing to the economy.
global The economy means the range of human activities
concerned with the production, distribution and
► the ways in which jobs can be arranged
consumption of goods and services. People are
into groups or sectors paid wages for their labour; they use this money in
► the range of jobs people do and how jobs their everyday life, to buy things and services made
have changed over time or provided by other people.
► what trade is and how it has become global The economy operates at different scales, from
► how the UK economy has developed and your household budget, the budget for a factory
how our links with the world have grown. or individual farm, a city, a region, a country or
globally. In this unit you will investigate how the
economy operates at these different scales.
What are employment sectors?
The economy of a country includes all the different
types of jobs that people in a country do. A range
of different jobs is shown in photos A-N. They can
be grouped into four job or employment sectors:
• Primary sector: raw materials (natural resources)
are extracted from the land and sea. The jobs in
this sector include farmers, miners, those who
work in the fishing industry, forestry workers.
• Secondary sector: making things
(manufacturing) from the raw materials. Jobs
include factory workers, steelworkers, builders
of houses, roads and railways.
• Tertiary sector: providing a service to others.
Jobs include teachers, doctors, refuse
collectors, shop assistants.
• Quaternary sector: involves research and
development. In this sector people have high­
level expertise and skills such as developing new
technology, or new types of medical treatments,
or financial management support and advice.
 Activities
1 Write definitions of the key terms (in blue in the
text) to do with the economy.
2 Study the photographs A-N, which show
different types of jobs.
a) Draw a four-column table, like this:
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

b) Complete the table by classifying the jobs

shown in each photo into the relevant
sector of the economy, write the letter of
the photo and name the job in each case.
c) Draw another table using the same headings.
d) Write in the correct column the statements
below:
uses natural resources; works in a factory;
keeps a herd of dairy cattle; sells or transports
goods; offers financial advice; works on an
oil rig in the North Sea; makes a product;
provides a service; works in a shop or office;
runs a hotel; digs rock from the ground to
use in building; taps rubber from trees; works
Where are these different in advertising; developer of new technology.
types of jobs located? 3 Look at the front cover of this textbook.
Primary jobs are found where the natural resources List the different types of jobs shown on the
are located, so a coal mine, where there are seams cover image of the world.
of coal, a farm where the land, soil and climate is 4 Conduct a survey in your class to find out the
suited to growing a crop. Secondary jobs are jobs done by your families.
located in various places, often depending on where a) Write a list of family jobs for the whole class.
the raw materials for the product being made are b) Sort the list into the four sectors, in another
located. Tertiary jobs are often in towns and cities, copy of the table.
where many people live who need services. c) Draw a bar chart to show the numbers of
family members involved in each sector.
The UK's economic structure 5 Where are jobs in primary and tertiary sectors
A country's employment structure describes how located?
jobs are divided between these four sectors. T he 6 Study Table 0.
employment structure of a country can change a) Draw a line graph to plot the data for each
over time. Table O shows the percentages of sector of the UK economy for each year.
workers in each sector from 1791 to 2011. Draw the line graph for each sector on the
same axes, but use a different colour to
G) Economic sectors in the UK from 1791 to 2011 show change in each sector.
1791 1841 1891 1991 2011
Make sure your graph has a title and a key to
show what each coloured line represents.
Primary 75% 22% 15% 3% 1%
b) Write a paragraph to describe how the
Secondary 15% 51% 55% 28% 18%
percentage share of each sector changed
Tertiary 10% 27% 30% 54% 57% between 1791 and 2011.
Quaternary 0 0 0 15% 24%
 3.2 What's happening down on the farm?
Learning objectives
► To understand what a farm is.
► To understand a farm as an
economic system.
Hi, I'm Eddie Andrew from Cliffe House
farm near Sheffield. My grandfather,
Hector Andrew, decided to set up a
dairy farm. My father and I have learnt
about this type of farming and carried
it on. My grandfather wanted the
business to be a success so he chose
what to farm very carefully. The farm
is near Sheffield, with good road links,
and so there is a good local market
for fresh milk. We began with ten cows,
but now there are over 100 cows on
the family farm and we have used a
long-term bank loan against the land
we own to build a new £500,000
milking processing dairy.
() Meet Eddie Andrew from
Cliffe House Farm
To successfully grow crops like wheat, barley
and potatoes you need -Aat land, with deep
fertile soils, a warm climate, and not too much
rainfall. You need plenty of sunshine as the
crops ripen. East Anglia is the best area of the
UK - here you can nnd all of these conditions.
8 Jeff Wilson from Clevton
Farm, Norfolk
A farm is an area of land and its buildings where crops are grown
and/or livestock are kept. There are several different types of farm:
• arable farms where crops are grown, e.g. wheat and barley
• pastoral farms where animals are raised, e.g. cattle and/or sheep
• mixed farms where crops are grown and animals are kept
• market gardens where fruits, vegetables and flowers are grown.
Farming is in the primary sector of the economy. A farm is usually
run as a business. It is organised to make a profit from what it sells,
so the farmer can earn a living; this is called commercial farming.
Where a farmer is only growing enough to feed their family, this is
called subsistence farming. A farmer must know all about their land,
the soil, slopes, drainage, climate and the types of crops they can
grow or animals to rear, if they are to get the best from all these
elements to make a profit. In this lesson you will investigate how
a farm works as a successful economic system, looking at three
farmers (see A-C).
Dairy farming is a good choice for Up in the hills and mountains of the
where our farm is located. The farm is UK, soils are too thin and slopes
quite small and the land is too steep too steep for growing crops. Sheep
to grow arable crops. The surrounding are ideal here as they can roam on
hills provide shelter from winds. The the hills in summer, grazing on
soil is hard to plough but the rainfall short grass and heather. Sheep are
is reliable and the soil is ideal for tough and can survive the poor
growing grass. The cows eat this weather. We sell wool and lamb at
good quality grass, which helps them the nearby market town.
to produce such good milk.
0 Gillian Brown from Hill Top
Farm, North Wales
The importance of farming to Activities
the UK economy 1 Write a definition for the term 'farm·.
Farmland accounts for over 70 per cent of the 2 Explain why a farm is classified as a primary
UK's land area, but less than 1 per cent of jobs in industry.
the UK. As you discovered in the last lesson, the
3 Write a short definition for each of the
importance of the primary sector for jobs has
following:
changed in the UK. In 1791, the majority of people
• an arable farm • a mixed farm
worked in the primary sector. Farms required lots
• a pastoral farm • a market garden.
of workers, particularly at harvest time as crops
were cut and stored by hand. Since then there
4 Read the farmers' explanations, A-C, about
how they farm.
have been many inventions and changes. As you
can see in Photo B, farmers use big machines a) Copy and complete the following table:
today, and need fewer farm workers.
A
A farm as an economic system b) Why do you think it is important that the
A commercial farm operates as a system, as farmer makes the right decision about how
shown in Diagram D. A system describes the way to farm the land?
in which something is carried out. Each system is 5 Why have the numbers of people employed in
made up of: farming declined in the UK since 1791?
• inputs: physical, human and economic inputs 6 Study the Hellvellyn OS 1:50 000 map on
which enable the system to work Map-flap B.
• processes: the activities that take place to a) Locate Stybeck farm at grid reference 338 188.
produce the outputs b) Look for clues on the map to help you
• outputs: the end results of the inputs and decide which type of farm it is likely to be.
processes, which can be sold 7 Study the Mappleton OS map on Map-flap E.
• feedback: the elements that can be put back a) Locate Mill Farm to the south-west of
into the process for it to continue and improve. Mappleton village using a six-figure grid
reference.
The inputs, processes and outputs for a farm are b) Look for clues on the map to help you
shown in Diagram D. If a farmer makes more decide which type of farm it is.
money from the outputs than have been spent on
8 Look carefully at Diagram D.
the inputs, he or she will make a profit, but if they
a) Write definitions of the three components
don't, he or she will make a loss.
of this system.
lnp uts
...._____ _ _ ___
_,H Processes
H.___ o utputs
_ _ _ _ _____.
b) How does a farm make a profit?
Physical inputs Processes Outputs c) Draw your own version of Diagram D and
• Shape of the land (Relief) • Milking Positive outputs complete it to create an economic systems
• Soils • Grazing • Crops
• Climate • Dipping • Cereals, e.g. wheat, barley diagram for Cliffe House Farm using the
• Drainage • Shearing • Fruits
• Ploughing • Vegetables information in A.
__.. • Harvesting • Milk
•Weeding • Eggs 9 Think back to what you learnt about natural
• Spray ing and pest •Wool
control Negative outputs resources in Unit 2.
• Fertilising • Soil erosion
• Pollution from fertilisers a) Draw a table like the one below:
Human and economic inputs
• Farm buildings t I
and pesticides

Profit or loss I
• Machinery, e.g. tractors, harvesters
• Transport
• Markets
• Fertilisers Natural
• New seeds resources
• Pesticides Feedback
• Money Farm profits, manure, animal b) List the natural resources used in each of
• Government subsidies feed, animals born
these types of primary sector jobs.
G) The farm as an economy system
 3.3 Why is manufacturing all about
choosing the right site?
The manufacturing industry operates as a system, just like the farm that
Learning objectives you looked at last lesson. In order to make profits, industrialists (who
► To know the location factors run these industries) need to keep the costs of inputs and processes as
for a factory. low as possible. They can then create a product or output which can be
► To make decisions about sold at a price customers can afford and which can still make a profit.
locating a factory. One of the main decisions a new industrialist needs to make is where
to locate their factory. If a factory is poorly located it can lead to the
business making a loss. Article A provides advice for companies on
how to correctly locate their factories. You will use this advice to
make a decision about the best location for a new factory in the UK.

0 Business strategy guidance Q Location scoring system developed by business research

leaflet consultants
Location feature Scoring
'

Labour - travel time from factory to city of

100,000 people for potential workforce

- 30 minutes
30 minutes to 1 hour
3
2
More than an hour 0
Raw materials
Business research consultants
Some companies choose particular locations for Available on site 4
new factories, for all the wrong reasons. The location 1 hour or less from site
- 3
is the most critical long-term decision in establishing More than 1 hour from factory 0
a profitable works. But a casual, even off-handed Transport - access to motorway
approach to picking a future location can be a big
30 minutes or less from factory 2
mistake. To help companies we have developed a
scoring system (B), to help when choosing a new
site. Companies must consider five factors: we call
- 30 minutes to 1 hour from factory
More than 1 hour from factory 0
1

them the five Cs. Market

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 million people within 1 hour 7

1 Cost: included are the costs of buying - 500,000 people within 1 hour 5

or leasing land, office equipment, Power - equally available at every site

communications, wages, training, taxes and IT
infrastructure [systems]. Activities
2 Capacity of the workforce: availability of local
labour with the right skill set for the needs of
1 Look carefully at A.
a) Which sector of the economy do the
the type of industry.
business research consultants work in?
3 Capability of the region: ideally the raw
materials for the industry can be found here. b) Read the guidance and then write a list of the
main location factors a company needs to
Also, there are good and reliable road and rail
networks in the region for transporting in raw consider.
materials, and taking out the finished product. 2 Look carefully at B.

4 Culture of the region: ability of the location

to attract talented workforce; government
policies support the development of the
industry; and quality of life of the region,
including standard of living, schools.
a) Match the five Cs referred to in Article A with
the five scoring categories identified in the
scoring matrix, B.
b) Explain the importance and weighting of the
scoring system.

5 Customers: to be close to the markets for the

product is essential.
c) Which factors do the authors of the guidance
think are most important? Explain their choices.
 Key
0-C) Possible factory sites
• A road
- Motorway
D Raw materials

Busytown
Population
700,000

1 Hour

Emerald City
Population
1. 75 million
0 50 km

e Possible locations for a new factory site

Decision making activity d) The map provides five possible sites. Draw your
own copy of the following table:
Decision making is a very important part of being a
geographer. This is the first time you have been Site Labour Raw Transport Market Total
materials score
required to do this in Progress in Geography; you will
have further opportunities throughout the textbook. A

a) Work in a small group. Begin by looking at Map C; B

it shows a region where some industrialists are
considering locating a factory. They are working
with the business consultancy who have created
a location scoring system, B, to help them make
a decision. The points that would save the most
money are given the highest scores.
b) Discuss this points system in your group, and write
a rank order list of the most important factors.
c) Explain why you think these are the most
important factors.
C
D
E
e) Discuss the advantages and disadvantage of each
site and fill in the table.
f) Provide scores for each site in your table using the
scoring system, B.
g) Agree which site you think is best for the location
of the new factory. Justify your choice.
 3.4
Learning objectives
► To apply the location factors for
an industry.
► To understand how manufacturing
in the UK has changed.
► To investigate a location using an
OS map and an aerial photograph.
Why did Nissan locate in the UK?
•
Look back at Table O in Lesson 3.1, page 43. 60 ,e
1'•·
Manufacturing in the UK has declined, with
growth in tertiary and quaternary sectors. There
are a number of reasons for this, including:
• new technologies such as robots replacing 59
people in modern industry
• competition from other countries such as
China, which ,can produce goods cheaper
as labour is less expensive (you will find out
more about this in Lesson 3.8).

0 Nissan's location requirements,

Many industries that were once important in the
UK, such as iron and steel, shipbuilding and cloth­
article from Nissan News 57
and textile-making, have all but disappeared. This
has led to high levels of unemployment
Location requirements in areas of the UK where such industries
were once located. The government has
We needed: attempted to attract new foreign 56
A skilled workforce - this area had a long industries by offering them incentives to
tradition in 111anufactt1ring. The decline in the locate in these areas. Sunderland in the
traditional indt1stries meant the skilled labour was North-East is an example of such an
readily available. area. In 1984, the Japanese car
30 31
Good communications - Sunderla11d has good company Nissan decided to locate its
road and rail links with all major UI{ cities. We first European factory near Sunderland.
built a terminal at Tyne port, five miles fron1 the
factory. This allows us to transport cars to Europe,
as well as bring in parts to assen1ble the cars in the
factory (see Diagran1 D).
UK Government support - we were given
grants and other financial incentives of£40 nmlion
to 111ove here to provide job opportunities.
Large flat plot of land with room to expand -
we located at the western edge of Sunderland, on a
300-hectare disused airfield. As we have developed
we made the factory bigger, built a car test track, and
a wind far111 with ten wind tt1rbi11es that provide
10 per cent of our power 11eeds.
In 1986, Nissan Motor Manufactt1ring UI{

0
en1ployed slightly less than 500 people and in its
first year built 5,000 cars. Thirty years on from
that day, there are 7,000 e111ployees producing
111ore than 500,000 vehicles a year. The plant has
produced over 9 million cars since it opened, and
now prodt1ces 10,000 cars a week. Nissan has
invested over £3. 7 billion in the factory.
C) Kevin Fitzpatrick, employed at Nissan
since the plant opened in 1986, now
Vice President of the plant
Aerial photograph of the site of the Nissan factory
in Sunderland
Nissan came here when we were at rock bottom. The mining
and ship building industries had died. It was pretty brutal
what happened here. It was desperate back in 1986; there
were no jobs and no real future. Without Nissan, the
North-East would've been a disaster, a ghost town. The
company's meant everything for me and my family. It was
hard to get a job back in 1986, so I jumped at the chance.
 Parson's Rocks

e, 0
G Roker Rocks

�u
•
Osou

Denso (Japan):
compressor from
German factory;
crank sensor from

�--�
Japanese factory

32 33 34 35
Bridgestone (Japan): ZF Friedrichshafen (Germany): Sogefi (Italy): suspension
C) 1: 50 000 OS map of Sunderland tyres from Polish and
Spanish factories
shock absorbers, electric park
brakes, airbags, camera systems,
coil springs - front from
UK factory; rear from
steering wheels from factories all Spanish factory
over the world
The origin of Nissan car
Origins of parts used in cars built in the UK
parts assembled in the UK UK 41 % Rest of the world 59%

Destination of production from Nissan's Sunderland plant

Activities UK 20% EU 55% Rest of the world 25%

1 Why were there high levels of unemployment
in the Sunderland area in the 1980s?
2 What did the UK government do to create new
jobs?
3 Who are Nissan?
4 Study the Nissan Article, A.
List the location factors that attracted Nissan
to Sunderland.
5 Look carefully at Map B and Photo C.
a) Give the six-figure grid references for the
following:
i) the car works
ii) Docks
iii) the car test track.
b) Compare the aerial photo, C, with OS map, B.
i) In which direction was the camera
pointing to take the photo?
ii) Name features 1-4 on the photo.
c) Draw a sketch map of OS Map B.
i) Label the location of: the car works, the
docks, A class roads, Sunderland.
ii) Annotate on your sketch the locational
advantages of the factory, using A as a
reference.
6 Study Diagram D.
a) On an outline map of the world, locate
Sunderland and all the countries that the car
plant is connected to. Draw arrows to join
them all to Sunderland.
b) Explain how the car plant is connected to all
these locations.
7 Study A and E.
Describe how successful you think Nissan in
Sunderland has been from three viewpoints:
Nissan, the UK government, the local workforce.
 3.5 Why is the tertiary sector increasing?

Learning objectives Why has tourism grown?

► Understand why the tertiary sector of the UK Tourism began to develop in the UK from about
. .
economy 1s growing. 1850. Seaside resorts, such as Scarborough and
► Understand how tourism creates tertiary jobs. Blackpool, grew rapidly with people visiting from
► Understand how tourism has changed. nearby expanding towns and cities during the
Industrial Revolution. This happened for two
reasons. Firstly, the development of railways
provided rapid and cheap transport for lots of
The graph you drew in Lesson 3.1 (page 43),
people. Secondly, the introduction of paid
shows that from the mid-twentieth century the
holidays meant workers could afford a week's
UK secondary sector declined as manufacturing
holiday away from home. Holidays abroad rarely
changed. At the same time, more people had
happened. Today most people have more leisure
become wealthy, as wages had increased. This
time and paid holidays. At the same time there
meant people had more disposable income - as
have been major advances in transport with mass
well as buying the essentials such as food, shelter
ownership of cars, and the development of
and heating, they could now spend on non­
cheap, and faster air travel. It is now the norm for
essential items and services, such as healthcare,
people from the UK to holiday abroad. The UK,
shopping, entertainment and holidays. This
however, is also a major holiday destination for
created new jobs, in a rapidly developing tertiary
people from other countries, and tourism is an
sector. In countries like the UK, the tertiary sector
important source of income for the economy.
is now the largest part of the economy.
In this lesson you will focus on jobs that are linked Q Article from The Guardian online,
to tourism. This is the world's fastest growing 26 December 2017
economic activity. One in every ten jobs in the
world are now linked to tourism. Diagram A shows UK braced for record number of
the effect of tourism on other jobs in the economy.
tourists in 2018
Overseas visits to the UK are set to pass 40 1T1illion for
the first time in 2018, according toVisitBritain, which
is predicting tot1rists will spe11d a record £27bn over
the con1ing 12 months. The 11ational touris111 agency
said 201 7 was a record year for inbound tourism to
the UI{ - with 39.9 11iillion visits. Next year, it is
predicting that will reach 41.7 million - a 4.4 per cent
rise on this year, n1eaning hotels a11d restaurants in
popular destinations such as Lo11don, Bath, Edinburgh
Travellers make direct payments for: and Cambridge can expect a record year. Travellers
airlines, coaches, rental cars, trains, cruise lines, travel agents, hotels, convention centres,
restaurants, shopping centres, sports arenas, entertainment, theatre, recreation, etc. predonunately from Europe, the US and China have
been arriving in ever-increasing nt1111bers to bt1y
luxt1ry designer brands for lower prices tha11 they can
get at hon1e. Meanwhile, other destinations linked to
popular books, fil111s a11d TV programn1es are expected
These lndusbleJ are supplled by:
outside goods and services, such as marketing and PR, deaning and maintenance, energy
to contint1e to pull in the crowds. They inclt1de the
providers, catering and food production, design and print, etc. Norther11 Irela11d locations used in Game of Thrones.
Duri11g 2017 events linked to the 20th anniversary of
0 World Travel and Tourism Council - the effect the first Harry Potter book and the 200th anniversary
of tourist spending on jobs of the death of Jane Austen proved popular.
(j Great Yorkshire Radio news, 2016 More visitors means greater spend and
that's fantastic news for our area, especially
Scarborough 2016 Bumper tourism figures announced when it comes to employment. The money
Tourism statistics released this week show that the tourists have spent is estimated to have
Borough of Scarborough remained one of the most supported 17,827 jobs, that's 43 per cent of
popular places in the country to visit in 2016, with an the total jobs in the Scarborough Borough.
overall increase in tourism spending; great news for the
local economy. Visit England looked at trips made to 4:) Councillor Derek Bastiman,
English towns and cities over a three-year period from Leader of Scarborough Council
2013 to 2015. The -Agures are based on the Borough of
Scarborough, including Filey, Whitby and parts of the
North York Moors National Park. The area had on average
Activities
1.4 million trips per year over the period. This contrasted 1 Look back at the table on page 42 in Lesson
with 3.7 million visits to London, and 594,000 to 3.1 showing how the employment structure of
Skegness. Blackpool was third on Visit England's Great
the UK has changed.
Britain Tourism Survey list, with 1.1 million trips per year.
a} What types of jobs are in the tertiary sector?
@ ABTA Annual research of UK tourists' b} Write four sentences to explain why this
holiday habits, 2017 sector has grown.
A trip to the lakes and 2 How has tourism changed and developed
A city break - 53% mountains - 9% since 1850?
3 Look carefully at Diagram A. Write a paragraph
to explain how tourism leads to the creation
of jobs in the tertiary sector.
4 Read Article B. Identify reasons why the UK is a
popular destination for international tourists.
Renting a private 5 Read C and D.
A beach holiday - 41%
home - 9% a) What evidence is there that Scarborough is
a popular an=�a for tourism?
b) How has tourism led to the development of
jobs in the tertiary sector of Scarborough?
6 Look back at Map A and Photo B from Lesson
1.10, the OS map and photo of Scarborough
A countryside break An activity holiday - (pages 20-21).
-25% 7% a) Draw a two-column table with the
headings: Tourist attraction; Six-figure grid
reference.
b) Identify and add five attractions shown on
the map to your table.
7 Diagram E is produced by ABTA, the largest
An all-inclusive A cruise - 7% UK travel association. Every year they conduct
holiday - 17% research about people's holiday habits.
a) What kinds of tertiary jobs will be created
by these tourists?
b) Why do you think ABTA conducts this
research for travel agents and tour
operators?
A trip to see a music A coach holiday - 6%
event - 9%
 3.6 How does a chocolate bar connect the
sectors of the economy?
Learning objectives
► To understand how primary, secondary and tertiary
sectors work together to make an economy.
► To consider how a natural resource is used in
manufacturing.
► To identify ways in which places around the world
are interconnected.
Cocoa is one such example. Cocoa trees have
grown naturally in tropical rainforests in South and
Central America for thousands of years. The people
native to that area, Maya Indians and Aztecs, used
the cocoa crop to produce a special chocolate
drink. Explorers then brought cocoa beans back
to Europe and in time it became a fashionable
drink and eventually, with the additional ingredient
of milk, a bar for eating. Now, plantations have
been established in other parts of the world where
the crop can grow, such as Ghana. A huge mass
market for chocolate now exists, and its production
connects many countries around the world.
e e
Cocoa farm in Ghana, Africa
In Lesson 1.2 (pages 4-5) you discovered that our
knowledge and understanding of the world has
developed through time. The early explorers who
began to map the world, were also those who
discovered the rich range of natural resources
on our planet. These natural resources led to the
development of trade between countries.
Growing requirements of
cocoa
• Humid tropical climates with temperatures of
21-32° C year-round.
• It must never be lower than 15 ° C.
• There must be 100 to 250 cm of rainfall, well
distributed throughout the year with no month
less than 10 cm.
• Cocoa only grows within 10 degrees latitude of
the Equator.
My name is Akosua Boadu. This is my cocoa farm in Ghana
in Africa. Like most cocoa farms it is only small. My cocoa
plants are randomly placed in the shade, in this tropical
rainforest. If they were all together in a plantation, diseases
would spread between them. Cocoa is a fragile crop so I have
to look after it carefully. I also have other plants and trees I
harvest, such as maize and spices. I sell the cocoa but my
family and I eat much of the other crops. When the pods are
ripe, they turn from green to yellow or red. This is when I
harvest them. I then dry the beans and sell them to the
local government official.
(:) The global exporters and
consumers of cocoa
Chocolate is made from the
fermented seeds of the cocoa
tree, with other ingredients such
as milk and sugar added in the
manufacturing process. The Key
cocoa in an average chocolate • >400 tonnes
World chocolate consumption C7 /
bar has travelled 5,110 km (3,176 • 100-400 tonnes
D 10-100 tonnes
Top 15 countries (2014)

miles) by the time you have it in D 1-10 tonne

1 Switzerland 9 kg
2 Germany 7.9 kg 9 Sweden 5.4 kg
your hand ready to eat! Ninety □ Less than 1 3 Austria 7.8 kg 10 Kazakhstan 5.3 kg
4 Ireland 7.5 kg 11 Russia 5.3 kg
per cent of the world's cocoa World cocoa production 2013/14: - 5 United Kingdom 7.5 kg 12 Finland 5.3 kg

is grown on small family farms, Latin America: 16% (666,000 tonnes)

Africa: 72% (3.101 million tonnes)
6 Norway 6.6 kg
7 Estonia 6 kg
13 Belgium 5.2 kg
14 Australia 4.9 kg
as in Photo B. It is estimated Asia and Oceania: 12% (505,000 tonnes) 8 Slovakia 5.4 kg 15 Netherlands 4. 7 kg

that 6 million farmers earn a

living from growing and selling
cocoa beans. Map D shows the
main exporters and consumers
of cocoa globally. The process A container ship transports The products are transported The dried, cured cocoa
from cocoa pod to eating a the cocoa beans by sea to by ship for world export beans are then packed
into sacks for transport
bar of chocolate involves all
three of the main sectors of the
economy, shown in Diagram E.
Cocoa pods are harvested from Chocolate is manufactured Orders are assembled at the
trees (October to December) in the consuming country distribution centre for c ustomers

Q From cocoa pod to

chocolate bar - the
chocolate production
process The cocoa beans are transported in Chocolate is sold in the supermarket
trucks by road to the Ghanaian port
where they are packed into containers

Activities
1 Who discovered that cocoa could be
transformed into chocolate?
2 Study Photos A-C, showing the production
of cocoa.
a) Write a list of the growing requirements
of cocoa.
b) Write four sentences to describe how cocoa
is grown and harvested.
3 Look carefully at Map D.
a) Describe the world location of the producers
of cocoa and the consumers of chocolate.
b) Write a list showing the top five consumers
of chocolate. Include the statistical data in
your list.
c) How far, on average, has the cocoa in your bar
of chocolate travelled by the time you eat it?
Why don't the world's consumers of
d)
chocolate grow their own cocoa?
e) The producers and consumers of cocoa and
chocolate are interdependent. Explain what
you think this means.
4 Diagram E shows a number of the stages from
cocoa pod to eating a bar of chocolate. Each
stage in the process is mixed up.
a) With a partner work out the correct order.
b) Draw a flow-line diagram placing each stage
in the correct order.
c) For each stage decide whether the jobs
involved are primary, secondary or tertiary.
d) Write a paragraph describing the process
of making chocolate. Justify your choice of
employment sector for each stage.
 3.7 How does the UK trade with other
countries?

0
Key
Learning objectives 54.4 million tonnes
Sullom Voe

► To understand what 'trade' is and how it works. (Grimsby and lmmingham)

• 2.1 million tonnes
► To know the main UK imports and exports. (Shoreham)
► To understand how the UK is linked to the rest of
the world.
► To understand what a port is and how it functions.

No single country has all of the natural resources

or manufactured goods and services that it needs.
Countries therefore need to work together to
exchange the things they have and the things they �
u
ees & Hartlepool
need. Trade is the buying and selling of natural Hull
resources, manufactured goods and services. Grimsby&
mmingham
Rivers Hull &
The raw materials, goods and services that a anchester

country buys are called imports. Those that a V H umber

Ipswich
country sells are called exports. The difference ¥----,!
London
between the money a country earns from its Milford
Haven
NewP,Ort ---
arwich
exports, and the money it pays for its imports is Bristol

called the balance of trade. A country is making a Southampton.�

�horeham
profit if it earns more from exports than it pays for tsmouth
imports and a loss if it does not. 0 200 km

What is UK trade? C) Location of ports in the UK, 2016

Trade has always been important for the UK. It is such as Southampton (see Image C). In the UK it
the ninth largest export economy in the world. is possible to buy food and products from all
Much of this trade is transported by sea. Imports round the world. More than half of the food we
and exports are loaded and unloaded at ports, eat comes from abroad. The UK trade pattern is
shown in A.
0 UK exports and imports

UK FOREIGN TRADE
TOP TEN TRADING PARTNERS One container represents 1% of the total value of imports or 1% of the total value of exports in 2013
Imports to UK TRADE BY TYPE OF GOODS 2013 Exports from UK
Imports Exports

Food and drink 5.3% Food and drink 2.3%

To USA£41.0bn
Oil and other fuels 14.9%
Oil and other fuels 14.1% �£14.7;)
Chemicals 3.2% rT--1
Chemicals 5.0%

Machinery and Machinery and

�17.5bn � transport 33.6% transport 35.9%

Medicines and Medicines and

/7--._ pharmaceuticals 4.5%
,___-\___....
harmaceuticals 7.1%

\J:�bn-�� C!!!"--8.8-bn--�
Clothing and textiles 6.2% Clothing and textiles 2.6%

Metals 4.8% Metals 5.6%

Other manufactures
Other manufactures
��£12.4bn � 16.5%
11.5%
Miscellaneous goods 11.0% Miscellaneous goods 15.9%

Total value of imports 2013: £368.0 billion Total value of exports 2013: £282.2 billion /7� /7_,______r"\ en
·a.
��£12.3bn \ � �£6.2bn _J
_____________________________________________________,@
What is a port?
A port is a location on the coast
that provides facilities for ships to
load and unload their cargo. It is
the gateway for a country's
imports and exports.
A port must have:
• a large area of sheltered water,
protected from storms, where
ships can load and unload their
cargo
• plenty of flat land, for storing
and moving goods
• good transport links to transfer
imports to consumers and raw
materials to industries, and bring
goods for export from the port
• a nearby labour force to
provide the services to load and
unload goods and redistribute
them.
Map B shows the main ports in the UK; and the aerial photo, C,
the port of Southampton.

Activities
1 Write definitions of the following terms:
• trade • imports
• balance of trade
• exports

2 Write a short paragraph to explain why

countries trade with one another.
3 Study Diagram A showing UK trade in 2013.
a) Make two lists to show the top five
products imported and exported to and
from the UK.
b) Calculate the balance of trade for the UK for
2013. Was the UK making a profit or a loss?
c) On an outline political map of the world,
name and shade the top ten countries the
UK trades with for imports.
d) Using a different colour, shade the top ten
countries the UK trades with for exports.
e) Draw a line from or to the UK to each
country, and write the percentage value for
each country on each line.
4 What is a port?
5 Study Map B.
e

4-1 The port at Southampton

f) Which three countries do you think are the

UK's most important trading partners?
Justify your choices.

a) Name the ten largest ports in the UK.

b) What do you notice about the distribution
of ports in the UK?
6 Compare aerial Photo C with Map-flap D of
Southampton.
a) Photo C shows the container terminal at
the port. What is the six-figure grid
reference of this terminal?
b) In which direction was the camera
pointing when this photo was taken?
c) Identify features on Photo C.
d) Use the map and photo to identify evidence
of the advantages that Southampton has as
a port.
7 In which sector of the economy are jobs at
the port of Southampton?
 3.8 What is globalisation?

Learning objectives In Lesson 3.4 (pages 48-49) you investigated the

Nissan car plant in Sunderland. Nissan was founded
► To understand the idea of globalisation. in Yokaohama City in Japan in 1933. It has been very
► To identify the impact of globalisation on China. successful and is now the sixth largest manufacturer
► To understand the impact of mobile phones on of cars in the world. It still has its head office in Japan,
globalisation. but operates on a global scale, with components
factories, assembly plants and selling outlets located
throughout the world. Huge companies like Nissan,
which has offices and factories in several countries,
• Shell • Nike are called transnational or multinational companies
(see List A).
• McDonalds • Ford
• Apple • Nissan
• Coca Cola • Samsung
• IBM • Volkswagen

0 Transnational companies

Today, manufacturing is organised on a world

scale. This is called globalisation. It involves
the flow of people, goods, ideas and money
worldwide. Globalisation is creating a complex
web of interdependence, connecting people
and places around the world. We are all
touched by this growing interconnection. In
this lesson you will investigate how this works. 0 Foxconn electronics factory, Shenzhen, China

Growth of online
Changing location factors for
Transnational
corporations,
social networks such
as Facebook, and
industry
manufacturing, communication
and transporting media, e.g. Facetime, The traditional types of location factor you
goods globally and Skype studied in Lesson 3.3, and the distribution of
industries, are rapidly changing. Large
Economic Social transnational corporations make products and
buy services where they can be bought cheaply.
Low labour costs are a major reason why these
Political Cultural companies set up factories in other countries, in
particular, Asia. China has the world's largest
population. Since the 1990s, China has offered a
There are
News and events are very large, cheap and flexible labour supply. This
spread quickly around
organisations such as the world, as well as large and growing population in Asia also
the United Nations, the worldwide release provides transnational companies with access to

J
making decisions of music and films.
beyond national Global tourism the largest markets for their products. This
governments contributes to this process is transforming world trade. The USA

e Elements of globalisation
company Apple, manufacture iPhones in China,
see photos B and D.
'Designed by Apple in California Assembled in China'

T his heading is printed on the back of each

iPhone.The iPhone is a sy111bol of globalisation
not only the ways it interco11nects users to the
·-----------,,.- Camera lens
I Taiwan
(Largan Precision; Genius
world, but also in the way it is manufactured. Electronic Optical)

The iPhones are assen1bled in China by

e
.....;.;......_ Displays
Foxconn, an electronics co111pany that is the
,,
Japan South Korea
...
(Sharp; Japan �. (LG Display)
biggest empl oyer in China, B. This factory can Display) �
e111ploy up to 350,000 workers, many of whon1
earn about $1. 90 an hour. There are about 400
.....__ Microprocessors (Internal)
steps to assemble an iPhone.The factory prodt1ces ,._ South Korea
�. (Samsung)
500,000 phones a day, or rot1ghly 350 a mint1te! � "
The diagra111 at right shows that the con1ponents
are also produced prin1arily in China, Japan, •- Metal casings
Taiwan
Sot1th l{orea and Taiwan. There are other reasons (Catcher Technology; Hon Hai)

why Apple mant1factured in Asia. iPhones require

trace ele111ents of rare minerals fot1nd in China,
for example, indium tin oxide, that 111akes your Assembler
Taiwan
scree11 work as a touchscreen. (Foxconn)
iPhones bound for the USA, are transported
5 km from the factory to a nearby airport. Phones
are s111all enough to be transported by plane.A single,
wide-body Boeing 747 can carry 150,000 iPhones. C!) iPhone assembly

Activities
1 Write your own definitions of transnational
companies and globalisation.
2 How are we connected to other places?
a) Work in a group and think about how your
daily lives are interconnected with other
countries.
b) Look at the labels on your clothes to see
where they were made.
c) At home, investigate the foods in your fridge
and kitchen cupboards and see where they
came from.
d) Write a list of all the places around the world
that have touched your life.
3 Look carefully at List A. Research the country of
origin of five transnational companies.
4 What are the most important location factors
for transnational companies?
5 Identify three reasons why China has benefited
from globalisation.
6 Look carefully at photos Band D.
a) Why is Apple a symbol of globalisation?
b) Identify four reasons why Apple make
iPhones in China.
c) Use the 4Ws and lH enquiry questions to
describe the Foxconn factory.
d) Identify positive and negative factors about
this factory.
7 Look carefully at Diagram C.
a) What are the four elements of globalisation?
b) Which of the elements affect your life?
8 Consider how your mobile phone allows you
to interact in globalisation.
Identify five applications on your phone that
connect you to globalisation. Justify each choice.
 3.9 How has containerisation accelerated
globalisation?

Learning objectives A container is simply a corrugated steel box, 8 ft (2.4 m) wide, 8ft 6
in (2.6 m) high, and 40 ft (12 m) long, but its impact has been huge.
► To consider how an invention
transformed global trade. Containerisation is a system of standardised transport that uses
► To understand the advantages
a common size of steel container to transport goods. These
of containers for transporting containers can easily be transferred between different modes of
goods. transport - container ships to lorries and trains. This makes the
► To appreciate how
transport and trade of goods cheaper and more efficient. In this
containerisation has
lesson you will investigate how their use has made global trade
accelerated globalisation. between countries easier.
0 The use of shipping containers on land and by sea

1 Products inside a container 5 When it reaches its

travel by truck or rail to a port destination each container
is unloaded and reused

Steel shipping containers are designed to

be carried on all three modes of surface
transportation - ships, trains and trucks
•
2 The container is loaded onto
a ship by crane

•
3 Thousands of containers are
carried by ship to other ports 4 The containers are placed onto trucks or
where they are offloaded railcars to be transported inland or are kept
in the port's yard for shipment later

How have containers transformed global trade?

Ships have transported goods around the world for centuries. Previously,
cargo was carried in separate bags and boxes. The loading and unloading of
individual goods from land transport to ship and back again on arrival was
slow and labour intensive. Ships spent more time in port than at sea. This
made global trade very expensive as it was too slow and inefficient. Port
labour could move only 1.7 tonnes per hour onto a cargo ship that would
have had to stay in port up to a week or more. In the late 1950s, Malcolm
McLean, a USA truck company owner, designed a shipping container that
could easily be carried by lorries or trains and loaded directly onto ships.
Once the International Standards Organisation, in 1968, ruled that there
should be one standard-sized box or container, global trade was
revolutionised. Ships now spend most of the time at sea, helping to reduce
costs and increase the efficiency of global trade.
World merchandise trade
2012 prices*, $tm
Activities
20
International adoption 1 What is a container?
of containers 2 How was cargo carried on ships before
15
containers were used?
10
3 Study Diagram A. Explain how containers
are now used to transport goods.
4 Make a list of the advantages of containers.
In each case, write a sentence to explain
the advantage.
1948 60 70 80 90 2000 12 5 What was the key decision that was made
in 1968 that revolutionised sea transport?
Q Levels of world merchandise trade 1948-2012,
6 Look carefully at Graph B.
in trillions of dollars
a) What has happened to global trade
e Article from the Ipswich Star, 22 June 2017
since the use of containers occurred?
b) Why do you think containers have
accelerated globalisation?
Port of Felixstowe welcomes 7 Read Article C.
OOCL Hong Kong, world's a) Describe the details of the world's
largest container ship largest containership.
b) Explain why Felixstowe is the UK's
largest container port.
c) The OOCL Hong Kong follows a route
like a bus. On a world map plot the
journey the OOCL makes on the LL1
service route from:
• Shanghai • Ningbo • Xiamen
• Yantian • Singapore
via the Suez Canal to:
• Felixstowe • Rotterdam • Gdansk
Shipspotters gathered along the approach to the Port • Wilhelmshaven • Felixstowe.
of Felixstowe to welcome the arrival of the world's Use a different colour to plot the return
biggest container ship, which can carry more than trip the OOCL Hong Kong sails, from:
21,000, 20 ft (6 m)co11tainers. • Felixstowe via the Suez Canal to
The OOCL Hong Kong - which is on its 111aiden
Singapore • Yantian • Shanghai.
d) Log on to the MarineTraffic website:
voyage - was brot1ght alongside the Felixstowe qt1ay,
at sunset last night after travelling for n1ore than six
www. marinetraffi c. com
weeks from China. The £125 million vessel is the Use the search tool to find the current
latest 111ega ship to visit Felixstowe, Britain's busiest location of OOCL Hong Kong. Plot the
container port. The port's location close to the 111ain route of the OOCL Hong Kong and
shipping lanes and the ports of Northern Europe, record its position each day, for a week.
co111bined with a unique combination of road and rail Work out which ports it is travelling
connections, makes it the first choice for the latest between and how long it will take to
generation of giant container ships.The 210,890 gross arrive.
tonne vessel was built at Sa111sung Heav y Industries'
(SHI) shipyard in Geoje, South I{orea. It serves the
Asia-Europe trade lane as part of OOCL's LLl service.

59 ►
 3.10 What is an economy, from local
to global? Review

In this unit, you have learnt:

► about economic activities and what they are
like at different scales, from local to global
► the ways in which jobs can be arranged into
groups (or sectors)
► the range of jobs people do and how jobs
have changed over time
► what trade is and how it has become global
► how the UK economy has developed and
how our links with the world have grown.
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood! 0 Layers of inference cartoon for a political cartoon

-- What extra questions do I need the answers to? ------------

-------------t What does this source not tell me about this issue?....,..______

------- What can I infer? What guesses can I make?-----

-------1
Atmosphere
What does this source tell me? -I ---

Economic
lmpact�n system
environme

,#, IN�UTS
�'
••
( t

Earth systems
)Natural
damaged

Global cheap
labour
OUTPUTS
 3 What is an economy?

, Activities
1 Which sectors of the economy are shown in Photos B-0?
2 Look back at the graph that you produced in Lesson 3.1, Activity 6.
Using evidence you have discovered in this unit, write 100
words to explain the changes to the UK economy that have
taken place between 1791 and 2011.
3 Look at Cartoon A. It is surrounded by questions that a geographer
would like to ask when thinking about geographical data like this
political cartoon. It's called a 'layers of inference' diagram. It is
useful when thinking about the conclusion to a piece of work. This
political cartoon is excellent for bringing your understanding of
Units 2 and 3 to a conclusion.
a) Why do you need to think about what you have learnt in
Unit 2 as well as this unit to consider the questions on the
diagram?
b) Starting from the middle, write down each of the questions
as headings (alternatively your teacher might give you a copy
of A to write on).
c) For the first question identify exactly what the cartoon is
showing. Think about and answer the following sub-questions:
i} How is the cartoonist representing globalisation?
ii} What are being suggested as key factors that determine
where industry locates?
iii) How are each of the Earth's spheres affected by
globalisation?
d) Think about the next zone of questions. For example, what
do you think are the cartoonist's views about sustainability
and globalisation? What the driver of the machine is saying
might be a clue here.
e) In the third question layer, think beyond this cartoon. What
have you learnt in these two units that agrees or disagrees
with the cartoon's message?
f) In the final layer think about and write down geographical
questions you would like to investigate to further explore the
ideas of globalisation and sustainability.
4 Look at the front cover image of the world for this textbook.
Create your own version of this image that shows a world
damaged in the way the cartoonist in A is suggesting.

Future learning
You will be provided with opportunities to progress your
understanding of economy and sustainability throughout the other
units in Progress in Geography. Unit 15 What is the future for the
planet? A geographer's view, will bring all your ideas together.
In this unit, you will
learn:
► the concepts of weather and
climate
► the elements that make up
the weather and climate
► how the weather is measured
► how to read weather maps
using the synoptic code
► how to distinguish between
weather and climate.
The weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular
place and time. The key elements of the weather are:
temperature; precipitation; air pressure; wind; humidity;
sunshine; and drought. The weather affects us all every day.
The Earth's atmosphere produces an incredible range of
weather phenomena. On a local level, we may feel a gust
of wind that lasts just a few seconds. On a global scale, the
circulations of huge tropical masses of air determine whole
regional climates and weather systems. The world's weather
is constantly on the move, pushed and shaped by air currents
in the atmosphere. Our personal experience of weather from
day to day is a tiny sample of this global weather system.
The weather mosaic of photos below shows elements of the
weather in action and its effect on people.
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Activities
1 What is weather?
2 What are the key elements of the weather?
3 Look in the Glossary on page 303 and write
definitions of each element of the weather.
4 Work with a partner to discuss the following:
a) What the weather has been like over the
last week.
b) How the weather has affected you both.
Share your examples with the rest of the
class.
5 The weather photo mosaic A-M shows how
different elements of the weather affect
people. For each photo:
a) Identify the element of the weather shown.
b) Write a sentence to describe the element
of the weather shown.
c) Explain the effect the element of the
weather is having on people.
d) Classify the elements of the weather
shown into two groups: those which are
having a positive effect on people and
those that are having a negative effect.
6 a) Which two photographs show ways
people use weather for energy?
b) Think back to Unit 2 Natural resources.
What kind of energy is this called?
7 The weather can be dangerous. Give
examples from the photos where you think
this is the case.
 4.2 How do we measure weather?

Learning objective People have been collecting and recording the weather for
► To identify how elements of
hundreds of years. Weather instruments are kept in special areas
the weather are measured. called weather stations. A standard range of weather instruments
are used to measure different aspects of the weather. Readings are
taken four times a day at weather stations all over the world.
Photo A shows a traditional weather station. Instruments have
to be positioned very carefully so that measurements are
accurate and so that they are typical for the wider area around
the station. It is important therefore to avoid locating the station
near trees, or buildings as their shade could distort temperature
readings. Similarly, a site on top of a hill might have winds that are
unrepresentative of the surrounding area.
Some of the instruments are placed inside a special white box called
a Stevenson Screen.
0 A weather station
Q The Stevenson Screen has
oc louvred (slatted) sides to
5 encourage the free
3 passage of air, and is
� 1
painted white to reflect
'
� Min,
' heat radiation. This ensures

.''
� 0
'' ----�' ,, ,,,,,,.,,,- that what is measured is
E -1 ,. .,, /
the temperature of the air
-3 '' /
/
in the shade, not in the
-5 '•/ /
sunshine

Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri

7th 8th
Day
9th 10th 11th
G) Air pressure: this is
measured by a
(9 Temperature - Maximum/minimum thermometer: barometer. The
the liquid inside the thermometer pushes and barometer traces out a
pulls small indicators inside a glass tube. Even record of the weekly
when the temperature changes these stay at the
lowest and highest temperatures. Temperature is
measured in degrees centigrade ( ° C)
air pressure on graph
paper which is
attached to a rotating
-
drum. Air pressure is measured in millibars

4) Campbell Stokes Sunshine recorder: this was designed in

1879. T he glass sphere concentrates the rays of the Sun onto �
C\ " J
/
\ � .
........... �
C\

"
a card which is scorched by the Sun. T he card is marked off J: Air p essure/' J:

in hourly intervals. As the Sun travels across the sky, the rays rI .
I
scorch different sections of the card
)
\� l,J
"\r'
3: ✓ y 3:
When the sun shines it burns a mark on the paper
/
/'---

Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Each strip equals 1 hour 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th
The lengths of the burnt strips are added up to give
the total amount of sunshine. In this case the sun
shone for 7 hours.
0 Wind speed and direction - Wind is N
measured in two ways: wind speed is
recorded on an anemometer. The faster the NW NE
wind blows the faster the cups on the
anemometer turn. Wind speed is measured
in knots. Wind direction is shown by a wind W .______...____ rose E
vane. The arrow points in the direction the
wind is coming from. The wind directions for
a week can be recorded on a wind rose by SW SE
shading a square for each day that there
was wind from that direction s

0 Rainfall - Rain gauge: a metal

cylinder is sunk part way into the
ground. The funnel catches the
rain, which collects in a container,
placed inside it. The rain is emptied
into a measuring cylinder and the
amount recorded in millimetres

Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri

7th 8th 9th 10th 11th

Activities
1 For each element of the weather shown on
these pages, make a table listing the instrument
used in each case to measure the weather, and
the unit of measurement used.
2 a) What is a Stevenson Screen?
b) What weather instruments are kept in it?
c) Why is this necessary?
d) Why does the screen have louvred sides that
are painted white?
3 Look carefully at the weather instruments and
4 Many schools have their own weather
stations. Study the map, below, which shows
three possible sites (A, B, C) for a school
weather station.
Site B was chosen. Was this a good choice?
Give two reasons for your answer.
5 Keep your own record of the weather for a
week. Collect the data at the same time each
day.

t
graphs showing weather data for a week. ,----------,
I
I N
r - �,------------- --,
a) During the week, which was the wettest day? �
Grass
j
b) How many hours of sunshine were ,-------- "
I
Playground
recorded?
I

c) What was the warmest day? Car park

_________________ .,
d) What was the minimum temperature?
e) On the wind rose diagram, from which
School
direction did the wind blow most often?
f) Describe the changes in air pressure
throughout the week.
 4.3 How can weather data be recorded
and presented?

Learning objectives Q- Polar-orbiting METEOSAT geostationary Polar-orbiting

► To consider the methods of satellites meteorological satellite satellites
recording vast amounts of
weather data.
► To know and use the synoptic
code.
- ,.�
-
�
�
,,..
,,..
► To know the various ways the Radiosonde � Satellite
Met Office presents weather data � ground
to the public. -:;::. station
► To understand the different
groups of people who need to
use weather data.

Automatic
weather
Meteorology is the scientific stations
study of the atmosphere. Most
Ground
countries have developed a central
stations Manned stations
organisation responsible for weather
forecasting. In the UK, weather is
measured and recorded; the data is
then collected, processed, analysed
and turned into weather forecasts.
These are then communicated to
the general public and specialised
users by the Meteorological Office,
based in Exeter.
• •

Recording weather • •

As technology has evolved, weather

data is now collected and processed
in a far greater variety of ways than Supercomputers process the data
the traditional weather station you
studied on pages 64-65. Millions of
observations and measurements of
weather are constantly recorded all
over the world. Data logging
weather stations have been
developed that automatically collect
and transmit weather data, from
remote locations. Satellites orbit the
Earth, constantly sending back
images of evolving weather systems.
Flowchart A shows the work the Met
Office does.
Meteorologists create charts and forecasts from
the data

Forecasts are communicated to

the public in a variety of ways
Presenting weather data Symbol Precipitation Symbol Cloud cover Symbol Wind speed

Special symbols, called the synoptic code (B), are ' Drizzle
0 Clear sky
© Calm

used all over the world, to show all this data on v Shower
CD One oktas
0--- 1-2 knots

weather charts. Information for a weather station is • Rain Two oktas

()-------, 5 knots

*
�
summarised on a chart using a circle to represent
the station.
Snow
(] Three oktas
0-------, 10 knots

Observations at Temperature -- 12
6 Hail
0 Four oktas
0----,, 15 knots

Et 0--,,
a
Thunderstorm Five oktas 20 knots
each individual �

station are placed Cloud cover •

••
50 knots or
Heavy rain Six oktas
0---.., more
around the circle, **
•
tt
-
Sleet Seven oktas
at a certain point, Snow shower Eight oktas
using the synoptic 'V
code as shown
Mist
0 Sky obscured
The sky is divided into
(right). Fog eighths or oktas to record
how much cloud cover
there is.

C) Standard symbols used on weather charts

Wind speed Present weather

Activities
1 a) What is meteorology? 4 Complete a copy of the table below using
b) What is the Meteorological Office? the synoptic code (B) to describe the weather
2 a) What is a weather forecast? conditions for the four weather stations in
b) Give an example of how you have used Diagram C.
a weather forecast.
Weather station 1 2 3 4
c) Explain why weather forecasts are
Temperature
particularly important for farmers or -
aircraft pilots. Wind speed
3 Look carefully at the flowchart (A). Wind direction
a) Use this to create your own flowchart to Cloud cover
show how weather data is collected, Weather
processed and transformed into weather
forecasts. 0 G)
b) Think of the ways weather forecasts are
communicated to the public. Add these
methods to your flowchart. =2®
c) What methods do you and your family use G) @
to get a weather forecast?
d) Add to your flowchart examples of how
different people doing different jobs, and
organisations, depend on weather
forecasts every day. Look back at Lesson 5 Collect a weather map from a newspaper
4.1 and use the photographs to help you. or the internet for your local area and stick
it in your book. Next to it draw a synoptic
code weather station to show the weather
for that day.
 4.4
What are clouds and why does it rain?

Learning objectives
► To understand how clouds form.
► To classify the main types of clouds.
► To identify types of rainfall.
Precipitation is any form of water - liquid or solid - falling from
the sky. It includes rain, sleet, snow, hail and drizzle. Water
is present in the atmosphere in three forms: as a liquid; as a
solid such as snow and ice; and as an invisible gas called water
vapour. Clouds are made up of millions of water droplets and
ice particles floating in the sky. The classification of clouds is
shown in Diagram A.

How rain is formed

• All air contains water vapour. A parcel of air can only hold
a certain amount of water vapour. Colder air can hold less
water vapour than warmer air.
• Warm air rises. As this air rises, it expands and cools. As the
warm air cools, it can hold less water vapour.
• When the temperature falls to a critical level, known as the
dew point temperature, condensation occurs. This is where
the water vapour in the air begins to condense from a gas
into water droplets, often around dust particles. We see
collectio1ns of water droplets in the atmosphere, as clouds.
• The droplets are suspended in the air by the updraughts of
warm air rising. The water droplets will eventually grow bigger
and heavier by joining together, as the air continues to rise and
0 cool.
>
Q)
(.)
C:
• The clouds become darker as more water droplets form.
Q)

-
(.)
Eventually the updraughts of air can no longer support the
heavy droplets so they fall to earth as one of the forms of
C:
Q)
E
...
C:
precipitation
Mi
Q)
>
0
C)

Q)
a. There are three types of rainfall, shown in diagrams C-E.
0
-... 0 Rainfall pattern and intensity across three days in the UK
Q)
.r:.
Q)
u
C:
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u

a
Q)
f/)
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14.00 hours 14.00 hours 09.00 hours
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9June 2 April 21 Novemb r,
0
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Low level
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ro
0
0

0 Luke Howard, a pharmacist and

amateur meteorologist, classified
clouds in 1803 and his Key
classifications are still used today □ Uplands
Rainfall intensity
8 mm per hour
6 mm per hour
- 4 mm per hour •N
2 mm per hour
0 200 km
...___, 0 mm per hour
Types of rainfall
Relief rainfall
e----� Convectional rainfall Frontal rainfall

2 Warm
2 4
•
.. . .
. .. . .
. . · . . . . .... .
.
1 .. . . .. . .
1
. ·• ·co1d

1 Air is forced to rise when it meets
a range of hills. This air cools, and
forms condensation.
2 The air continues to rise and clouds
form. Rain eventually falls on the
mountains.
3 As the air descends the other side
of the mountains, it warms up and
can hold more water vapour.
4 This area of the mountains is drier
and is called the rain shadow.
1 The ground is heated by the Sun, 1 A warm air mass meets a cold air
causing moisture to evaporate and mass.
rise. 2 The warm, less dense air is pushed
2 The air rises rapidly, and the water up over the cold, dense air, to
vapour condenses to form clouds create a 'front'.
- tall cumulonimbus. 3 The warm, less dense, air cools.
3 Updraughts of warm air push the 4 The water vapour condenses into
water droplets high and suspend droplets and eventually produces
them there. Sometimes they are rain.
carried so high they freeze and
form hail.
4 Eventually large water droplets fall
as heavy rain, often with thunder
and lightning. Th is often results in
spells of sunshine followed by
heavy showers.

Activities
1 What is precipitation?
2 a) What are clouds?
b) How are clouds formed?
c) Look at Diagram A. Write a list of the ten
cloud shapes shown.
d) Next to each cloud in your list add the
approximate height of the cloud and
describe its shape.
3 Draw your own labelled diagram to explain
how rain forms. Make sure you include the
water vapour, dew point, condensation, water
droplets and clouds on your diagram.
4 a) What are the three types of rainfall?
b) Make your own copy of diagrams C, D and E.
c) Annotate each of your diagrams to explain
what happens at points 1-4 for each type
of rainfall.
5 Look carefully at the three maps of the UK
in Diagram B. They show rainfall patterns
of intensity for three different days. The key
shows values for the intensity of the rainfall.
a) For each map, describe the rainfall
distribution and intensity across the UK.
b) Match the rainfall patterns shown on each
map to your annotated diagrams showing
the three types of rainfall. Identify which
type of rainfall is responsible for the rainfall
on each day.
c) What clues did you see on each map to
identify the types of rainfall in each case?
d) Use these clues to write a paragraph to
explain your choice.
6 Look at A and B. How can studying the
different types of clouds help predict the
weather you will experience?
 4.5 What are air pressure and
anticyclones?
Learning objectives Depressions and anticyclones
► To recognise the characteristics
of anticyclones.
► To understand the contrast 0
between summer and winter
_ .. ..
◄- - - ----

anticyclones. .,.. __ _

► To interpret a weather chart

•
---- ___ ....
-- -
using the synoptic code. f:!i.9h pressure Low pressure

Anticyclones Depressions

The air around you has weight, and it pushes
down on the earth. This pressure is called air
pressure. The weather is strongly influenced by air
pressure. When air pressure is low (less than 1016
mb) this is because warm air near the ground
is rising. When air pressure is high it is because
colder air, high up in the atmosphere, is sinking
towards the ground.
Air is constantly moving around the atmosphere.
Pressure differences cause winds which blow
from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure. The greater the pressure difference the
quicker the air moves, so the stronger the winds.
High pressure systems, also known as
anticyclones, occur when the weather is
dominated by stable conditions. This is the result
of the air in the atmosphere subsiding, or sinking,
towards the Earth's surface. This subsidence
leads to the air becoming drier and warmer. As
a result, the weather is usually settled with only
small amounts of cloud cover and light winds.
Anticyclones can be identified on weather
charts, such as Chart E, as an often large area
of widely spaced isobars, where pressure is
higher than surrounding areas. In the northern
hemisphere, winds blow clockwise around areas
of high pressure; this is reversed in the southern
hemisphere.
The UK is influenced by a number of air masses
because it is almost halfway between the cold
North Pole and hot Equator. It lies in a zone
where different air masses meet and take control
at different times of the year. The tropical
continental air mass originates over the Sahara
Desert so it is hot and dry. The arctic maritime air
mass is cold and wet, bringing snow in winter.
The arrival of anticyclones over the UK is
influenced by the movement of air masses. In
summer, tropical continental air moves
northwards. In winter, polar continental air moves
southwards. The distinctive weather conditions for
summer and winter anticyclones are shown in
Photo C.
A
N
0 400 km
Arctic air
Polar Polar
maritime contine
air

The UK's weather Returning polar

maritime air Tropical
The UK's weather is very variable because a continental
number of air masses move over the country at air
different times of the year. An air mass is a body
or 'mass' of air with uniform weather conditions,
Tropical Q
0
such as similar clouds, temperature and humidity. maritime
air

�
Summer anticyclones
The clear settled conditions bring
long, sunny cloudless days and warm
temperatures. T he weather is
normally dry, although occasionally
very hot temperatures can trigger
convectional rainfall and thunderstorms. Often
heatwaves can occur with prolonged hot weather,
leading to high pollen counts and poor air quality in
cities. The lack of clouds can lead to cold ground
temperatures at night. Water vapour can condense
on grass to form dew.
Activities
1 What is air pressure?
2 Look back at Lesson 4.2, page 64.
a) What weather instrument is used to
measure air pressure?
b) What unit of measurement is used?
3 Draw an annotated diagram to explain how
high and low pressure air moves in the
atmosphere.
4 a) What is an air mass?
b) Explain why each air mass shown on Map
B is different.
c) Why do these air masses lead to such
varied weather across the U I<?
5 Look at Image C.
a) Use it to fill in a copy of Table F to show the
characteristic weather features of summer
and winter anticyclones.
Winter anticyclones
Cold, dry days with light winds. The
clear skies allow heat to be lost from
the surface. Temperatures can
decrease very quickly at night. Water
vapour can condense and freeze on
ground surfaces forming frost. Light winds along with
falling temperatures can encourage fog to form; this
can linger well into the following morning and be
slow to clear. Sometimes stratocumulus cloud can
become established leading to several days of no sun,
which furthermore lowers daytime temperatures.
Summer Winter
anticyclone anticyclone
Temperature
Cloud cover
Wind speed
Precipitation
Pressure
b) Write a paragraph to identify how
anticyclones are similar and different in
summer and winter.
6 What hazards for people are created by
summer and winter anticyclones?
7 Use the weather chart (E) and satellite image
(D) to write a weather forecast for the next
24 hours after these images were produced.
Use the synoptic code key in Lesson 4.3 on
page 67 to help you. Make sure you include
weather data from the chart and satellite
image, in your forecast.
 4.6 What are depressions and how do they
affect our weather?

Learning objectives
► To understand the influence of air pressure on
weather.
► To understand the key features of depressions.
► To investigate how the passage of a depression
changes the weather.
► To interpret weather patterns using satellite images,
weather charts and the synoptic code.
\
Key
"-.; 4 4 4 4 Cold front
A depression has three elements: a warm front;
..._..,......_ Warm front
a warm sector; and a cold front. A depression
_......._..._ Occluded front
forms as a result of the warm air mixing and rising
above surrounding cold air as shown in Image B.
This mixing of air often leads to unsettled weather Eventually the cold front catches up with the
as shown in Diagram B. warm front lifting the warm sector above the
surface of the Earth. This is an occluded front.
A front is the boundary between two air masses,
one warm the other cold. If very cold air comes Depressions appear on satellite images as great
into contact with warm tropical air, the front can swirls of clouds (see Diagram B). Depressions that
be strong, with rapid changes in temperature move over the UK are formed over the Atlantic
and pressure, strong winds and plenty of rainfall. Ocean. They move in a west to east direction.

Activities
1 a) What is a depression?
b) What are the three parts of a depression?
2 What is an occluded front?
3 Weather chart A was taken from the Met Office
website on the day this lesson was created.
a) Describe the location of the depression
over the UK.
b) What has happened to the depression in
the North Atlantic?
c) Go to the Met Office website and
download today's weather chart.
d) What type of weather system is over the
UK today? Justify your answer.
4 The weather satellite image (B) is from
Meteosat, a satellite which orbits the Earth.
a) Draw a sketch map from B, to show the
depression over the UK.
b) Label the warm front, warm sector and
cold front on your sketch, using the
weather symbols shown in the weather
chart (A).
c) Compare the weather chart (A) with the
satellite image (B). What is shown on the
satellite image that can't be seen on the
chart?
5 Diagram B shows the features of a typical
depression.
a) Make a copy of the table included on this
diagram. Complete the table using the
information on the rest of Diagram C,
together with the synoptic code in Lesson
4.3, page 67.
b) In which direction do depressions move
across the UK?
c) Describe how temperature changes as each
part of the depression crosses the UK.
d) Think back to Lesson 4.4, pages 68-69.
Which of the three types of rainfall occur
in a depression?
e) Explain how pressure, rainfall, cloud cover
and cloud type change with the passage of
the depression.
 N
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(see below)
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Cross-section from A to B
Cumulonimbus Cirrus

Cirrostratus

COLD SECTOR WARM SECTOR Altostratus

(40C) (11°C)
Nimbostratus
Cumulus
I
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I
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COLD SECTOR (3 °C)

I

Weather conditions across

the low pressure system

After cold As cold front Warm sector As warm front As warm front Well before
front passes passes over approaches warm front
Lower, thicker
Cloud type altostratus
Isolated
Rainfall scattered Heavy showers Moderate rain Drizzle No rain
showers

Temp (°C)
Southerly,
Wind North-west, strong
light
High (1002),
Air pressure Steady
falling
 4.7 How do I conduct a weather enquiry?

Learning objectives
► To identify the type of weather
system passing over the school
for seven days.
► To undertake fieldwork to
investigate weather events for
a week.
So far in this unit you have investigated the basic principles of
weather, and how to measure weather. In this lesson you will
do the work of a meteorologist. A meteorologist studies the
atmosphere, climate and weather of Earth in order to explain and
predict weather conditions.
You will conduct a weather enquiry: collecting, recording,
presenting and interpreting data for a week, for the weather that
passes over your school. You will need to think about what you
have learnt so far in this unit, to decide which types of weather
systems have passed over your school.

How to conduct a weather enquiry

Step 1 Preparing the investigation Step 2 Collecting data

The key question to investigate in this enquiry is: 2 You can either use the data provided
What type of weather system formed the weather over in items A-B to conduct this enquiry
my school for seven days? or complete the following for the next
You will find it easier to answer this big question by seven days.
breaking it down into smaller questions, such as how • Collect weather data either from your
does the atmospheric pressure for the seven days school's data logging or traditional
compare with rainfall 1 weather station, or from the weather
These questions will act as clues to help you decide section of your local newspaper.
which type of weather system, anticyclone or depression, • Download the latest weather satellite
moved across your school during the week you image, and weather chart for each of the
measured the weather. seven days.
1 Think of three smaller questions to help you • Take photographs each day from the
investigate your big enquiry question. same point to show the weather and
cloud types.

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4 03/09/2017 15.8 2.0 7.6 7.6 SE o.o 2.3 1010
5 04/09/2017 12.6 8.0 7.6 18.0 s 2.8 0.5 995
6 05/09/2017 18.1 9.2 11.4 15.2 s 2.3 1.9 995
7 06/09/2017 16.1 7.5 2.8 13.3 SE 0.3 o.s 1009
8 07/09/2017 20.4 8.3 4.7 5.7 se 0.0 2.4 1026
•
,.
1 Sheetl I @ ►
Step 2 Collecting data
3 Record the weather data for seven days.
• Each day, enter it into a spreadsheet as in A.
• You could print out each satellite image or
chart. Display each image on a Geography
Step 3 Presenting your
findings
4 Draw graphs to present the data for each
element of the weather you have recorded
for seven days, or create graphs from the data

e
Department Weather Board. provided in Spreadsheet A.

Step 4 Analysing your result

5 Write up your results for either your data
collected over seven days or Spreadsheet A and
the images in B.
Describe and compare each element of the
weather shown in your graphs. Think about your
big enquiry question and the smaller questions you
asked in 01. Look for patterns in the data for each
element; for example, if the pressure decreases,
Date 1.09.17 what happens to rainfall each day 1

Step 5 Reaching a conclusion

6 To answer the big question, compare your
findings with your satellite images and photos of
the weather each day and the clouds.
• What type of weather system formed the
weather over the seven days 1
• Justify your choice by providing evidence
from your weather data.

Date 2.09.17

Step 6 Evaluating your work

7 Suggest ways you could have improved your data
collection. Think about and identify other ways
you could investigate the weather.

Date 3.09.17
 4.8 What is the climate of the UK?

Learning objectives What is climate?

► To understand the difference
between weather and climate.
► To know the climate of the UK.
► To be able to draw climate
graphs.
The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time.
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a place for a short
period of time, day to day. Climate is the state of the atmosphere
over longer periods of time. Climate is the average conditions,
calculated over many years. Climate is what you expect, like a very
hot summer, and weather is what you get, like a hot day with a
sudden thunderstorm.

30 ° 160 Geographers investigate the climate of

Average monthly temperature: 10 C different places by comparing the average
°
25 Temperature range: 14 C monthly temperature and rainfall, presented in
140
..._
0
Annual rainfall: 593 mm
a, tD
a climate graph. There is a standard method
� 20 for drawing climate graphs, shown in Graph A.
:::::s
+-'
120 �
n, \C
�
15 tD The temperature is shown as a red line graph,
a,
100 3 measured in degrees Celsius, using the left-hand
E 10
0
:::::s vertical axis to read off the values. Rainfall is
a, r+
-..c:>.
+-'
80 � shown with blue bars, measured in millimetres,
5 '<
"""" read off the right-hand vertical axis.
+-'
C: 60 -·
DJ
0
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:::::s
DJ
a, 40 -
en -5
n,
3
�
a,
� -10 20 ..._

-1 5 _____...........______________ 0 0 A climate graph for London

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Activities
1 What is the difference between weather and
climate?
2 What is a climate graph?
3 Look carefully at A, the climate graph for
London.
a) It shows the average monthly temperature,
temperature range, and annual rainfall.
Work out how these figures are calculated.
b) What do the bar and line graphs show?
c) Work out and record the values for the
coldest and warmest months, and the
wettest and driest months.
d) Using Graph A write a paragraph describing
the climate of London. Include the important
data shown in A, in your description.
4 Table B below shows the climate data for
Ambleside, in the Lake District.
a) Draw a climate graph for Ambleside.
b) Calculate the average monthly
temperature, temperature range and total
annual rainfall, and add them to your graph,
as in A.
c) Describe the climate for Ambleside, in the
same way as you did in 3d.

Av. monthly temp 3 4 6 8 11 14 15 15 13 10 6 4

Av. monthly rainfall (mm) 214 146 112 101 90 111 134 139 184 196 209 215
 Average monthly
temperature
JULY Average monthly
temperature
JANUARY Average annual rainfall ANNUAL
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE RAINFALL
16° C 1----1s•ct 2000 millimetres
14°c 1-----1 4° C 1000 millimetres
•Oban •Oban
---12°c 811 Average number of 2°c 408 Aven19e number of -- 750 millimetres � Preva,hng winds
hoors of sunshine hours of sunshine
--10°c May-October 0°c· November- April

• Freezing point
t Minfmum
temperature for
plant growth

raemar
Ob Oban• 383
8 408 •Edinburgh

,
509
►
Belfast
• Scarborough
426 Am bles,"de• • 518
424
•01ackpool
Dublin 526
497 • �

-Shannon
493
•Birmingham
502
•cardiff
• Kew
527 551
@
• @ @
B�rnomouth
--u
� Newquay. Bournemouth
--u
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1169 "O 615 598 "O "O
(J)- (J)- (J)-

July temperatures across the January temperatures Q Annual rainfall across the UK
UK. This map and Map D show across the UK
the distribution of temperatures,
plotting isotherms, which are
lines joining together areas that
experience similar temperatures

The UK's climate

The climate of the UK is variable - it changes a lot,
day to day. The UK has cool summers, mild
winters and rainfall spread evenly throughout the
year. The climate type is classified as temperate,
which means we rarely experience extremes.
Your investigation of climate graphs for London
and Ambleside do show, however, that there are
variations across the country. Maps C-F show
these variations.

5 a) What type of climate do we have in the UK? Arctic winds

(very cold),-
·
b) Describe the overall characteristics of the UK's climate. "'

c) Why do you think our climate is variable? (You can find clues . l
,__...i I
in Map F (right) and Map B in Lesson 4.5, page 70.)
6 Study Maps C and D. Describe the distribution of average
temperatures across the UK. How is the distribution different
NE
in summer and winter? Which parts of the UK are warmer and Maritime winds
(wet)
colder?
Continental winds
7 Look carefully at Map E. (cold in winter)
a) Describe the distribution of annual rainfall across the UK.
b) Compare Map E with a physical map of the UK in an atlas.
What do you notice about the distribution of rainfall
compared to areas of highland and lowland?
c) Go back to Lesson 4.4. Which type of rainfall do you think
...
influences the distribution of rainfall across the UK? N
0 200 km
d) Why is the eastern side of the UK drier than the west?
8 Map F summarises the differences in climate across the UK. Use
A-E to help you describe the distribution of these zones. G Climate zones across the UK
 4.9 How does climate vary across
the world?
Learning objectives Climate zones
► To know climate The world can be divided into different climate zones. These zones are based
distribution around the on the work of Wladimir Koppen, a climatologist born in Russia in 1846. Each
world. climate zone has its own distinctive pattern of temperature and rainfall; a
► To identify reasons for simplified version of this is shown in Diagram A. These climate zones arise
variation in climate. due to a range of factors, in particular because the Sun heats tropical areas
more strongly than polar areas. This variation in heat leads to the circulation
of air in the atmosphere. As you have already discovered, air masses move
() Climate zones around the Earth creating different weather and influencing climate.

Key
- Different climate zones
C]Polar
□ Snow
· • Temperate
D Mediterranean
C]Arid
• Equatorial

Equator----,----,

•..
Tropic of -------+- �-
Capricorn
N

Wa,m wet winters

..
Warm dry winletS

0 Polar and equatorial areas

Factors affecting climate A
Atmosphere
The different factors that create climate zones are Long
explored below. - distance
,, Large area
Sun's rays
Latitude
Places nearer the Equator are much warmer than
places nearer the Poles. This is because of the
angle at which the Sun shines. At the Equator, the B Earth
Sun is at a high angle and shines directly at a small
area making it very hot. As a result, equatorial ------ Short Small area
distance
------
areas remain hot and dry all year round. '
'
---- ---- Equator --- __ _
------------
__ Example of Summit 1347 m -3.5° C
temperature decrease �
with height when 1200m - -2\;,
"---

temperature at 1000m -'--0° ( Distance from the sea

sea level is + 10° C 800m ---,..::- 2°c
6O O m ____,:;.,...4° C
Land and sea heat up at different rates. The sea, as a liquid is less
dense than the land, which is solid. As a result, the sea takes much
--=--
400m-�
200m 8° ( longer to warm up than the land; it also keeps its heat longer,
Sea level
100c as more than just the surface is heated. In the winter, the sea
keeps coastal areas warm and in summer, it cools them down.
The further away from the sea a place is, the wider the range of
(j The altitude of Ben Nevis, temperatures found there, as only the surface of land is heated,
Scotland so it heats quickly, but also loses the heat quickly in winter.

Altitude
Altitude is a measure of the land's height above
sea level. Temperatures decrease by about
Activities
1° C for every 100 m increase in height above 1 Look carefully at Map A.
sea level. This is because at higher altitudes air a) Compare this map with a physical map of
becomes less dense so it is less able to retain the world in an atlas. Name regions A-D.
the heat it receives from the ground. Many b) Use Map A and the simplified model to
parts of the Alps mountain range in Europe are describe the climate at the locations A-D.
over 4,000 m above sea level, which means
c) It is a lot colder at B than A. Give a reason
they are 40 ° C colder than coastal areas. This
for this.
explains why snow remains for several months
a year on Scottish mountains, and also why d) It is a lot colder at D than A even though
there is snow on Mount Kilimanjaro, in Africa they are both in the tropics. Give a reason
on the Equator. for this.
2 Using Diagram B explain how latitude affects
Prevailing winds the world's climate pattern.
3 Using Diagram C explain why it is colder in
The prevailing wind is the direction from which mountainous areas.
the wind usually blows. For most of Europe 4 Look carefully at Diagram D.
this is from the south-west. The prevailing
a) What is a prevailing wind?
wind is affected by the area it blows over. The
North Atlantic Drift is a warm ocean current b) Explain how the North Atlantic Drift affects
that flows across the Atlantic Ocean from the temperatures in the UK and Europe.
Gulf of Mexico. It warms the prevailing winds 5 Reread your descriptions of Britain's climate
or air masses, making western areas of the UK from the last lesson.
and Europe warmer than areas inland. a) Compare Maps C-F from the last lesson,
your climate graphs for London and
�,..,.
.A
N Ambleside and what you have learnt today
0 1000 km about the factors that affect climate.
b) Use these to explain the climate of Britain
- make sure you identify the influence of
latitude, distance from the sea, altitude and
prevailing winds on the climate pattern of
Britain.
..
Atlantic Ocean

BERMUDA
Tropic of �
-------------------
HAMAS --------------
Cancer

' . Indies ..
... , AFRICA
Gulf of� " ·.
Mexico )_
G) The North Atlantic Drift
 4.10 What is weather and climate?
Review

In this unit, you have learnt:

► the concepts of weather and climate
► the elements that make up the weather
and climate
► how the weather is measured
�88
► how to read weather maps using the I
synoptic code
► how to distinguish between weather
and climate.
Let's see what you have
remembered and understood!
�
'996

Key terms to remember _,o , -

,0 2
This unit on weather and climate has -- '\ O'\ 6 -
introduced you to new geographical
terminology. It is important that you understand
the meaning of these terms. You will be
__ ,02
-
expected to use them in your future studies. [fil 1033 )
You should be familiar with all with all the 10
words in the table. 10 2
0-- ,,,,,.,---
�024
1 wind 13 depression
c1�0
2 meteorology 14 rain
O'\ 6
3 sunshine 15 climate
0 0
4 convectional 16 frontal
5 isotherms 17 temperature
6 weather 18 rain gauge
7 anticyclone 19 knots
8 isobars 20 humidity
9 millibars 21 stratus
10
11
relief
fog
22
23
air mass
air pressure
-
12 cumulus 24 maximum
and minimum
thermometer
 4 What is weather and climate?

Edinburgh
Altitude 23 m
Activities
0 200 km 25
u 20
1 Copy out row A from the table below.
C 15
0
a) Underline the word which is the odd one out.
E 10 b) Explain why you think it is the odd one
�
5 out and what the other two words have in
common.
OJFMAMJJASOND
Month c) Continue this activity for rows B to H.
• wind sunshine isotherms
London
Altitude 6 m
25 fog millibars knots

u 20 maximum air pressure isobars

and minimum
C 15
0

thermometer
E 10 depression convectional
•
�
5 maximum
temperature anticyclone
and minimum
OJFMAMJJASOND thermometer
Month
cumulus stratus rain gauge
Llanbedr Lake Vyrnwy temperature air mass rain
Altitude 9 m Altitude 360 m
25 25 knots wind meteorology
u 20 u 20
2 Explain the difference between weather and
-� 15 C 15
0 0

0...
E 10 E 10
� �
5 5
OJFMAMJJASOND OJFMAMJJASOND
Month Month
You will further progress your understanding
of weather and climate in future units of
Progress in Geography. In Unit 5 you will
investigate the very different climate that
exists in Russia, using isotherm maps and
climate graphs. In Unit 10 you will find out
how the climate affects the lives of people
on the continent of Asia. In Unit 12, when
studying Africa, you will learn how the
climate and atmosphere affect the biosphere.
Future learning at GCSE
At GCSE you can further progress your
understanding of weather and climate to
investigate the causes and consequences
of extreme weather and hazards around
the world. You can also develop an
understanding of the global circulation of the
atmosphere, and climate change.
climate.
3 Study the weather chart (A). Compare it with
an atlas map of Europe.
a) Describe the weather at the following
stations: west coast of Iceland; northern
Spain; the two stations in Norway.
b) What type of air pressure systems are
located at A and B?
c) Which features are shown at C and D?
d) Why is it raining over the British Isles? Which
type of rain is this?
e) Explain why is it warmer in southern Europe.
4 Look carefully at Diagram B.
a) What climate data is presented on this
diagram?
b) Identify the warmest and coldest location.
c) Describe how temperature varies across the
UK.
d) Compare the temperature for Edinburgh
and London.
e) Explain why Edinburgh is colder than
London.
f) Llanbedr and Lake Vyrnwy are very close
to each other in North Wales and yet the
temperatures there are very different.
Explain this difference.
 In this unit, you will learn:
► where Russia is located
► what Russia is like
► the physical landscape, climate and
natural environment of Russia
► how Russia's physical geography has
influenced its human geography
► how important Russia is to the world.
When geographers investigate a place or country,
they first consider its location. Location usually
describes where a place or country is in relation
to others and what other features surround it. The
first consideration is which continent it is in, and
then what forms its boundaries or borders. Map A
shows the location of Russia, the countries, seas
and oceans that surround it.
0 The location of Russia East
\1

- c..r .­
' '
Arctic Ocean Siberian
.,.«;
� , · Sea -
rJ,,e)
Laptev' _ P­
0 �
Kara_ _,_ Se
Sea
Sea of
Okhotsk

e Winter ice fishing

in Vladivostok

1l!II.I
Q Mount Narodnaya - the highest
peak in the Ural Mountains
�-�,!
e The Church of the
Saviour on Spilled
Blood in St Petersburg

C:) Moscow in winter, Moskva River G) Lake Baikal

C) Old and new
in Moscow
 5 Is ttie geogr;aP.ffi� ofi Russia a cur;se or. a benefit?

4D The vast grassland area of the Steppes in central Russia, an important area for farming
Russia fact file Activities
• Russia is the largest country in the world, occupying 1 Look carefully at Map A and an atlas.
one-tenth of all the land on Earth. a) Name the 14 countries that border
Russia.
• Russia is nearly twice the size of Canada (the world's
second largest country), and 70 times the size of the b) Name the oceans that border
UK. Russia.
c) Which continents is Russia in?
• It is so large that is spreads across two continents,
partly in Europe but mostly in Asia. d) Write a paragraph to describe the
location of Russia.
• Lake Baikal, the world's deepest and oldest lake,
2 Discuss with a partner what images B-H
holds 20 per cent of the world's unfrozen fresh water
show you about what Russia is like.
reserve.
a) Which photos fit your existing
• Russia accounts for 20 per cent of the world's forest
knowledge of Russia?
area.
b) With a partner select two of the
• The Ural Mountains separate Europe and Asia. photos, then each of you describe
• Of the 100 coldest cities in the northern hemisphere, what they show using the 5Ws and
85 are in Russia. 2Hs.
• A record low temperature of -71° C was recorded in c) Now work with another group and
1974 at the north-east Siberian village of Oymyakon. It describe your selected photos to
is the lowest temperature ever recorded anywhere in each other.
the world for an inhabited region. 3 Read the Russia factfile.
• Russia spans nine time zones - when Russians are a) What physical feature separates
getting ready for bed in Moscow, they are having Europe and Asia?
breakfast in Vladivostok. b) Compare the size and population of
• It has a coastline on two oceans. Russia and the UK. What do you
• Russia has 14 neighbouring countries at its borders. notice?
c) Which facts do you find surprising?
• Russia is rich in natural resources and, for example,
produces 20 per cent of the world's natural gas. 4 Table I shows the top ten countries in
the world by area.
• The full name of Russia is the Russian Federation.
a) Draw a bar graph to show the area
• 142 million people live in Russia. This is only 2.5 times of these ten countries.
larger than the population of the UK. b) Describe how Russia compares to
the other nine countries.
Ranking Country Area (km 2 ) c) Plot these countries on an outline
1 Russia 17,098,246 map and then describe the location
2 Canada 9,984,670 of the top ten countries.
3 China 9,826,675 5 From the information you have gained
4 USA 9,596,960 during this lesson, write a paragraph to
5 Brazil 8,514,877 explain why you think it is important to
6 Australia 7,741,220 investigate and learn about Russia.
7 India 3,287,263 6 Look at the vision statement for
8 Argentina 2,780,400 Progress in Geography; which aspects
9 Kazakhstan 2,724,900
of this do you think you are likely to
make progress in during this unit of
10 Algeria 2,381,741
work on Russia?
The world's top ten countries by area
,
83
 5.2 What is the physical landscape
of Russia?

Learning objective Russia can be divided into several vast physical regions, shown on
Map A. The Ural Mountains are a particularly important physical
► To know the distribution of
physical landforms across Russia. feature. The mountain range splits Russia in two, running north­
south for over 2,400 km, from the Arctic Ocean into Kazakhstan.
The mountain range forms the traditional separation between
Europe and Asia. The North European Plain lies west of the Urals,
0 The physical landscape of and the Siberian Plain to the east. A plain is a landmass that is flat or
Russia gently rolling and covers many kilometres.
., \� r
Key Chu ti· ff
Metres Pen·
Q Bering Sea
->3000
•
.I
-3000 Pacific •'

01500 Arctic East Ocean

Ocean Siberian
0600 • Sea
..t)
0300
roo Laptev .. �'1�
Kara Sea
Sea. ..•
ll •
0

SIBERIA
.
�

CENTRAt v Sakbalin {
SIBERIAN I' J
PLATEAU � /
Q,0r
r' ();;:'-;
(

••

0 The Caucasus Mountains: the highest peak is
Mount Elbrus, an extinct volcano visible in the
distance, which at 5,642 m is the highest point
in Russia
0 The West Siberian Plain is a huge lowland ,
which stretches 1,600 km across and 2,400 km
from north to south. This is the largest plain in
the world. It is a vast frozen area in winter, and a
huge marshland in summer

.....,
 (:) Russia has the longest continuous coastline of any
country in the world. Stretching over 37,000 km, it
touches both the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Other
coastlines lie along part of the Baltic Sea in the north­
west, and the Black and Caspian Seas in the south. Most
of the coastline of Russia lies along waters that are
frozen for many months of the year. As a result, Russia
has few ocean ports that are free of ice all year round

Q In the east part of Russia the

Kamchatka Peninsula is a very
volcanic region. There are 70
volcanoes forming the spine of
the peninsula. The island of
Sakhalin experiences
significant earthquake activity

Activities
1 Which physical landform acts as the barrier separating the continents of Europe
and Asia?
2 Which part of Russia has active volcanoes?
3 Look at the geographical data provided about the physical landscape of Russia.
a) Write down five key statements about the physical landscape.
b) Share your ideas with a small group.
c) As a group, share all your ideas with the rest of the class, and record all the key
points made by everyone.
d) Discuss the class list of key points about the physical landscape of Russia and
agree which are the five most important.
e) Make a list of the five key statements agreed by the class.
4 Use Map A and a physical map of Russia in an atlas or use the Degree Confluence
website you explored in Lesson 1.4 (pages 8-9).
a) Work in pairs to investigate the physical landforms shown in Map A.
b) For each landform you study, record the location and dimensions of the
feature, for example the length, height, latitude and longitude.
5 On an outline map of Russia, draw and label the main features of the physical
landscape.
6 Write a paragraph describing the physical landscape of Russia.

85
 5.3 What is the climate of Russia?

(9 Climate graphs for

Learning objectives four Russian cities
► To draw a climate graph. a) Moscow
20 150
► To interpret climate graphs and isotherm maps of Russia.
125
► To describe and explain the climate of Russia. 10
100
75 E
A continental climate
� 0 E
50
Most of Russia experiences a continental climate. This is characterised -10
25
by two main seasons: long, dark cold winters with brief, often warm,
summers. Precipitation is low throughout the year. Maps A and B J FMAMJJASOND
rain/snow
show the distribution of isotherms across Russia for January and June.
Studying the average January temperatures shown in Map A, alongside
b) City 3
the summer temperatures shown in Map Band the climate graphs in C, 20 150
shows how Russia experiences a very wide range of average temperature 125
between summer and winter. This is a characteristic feature of a 10
100
continental climate. The long cold winters have a major impact on life
in Russia (see D). Russia's climate is very different from that of the UK, as 75 E
E
you will know from your investigation in Unit 4. 50
-10
25

... -� $� � -20 �..................t.L..u....1:,:...;u:,;........r..,...........:i-.. 0

�
. �

Key
,. " \ -""' < '\
.._ Q Average January temperatures
J FMAMJ JASOND
rain/snow
anuary
emperatures 0 c
--40 -10 □ c) City 4
D-30 DO 20 150
-20
125
10
100
-5°'Moscow 75 E
E

50
-10
25

0
J FMAMJ JASOND
•
Barnaul rain/snow

tL. u \
d) City 5

t
y� 'Jt ��v 20 150
Key Q Average July temperatures
- 125
v�
\

July 10
c 2[ij
� Temperatures
0
� 100
-30 015 f
•2s □10 . ' '
;, u 0 -8:! 75 E
E
020 ,·
...
�
,c) -10
50

,
I[>.
�.
,c?"9- 25

-20 0
.I! rain/snow
Moscow
-30
Yakutsk•

-4
0
L----:---r--

•
Barnaul

86 >
 Yakutsk: Journey to the coldest city on Earth

A t nunus 45° C, even wearing glasses gets tricky: the

111etal sticks to your cheeks and will tear off chunks
of flesh when you decide to remove the111.
I know this because I've just arrived in Yakutsk - a
re111ote city in Eastern Siberia (population 200, 000),
which clai111S to be the coldest city on Earth. In January,
the 111ost freezing month, average ten1.peratures are around
1ninus 40° C. Workers continue working on bt1ilding sites
t1p to 11iinus 50° C (below this the n1.etal becon1.es too
brittle to work with), and children go to school t1nless it's
below minus 55 °C.Yakutsk is the largest city in the world
bt1ilt on per 111afrost, where soil and underlying rock are
frozen all year round. Per111afrost covers 15 per cent of the
Earth's land mass, and 65 per cent of Rt1ssia's, says Mark
Shats, a researcher at Yakt1tsk's Per1nafrost Institute. 'But
other countries try to avoid building cities on per1nafrost,'
the scientist says.

t) Article from Independent, 21 January 2008

Activities
1 Look carefully at the climate graph, C, for Moscow. Think back to how you described the climate
of London using a climate graph in Lesson 4.8 (page 76). Use the same approach to describe the
climate of Moscow.
2 Table E shows the climate data for Location 2.
4) Climate data for City 2

2 6 14 20 24 25 25 24 18 12
L
4 2

150 130 100 85 60 60 85 115 125 140 155 160

a) Draw a climate graph for City 2 on graph paper.

b) Calculate the following data and label it on your climate graph:
• average monthly temperature • total annual rainfall
• temperature range
c) Use your climate graph to write a description of the climate for City 2.
3 Make a copy of the following table to summarise the key data shown on all the climate graphs.
Write the numbers for the graph locations in pencil.

4 Study Maps A and B. The five cities are named on the map. Match what you have found out about
each location's climate to the isotherm maps, to name the location of each graph. Now add the
names of the cities in your table in Question 4.
5 Look back at your work in Unit 4 to explain how the climate of Russia is different to the UK.
6 Read Article D.
a) What is permafrost?
b) How does the climate affect people's lives in Yakutsk?

< 87)
 5.4 What biomes exist in Russia?

Learning objectives
► To understand the distribution
of biomes in Russia.
► To understand how tundra
and taiga biomes have evolved
across Russia.
In Lesson 2.5 (pages 30-31) you were introduced to biomes
and studied the rainforest biomes. In Russia the biomes are very
different. Map A shows the distribution of biomes across Russia.
The Steppe is grassland, with few trees and generally fertile soil.
Temperate forests have a mixture of deciduous and coniferous
trees. Most of Russia is, however, dominated by taiga and tundra.

0 The distributiion of biomes across Russia

\ < .I •· ,

Key
'-•Temperate forest
�□ Taiga
□ Steppe
□ Tundra
Arctic
Bering
Sea
Ocean

..

Sea
of Okhotsk

Sea
of
Japan I

The taiga biome

Taiga is a biome characterised by coniferous
forests, consisting mostly of pines, spruces and
larches. The taiga is the world's largest biome
apart from the oceans. It has as many trees as the
world's rainforests. Taiga circles the Earth in the
northern hemisphere, and contains one-third of
the world's trees. It is the largest biome in Russia.
The Russian taiga represents the largest forested
region on Earth (approximately 12 million km 2 ),
and is larger than the Amazon. It contains more
than 55 per cent of the world's conifers.
C) The distribution of global taiga biomes

88 >
 Climate - work out what this is like
from the work you did last lesson
Evergreen, no need to renew leaves
during the short growing season
Thick resinous bark acts as
protection against the cold winds
Cones protect seeds in winter loss
Long shallow roots for anchorage
against strong winds
The tundra biome
Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes.
Tundra comes from the Finnish word
tunturia, meaning 'treeless plain'. It is
too cold for trees to grow. The Siberian
tundra is located in the northeastern
part of Russia between 60 ° to 80 ° North
latitude, and 70 ° to 180 ° East longitude. In
the tundra, winters are long and summers
are short. Soil forms very slowly in such
cold conditions; in fact, much is frozen
as permafrost. T he plants of the Siberian
Tundra include fungus, grasses and shrubs
growing low to the ground to be protected
from the wind and the cold. T hey group
together to keep warm. Plant roots spread
out on the surface to take in water. T hey
don't grow deep roots because the soil is
always freezing and thawing which would
break up the roots.
G) Vegetation in the tundra biome
The coniferous trees have long thin
needles, which reduce moisture loss
Downward sloping and springy
branches allow snow to slide off
Taiga soils tend to be thin, acidic and
poor in nutrients. The thinness is due to
the cold, which hinders soil development
(9 Adaptations of taiga forest
and soils to the cold climate
Activities
1 Study Map A.
a) List the different biomes in Russia.
b) Describe the distribution of biomes.
2 Compare Map A with the climate maps, A and B,
from Lesson 5.3, page 86.
a) Which biomes are in the colder parts of Russia?
b) Which biomes are in the warmer parts of Russia?
c) Write a summary paragraph to explain how
climate has influenced the development of
biomes across Russia.
3 Look carefully at Photo C.
a) What is the taiga?
b) What type of vegetation dominates this biome?
c) Why is this biome important to the planet?
d) Draw your own diagram to show how the taiga
biome has developed.
4 a) Describe the tundra biome.
b) Identify how it is similar and different to the taiga.
Stretch and challenge
Go back to the Degree Confluence website you
used in Lesson 1.4, page 8 (www.confluence.org).
a) Study a map of Russia and compare it with Map A
showing biomes.
b) Find a confluence point for each of the biomes
shown on Map A.
c) Use the photos and description of each selected
location to write your own description of what the
biome is like.
89
 5.5 Where do people live in Russia?

Learning objectives Population distribution and density

► To know what population density
is, and how it is calculated.
► To identify parts of Russia that are
densely and sparsely populated.
► To describe the distribution of
population across Russia.
► To identify reasons for the
distribution of population in Russia.
There are about 144 million people living in Russia, but where
do they all live? Map A is a population distribution map and
shows where people live, across the country. As you can see the
population of Russia is not evenly spread out. There are some areas
with many people, and others with very few people. The map uses
density to show the distribution of population. Population density
is the number of people living in a given area, usually a square
kilometre. Diagram B shows how population density is calculated.
You will learn more about this in Unit 8.

Map A divides the density of population across Russia into Population density is calculated
categories, with different colours for each. This type of map, like this:
which uses different colours to show variations between places, Total population
is a choropleth map. Places that are crowded are called densely Area
populated areas. Places that that have only a few people living there The total population of Russia is
are called sparsely populated. 144,000,000 people. The area is
17,098,246 km 2 .
Russia is by far the largest country in the world by area, but is ranked
only ninth largest worldwide by population. For instance, Russia is 70 144, 000, 000 = 8.4 people per km2
times the size of the UK, but its population is only 2.5 times greater 17, 098,246
than the UK. Despite having 144 million people, for its area Russia is So in each km 2 in Russia there are
one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. 8.4 people.

Reasons for population distribution

People usually choose to live in places that have positive features
e How to calculate population
density
that make life easy and mean communities can grow and prosper.
These include rich soils for farming, good communication options
such as ports, and temperate weather conditions. People are less
attracted to live in places that have negative factors that make life
harder, including difficult landscapes such as mountains or deserts,
harsh climates and risks of floods or earthquakes.
But even where climate and landscape are extreme, people
sometimes decide to live if the economic gain makes this
worthwhile. Seventy-seven per cent of Russia's population live in
the European part of the country, west of the Ural Mountains.
0 Western Siberia Tundra
e Farming on the North
European Plain
9 Moscow skyline

G) St Petersburg port G Kamchatka volcano

90 >
( . C":h - V
J
I

\
I

Key
Per sq km Cities
• over 100 ■ Over 5 000 000
- 50-100 D 2 000 000-5 000 000
25-50 • 1 000 000-2 000 000
Q
1-25 O 250 000-1 000 000
_./
Under 1 o Under 250 000 Arctic
East I Bering
Uninhabited Siberian Sea Sea
Ocean
I
I �·
I
Barents
Sea
.. ,;
pr
Laptev
Sea

J
r--,

,Jv1aga n

·\
Sea
of Okhotsk ·.
I

Sea

"-.
. of Japa()

() The population density of Russia

Activities
1 a) What does population density mean?
b) How is population density calculated?
c) What is the total population of Russia?
d) What is the population density of Russia?
e) Why do you think population density is
more useful than the figure for total
population. (You need to consider the
number of people and the size of the area
they live in.)
2 Look carefully at Map A.
a) What do sparsely and densely populated
mean?
b) Which categories of the key for the map do
you think show densely populated areas?
c) Which categories show sparsely populated
areas?
d) Write a paragraph to describe the distribution
of population in Russia. Divide the country
into densely and sparsely populated areas.
e) Where are the cities located?
3 For each of the photographs C-G:
a) Identify if the place has positive or negative
factors in terms of being a habitable place.
b) How do these factors make life easier or
more difficult?
c) How do you think this will lead to high or
low population density?
4 Look back at what you have learnt so far in
this unit about the physical geography of
Russia.
a) Explain why, despite being the largest
country in the world in terms of area, Russia
is sparsely populated.
b) Identify reasons why much of Russia is
sparsely populated.
c) Identify reasons for the distribution of the
more densely populated areas of Russia.

C 91 >
 5.6 Does geography help or hinder the
Russian economy?

Learning objectives Russia has an abundance of natural resources. It produces 20 per

cent of the world's natural gas and is the world's leading producer
► To classify economic activity. of oil. Russia is self-sufficient in all major industrial raw materials,
► To understand Russia's economic and contains the eighth largest crude oil reserves. Russia also
structure. exports steel and aluminium. About 20 per cent of the world's
► To understand how the size and forests lie in Russia, supplying much of the world's timber: pine, fir,
physical geography of Russia spruce and cedar. This is not surprising considering that Russia is
affects economic growth. the largest country in the world. But it is the vastness of the country
coupled with its harsh physical geography that creates problems for
economic growth. As you can see on Map A, much of the natural
resources are in the north and Siberia.
0 Russia's natural resources
J ' I \.l.. \
Key
Land use
D Commercial farming D Hunting and gathering ■ Coal □ Tungsten
D Manufacturing and trade 0 Petroleum O Platinum
D Subsistence farming
. D Forests D Commercial fishing CD Natural gas □ Gold G
,,,..,............ ■ Iron ore O Copper
�D Livestock raising D Little or no activity 0 Nickel ■ Lead Bering
□
� o\,, Nomadic herding ■ Bauxite • Zinc Sea
• Manganese □ Tin
,&)
�r:J,
Ocean ..
• f

rn
• ow
� .0 01
t-:---., f ■'Barie OJY
■ gOf00
i
:t
he t Kazqn • Oa� •
I
'""
\nffll� •
a O'i '
0 RUSSIA t

Economic sector % of
jobs
I
Rank Country Crude oil production:
barrels per day
0 Global production
of crude oil
Primary Russia
--� 9.4 1 10 550 000
Secondary 27.6 2 Saudi Arabia 10 460 000
-----I

Tertiary 63 3 USA 8 853000

Iraq
Q Russia's economic 4 4 452000
structure 5 I 1ran 3981 000
6 China 3 6 79 000
"
7 Canada 310 6 000
8 I United Arab Emirates 2924000
9 Kuwait 2515 000
10 Brazil 2277000

92 >

4:) Article from
The Guardian,
19 February 2004
Is Russia too big?
C an Rt1ssia - or any nation­
state - ever be too big? More
territory would lead to 1nore
resot1rces. St1rely yot1 cot1ld never
have enough? This is not the case
for Russia.
Fuel deliveries to Siberian
towns are esti111ated to cost about
£350 1n per year. It would be
1nore efficient to fly people in to
extract the oil, gas, nickel, gold
and dian1.onds in Siberia rather
than have fully functioning cities
in st1ch extren1.e conditions.
Of the 100 coldest cities in
the northern hemisphere, 85 are
in Russia, ten in Canada, and five
in the USA.
As soon as these Russian cities
were established, they, and the
co111munications lines to then1.,
began to break down. Everything
is in need of constant repair due
to the extreme cold; at -35 ° C,
steel strt1ctures collapse en 111asse.
Siberia was not so 1nuch the
region of the greatest, wealthiest
resources ren1.aining in the world.
It was a bottoni.less pit, in tern1.s
of the 1noney required to keep
cities in the region working so
the natt1ral resources of the region
cottld be extracted. Clearly the
size of Russia has its problems. In
December 2002 President Putin's
econo1nic advisor st1rmned things
t1p as follows: Russia has 11.2 per
cent of the world's territory, bt1t
only 2.3 per cent (shrinking fast) of
the global population and a n1.ere
1.1 per cent of the world's wealth.
C) Russian railway lines
,·
I
!
Russian transportation has to move raw material vast distances from
the empty area of the east to the manufacturing cities of the west.
Many of the roads are in poor condition because of the constant
maintenance needed due to damage from the extreme cold. Russia
depends on railways including the world's longest railway line, the
Trans-Siberian railroad. Even here, as you can see in Map E, the rail
network avoids the freezing north.
Activities
1 Study Map A.
a) Describe the distribution of Russia's natural resources.
b) !\Jame the main types of farming in Russia.
c) Compare the distribution of farming with what you have
learnt about the distribution of biomes and the climate of
Russia.
2 a) Draw a pie chart to show the economic sectors of
Russia.
b) Write a paragraph comparing the pattern of sectors with
the countries you studied in Unit 3.
3 a) Draw a bar chart to show the size of production of
the top ten oil producers in the world.
b) Think back to Units 2 and 3. Now describe how important
Russia is as a leading world source of natural resources.
4 Study Article D and Map E.
a) Think about what you have learnt so far about the physical
geography, biomes and climate of Russia, as well as the
distribution of population.
b) Write a paragraph to explain why the size of Russia and its
physical geography create problems for the growth of the
economy.
5 Write a paragraph to answer the enquiry title question: Does
geography help or hinder the Russian economy?
< 93
 5.7 What is GIS and how can I use it to
investigate Russia?

Learning objectives What is GIS?

► To know what a Geographical
Information System is.
► To investigate a region of Russia can focus on looking at patterns and make decisions. The data is
using GIS.
0An example of GIS data layers
GIS means Geographical Information System. A GIS works on
a computer; the software connects data to maps quickly so you
organised in layers, as shown in Diagram A. When you use the GIS
software you can switch the data layers on and off, as well as bring
up layers together. This allows you to make comparisons between
different sorts of data. To plot data on a map, the GIS system needs
to ensure the data is in the right location. GIS links to latitude and
longitude and postcodes. Most mobile phones have a built in GPS
or global positioning system that gives the phone's latitude and
longitude. In Lessons 1.3 and 5.3, you used the Degree Confluence
website to investigate places; this is a form of GIS. In this lesson you
are going to use Google Earth to investigate different places in Russia.

What is Google Earth?

Google Earth is a geobrowser that allows you to view the Earth
through satellite and aerial imagery, and other geographic data over
the internet. It represents the Earth as a three-dimensional globe.
You can search places and can pan, zoom, rotate, and tilt the view
of the Earth. You can also use tools to create your data. Diagrams B
and C show the main tools you can use with the software. Google
Earth provides you with access to views of the whole world. Yes,
you can even see your own house: type in your postcode and
Google Earth zooms straight to it! Wherever you move to you can
always see the latitude and longitude in the bottom right-hand
corner of the screen.

Menu Toolbar Sign in button

Search �;: ... ,.. ....

pane- �-- Drag to rotate the view.
�- Navigator Click to set north to top of view.

··•--­
--
controls
�- Click an arrow on the look joystick to
Places ·-­ look in that direction.

··-
pane- ' -

-
,,._
• Click or hold on an arrow or between
arrows on the move joystick to move
. • -,_,
a, ..
. _ 3D your viewpoint.
•-
r--­ viewer

Drag the zoom slider

Layers , ·-
•--
pane - -:--
.·
---
·:-
-­
·-
or click + or - to zoom in or out.

. _._._,
t

·�-
•-..-
_
...

Tour guide Location of Status bar

when Tour guide is closed

Q A screenshot of Google Earth 0 Google Earth navigational tools

94 >
--
(:) Google Street view of Yakutsk, Russia Using Google
Earth to
investigate
Russia
• You can start by typing
'Russia' into the search
window.
• The 3D globe will then
move to a view of the
country.
• You can then start to pan
around Russia and start to
find out what it is like.
• You can use the zoom tool
to investigate local places.
• As you zoom through
Activities the scales you can even
see individual streets by
1 What is GIS?
selecting the Google Street
2 How is the data organised in a GIS? view icon (a small person),
3 How does the GIS software connect different data to the base and dragging him to the
map? location you want to view.
4 Study Diagram A. What layer of geographical data would be useful • People have also uploaded
to investigate what different places in Russia are like?
their own photos of places
5 Look carefully at the Google Street View image (0). to Google Earth. Image D
a) What place in Russia does it show? is a Google Street view of
b) Find out the latitude and longitude of this place? the Cathedral at Yakutsk in
c) Describe what the image shows about Yakutsk, using the Russia.
enquiry questions.
d) How is the place similar and different to where you live?
6 Log onto Google Earth on a computer, and experiment with the
tools shown in B and C. Enter 'Russia' in the search window and
zoom down to see different places.
7 As a class, look back at what you have learnt so far about Russia.
Select six places you think are important to study further using
Google Earth. Divide into six groups and each can investigate a
different place selected.
8 Each group needs to collect geographical data for their location
in Russia, from Google Earth, to show what the place is like.
Remember to select different data layers.
9 Each group can present five key points they have discovered
about their place to the rest of the class. Each group could
also print out and save their geographical data and produce a
classroom display of their findings.

.A...
95 ►
 5.8 Why did Russia plant their flag on
the seabed of the North Pole? Part 1

Learning objectives In 2007, Russian explorers carried out scientific research on the
ocean floor, 4,200 m below the North Pole. In a record-breaking
► To locate the Arctic. dive, the two mini submarines planted a one metre-high titanium
► To consider different points of Russian flag on the underwater Lomonosov ridge, which Russia
view about the future of the claims is directly connected to its continental shelf. In this double
Arctic. lesson you will investigate the reasons for, and implications of, this
from a variety of viewpoints.

The Arctic is a region of great importance, Who owns the Arctic?

it will provide for the future of our Russia.
With certainty, we can say that our
power and opportunities will grow with
the expansion into the Arctic. Natural
resources, which are of paramount
importance for the Russian economy, are
concentrated in this region.
Q President Putin speaking about the Arctic
What is the Arctic like?
The Arctic is a region surrounding
the North Pole that consists of
a large ocean, the Arctic Ocean,
surrounded by land. Most
commonly, the Arctic is defined as
the region north of the Arctic Circle,
a line of latitude. The Arctic is the
northernmost region of Earth. Most
of the Arctic is liquid saltwater. Some
parts of the ocean's surface remain
frozen all, or most, of the year. This
frozen seawater is called sea ice.
Often, sea ice is covered with a
thick blanket of snow. This is a very
hostile environment, with winter
temperatures averaging -40 ° C.
The countries that border the Arctic are shown
on Map B. As with other regions of the world,
international law states that Arctic countries
are allowed an exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
of 200 nautical miles bordering their coastline.
Each country can also increase its claim up to
350 nautical miles from its shoreline for areas
that can be proven to be an extension of that
country's continental shelf. To make this claim, a
nation must collect geological data that shows
the geographic extent of its continental shelf. This
is then submitted to a United Nations committee
who make the final decision. If successful, it gives
that country control of all the resources on or
under the region of the continental shelf. This is
why Russia is conducting scientific research on
the seabed and why they have planted a Russian
flag there.
0 The Arctic borders
Key
USA - Agreed borders
---- Equidistant border
---- 200-mile line
D Russian-claimed territory
. � I • Lomonosov Ridge
� D Disputed area
CANADA

0 North Pole: Russia leaves its flag

on the seabed, 4,000 m (13,100 ft)
RUSSIA
0
beneath the surface
Lomonosov Ridge: Russia argues
that is underwater ridge is actually
GREENLAND
0
connected to the Russian landmass
200-nautical mile (370 km) line: Shows

0
how far countries agreed.
Russian-claimed territory: The bid to
claim a vast area is being closely watched
by other countries

96
 C) Article from The Guardian, 29 May 2009

New survey of Arctic's mineral

riches could stoke international
strife

T he battle for the Arctic's hidden 1nineral riches

is likely to intensify after a st1rvey revealing the
energy reserves present beneath the ice.
A n1.ap of potential oil and gas reserves in the region,
published today in Science, shows that abot1t 30 per cent
of the world's unexploited gas and 13 per cent of oil,

e A political cartoon on the Arctic situation

lie under the seas around the North Pole. Billions of
barrels of oil and trillions of cubic feet of gas lie within
the Arctic Circle, where, until now, permanent ice has
C:) Maritime zones prevented drilling. One-third of that oil and 111ore than
; Contiguous ; nautical mile (nm) half of the gas is buried on and off Rt1ssia's coastline.
: zone - : . To a maximum of 350 nm from the
The report is likely to fi1rther stoke international
-...,J
Coast/baseline : Limited •
: law- :
12 n�enforcement 24 nm
coast/baseline or 100 nm beyond the
2500 metre isobath. whichever is greatest
200 nm • con1.petition for 1nineral, tourisn1. and shipping rights in
zone
Temtonal: :.--------=---,--,-----,------+-------+-: : The High Seas
----------.!
the region. Exploration and drilling for oil and gas have
sea Exclusive economic zone
Extended beco1ne easier as war11iing temperatures melt the ice, and
Sovereignty : continental
extends to the : shelf all countries with borders inside the Arctic Circle are
-
water column.
to the airspace fighting to claim their share. 'For better or worse, lii1iited
above, and to
the sea bed
Conti nenta I :shelf
- exploration prospects in the rest of the world co1nbined
Deep sea bed area
and the subsoil with technological advances 111ake the Arctic increasingly
Sovereign rights over natur a I
Sovereign rights
over natural
attractive for develop111ent; said Paul Berkman of the Scott
Sovereignty resources of the water column and
the sea bed and subsoil
resources of the
sea bed and subsoil
Polar Research Institute at the University of Cai11bridge.

.---- Minimal Gold I Iron g The Arctic and its

and average
ice coverage I Lead � Diamonds bordering nations
Copper
IOil and gas
Silver • production

I Zinc 0, 100% proved

oil/gas reserves
• Tin
- Current national borders
and 200 sea mile zone

. . .
···.North Art:tic Ocean "----. borders

.•
.. • • • • • Territorial claim in the
North Arctic Ocean
·. .. (currently international
waters), disputed in some
cases
� Important retreat areas
�--

,,
for female polar bears
and their offspring
/

...
' 90 billion 47 billion
barrels of m 3 of
oil or 13% natural gas
of world or 30%, of
reserves world
reserves
In addition, close to 20%, of the world's
reserves of liquid gas (so far unextractable
using conventional methods)

97
 5.9 Why did Russia plant their flag on the
seabed of the North Pole? Part 2

Russian tanker sails through Arctic

What is the environmental
without icebreaker for the first time
impact?
Environmental pressure groups, such as

T �e �orthern sea rot1te between Siberia and the Pacific

1s still closed to conventional shipping for n1.t1ch of
the year. But the Christophe de Margerie has been specially
designed to carry a cargo fron1. the new Yai11al Megaproject
gasfields to Asia. It is the first in a fleet of 15 tankers built
to serve the Yan1.al plant. The ships can carry shiploads of
up to 172,600 cubic tons of liquefied natural gas. This new
ship allows transportation along the northern sea route
all year rot1nd instead of just for four 1nonths. Bill Spears,
spokesperson for the co1npany that owns the tanker. 'There's
always been trade along this route but it's been restricted a
lot by the ice. It's exciting that this route presents a 111uch
shorter alternative than the Suez route. It's a major saving.'
Greenpeace, are very concerned about the
potential environmental damage that these
economic developments will have on the fragile
Arctic environment. They have begun a world
campaign, Save the Arctic, to make people aware
of the issues of opening up this environment.
Arctic oil drilling is a dangerous, high-risk enterprise.
An oil spill under these icy waters would have a
catastrophic impact on one of the most pristine,
unique and beautiful landscapes on Earth. The risks
of such an accident are ever present. While Russia
produces 12 per cent of the world's oil, it is responsible
for roughly half the world's oil spills.

C) Article from The Guardian, 24 August 2017

'

Atlantic
Ocean

, N
ea

0 Greenpeace protesters
,
I,j

''
''
I
I

What is the impact for local

I
I
I

people?
Survival is a global pressure group that protects
,,
--�- --....L...------'....l....,
the rights of tribal peoples around the world.
Northern Sea Route -
,,,,-'
takes 35 days and covers One of their campaigns supports the rights of
7,600 nautical miles the Nenets, the indigenous population of Arctic
Russia, who live on the Yamal Peninsula. Nenets
Suez Canal Route -
takes 48 days and covers herders have always moved seasonally with their
11,300 nautical miles
reindeer.
Key The Yamal Megaproject was developed here in
D Potential oil and gas fields the 1990s to extract the large gas reserves of the
D Extent of Arctic sea ice region. The Nenets' migration routes are now
I affected by the gas and oil pipelines, making it
C) Activities that become possible if the Arctic difficult to move the reindeer herds. Pollution also
ice melts threatens the quality of the pastures.

98 >
We are afraid that with all
these new industries, we
will not be able to migrate
anymore. And if we cannot
migrate anymore, our
people may just disappear
a !together.
Nenets herder Sergei Hudi
8 Nenets herder
Activities
You are going to conduct a geographical
enquiry using the geographical data in Lessons
5.8 and 5.9. You will also find it useful to think
back about what you have learnt in Units 1-4
as well as in this unit about Russia.
1 a) Where is the Arctic?
b) At which lines of latitude is it located?
2 What is the Arctic like?
3 Think back to Unit 4 and write a paragraph to
explain why the Arctic is so cold.
4 Look carefully at Map B and Diagram D.
a) Which countries border the Arctic?
b) How can these countries claim right of
ownership in the Arctic?
c) What is Russia claiming about the
Lomonosov Ridge?
d) How will this help Russia claim rights in the
Arctic?
5 Study Article E and Map F.
a) Why do the countries that border the
Arctic want to claim increased rights of
ownership in the region?
b) Write a paragraph describing the location
of minerals that have been discovered in
the Arctic.
6 Look at the cartoon (C). What is the message
of the cartoon?
7 Study Map G and Article H.
a) What is the purpose of this new class of
icebreaking tanker?
b) What type of cargo has it been designed
to carry?
c) What is the Northern Sea route?
d) Why is it now possible to use it for more of
the year?
e) Why is the route important for Russia's
exports of gas?
f) What are the advantages of this shipping
route compared to the traditional Suez
Canal route?
So far in this enquiry you have focused on the
economic advantages of Arctic developments
for Russia. However, these projects do have
environmental risks. Other groups of people
have different views to those expressed by
Vladimir Putin in Lesson 5.8, Image A {page 96).
8 a) What is Greenpeace?
b) What concerns do they have about oil and
gas developments in the Arctic?
9 a) What is Survival?
b) Who are the Nenets?
c) What is the Yamal Megaproject?
d) What concerns do the Nenets have about
this development?
Write a concluding paragraph to this enquiry
about the Arctic. Answer the following big
questions:
10 a) Why did Russia plant their flag on the
seabed of the North Pole?
b) What are the economic gains for Russia in
the Arctic?
c) What are the environmental costs?
11 Reread the vision statement for Progress in
Geography on Map-flap A. Identify how these
two lessons have supported you in making
progress towards becoming a geographer.
99
 5.10 Is the geography of Russia a curse
or a benefit? Review

In this unit you have learnt:

► where Russia is located 8
► what Russia is like
► the physical landscape, climate and
natural environment of Russia
► how has Russia's physical geography
influenced its human geography
► how important Russia is to the world.
Let's see what you have
remembered and understood!
Our size is our strength! We
have lots of natural resources
that the rest of the world Russia is vast. The majority of
needs. The size of our country Russian people I know from the
means we are in two continents most densely populated western
and can trade our natural part of the country have never
resources with both European travelled east, and never seen
and Asian countries. A unique other parts of Russia.
and powerful position to be in!

Yes, the weather is I often get asked what Russia is like.

famous for being cold. But what I -And
amazing is the range of temperature.
In Moscow I experienced both 28° C
and -28 ° C in the same year!
It depends greatly on the region.
Moscow is almost a separate state
with a much higher standard of living;
St Petersburg is also above average.
Smaller cities and towns are poorer.
In general, the smaller the town, the
worse, except for some towns built in
oil-rich areas.

4) A postcard from Russia

< 100 I
'-.../
 5 Is the geography of Russia a curse or a benefit?
0 Article from Earth, 28 November 2017
What continent is Russia officially in?
R t1ssia is in the news these days. Rt1ssia is also
worth discussing because of its sheer physical size
and unique geographical location.
What continent is Russia in?
T wenty-three per cent in Europe, seventy-seven per
cent in Asia.
With a total area of 144,463,200 km2 , Rt1ssia is the
largest nation on Earth. The whole of Et1rope is, in fact,
s1naller than Russia, covering only an area of 10,180,000
km2 • So, how can Russia be in Europe? The quickest
answer to that qt1estion is that Russia is only partially in
Europe. Russia, in fact, has part of its territory in Europe
and part of it in Asia. Although all lists of continents
include Et1rope and Asia as two distinct continents,
the fact is that Europe and Asia for111 one continuing
landinass stretching all the way fron1. the Atlantic Ocean
in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. Rt1ssia's
territory straddles both continents, which gives it a
true Eurasian character that can also be observed in the
cot1ntry's ct1ltural and ethnic n1.ake-t1p. Russia, of course,
is not the only cot1ntry that has part of its territory on
two different continents.
How much of Russia is in Europe and
how much in Asia?
B efore answering that qt1estion we need to define
the borders of Europe and Asia. In other words,
we need to know where Europe's eastern border is
situated. The accepted 'natural' border between Europe
and Asia is the Ural Mountains. So the land west of
the Urals is part of Et1rope, and anything east of it is
Asia. It is generally accepted now that 23 per cent of
Russia is in Europe and 77 per cent in Asia. But if we
look at demographics, the overwhelming part of the
population lives in the European part of Russia. The
largest and 1nost populated cities in Russia (Moscow, St
Petersburg) are in Europe. Officially, Rt1ssia itself doesn't
define itself as either a European or an Asian country.
Unofficially, if we asked arot1nd (both in Russia and
abroad), 1nost people wot1ld probably say that Russia is
in Europe.
Activities
1 In the introductory lesson to this unit, 5.1,
you were presented with facts about the
country. Now create your own list of the
ten facts or most important things you
have learnt about Russia in this unit.
2 Plot the different places in Russia you have
studied on an outline map of the country.
3 Read the four views of Russians about
their country, A-D.
a) Identify the key aspects of the country
that the views are about.
b) Consider each view to decide whether
it is a positive or negative view of the
country. Justify your choices.
4 Read Article F.
a) What percentage of Russia is in Asia
and what percentage is in Europe?
b) Why is this different if you consider
the distribution of Russia's population?
5 Look carefully at the Russian postcard (E).
a) Postcards are sent from holidays. They
usually show the highlights of a place;
a biased view. What image of Russia is
this card portraying?
b} Think what you have learnt about
Russia in this unit and design your
own postcard that presents a less
biased view of Russia.
6 a) Draw a two-column table, headed
'Benefits of geography' and 'Curse of
geography'.
b) Using what you have learnt in this unit,
write a list of points in each column.
c) Write a paragraph to answer the unit
enquiry question: Is the geography of
Russia a curse or a benefit?
Future learning
You will have opportunities to further
progress your locational knowledge of
the world throughout this course, but
particularly in Units 10 Asia, 12 Africa, and
13 The Middle East.
< 101 >
In this unit you will learn:
► what rivers are and how water flows into
them
► how weathering, erosion and
transportation create river landforms
► to identify river landforms on OS maps
► why rivers are important to people.
A river is water flowing downhill in a channel.
Rivers are important for many reasons: they shape
the landscape, supply us with water, influence the
location of settlements, and provide us with a
means of travel, power and recreation. A river,
then, can be a friend to people, but it can also be
a foe - when it floods it can kill and destroy. You
will investigate all of these in this unit.
0 The River Tees from source to mouth

The source, or beginning, of the River Tees is Cross Fell, located in

Cumbria, in the Pennines. The source is marked by the stone shown
in Photo B. The Tees flows eastwards for 137 km, where it enters
the North Sea. The point where a river enters the sea is called its
mouth, as shown in Photo C.

0 The source of the River Tees


1 What is a river?
2 What is the source and mouth of a river?
3 Look carefully at Photos A-C and Map-flap C.
a) The photos, B and C, were taken at grid
references 578242 and 697338 on the
maps on Map-flap C. Match the photos to
the grid references.
b) Use the satellite image (A) and photo (B)
to describe the location and landscape of
the source of the River Tees. You will find
it useful to use the enquiry questions from
Lesson 1.1 (pages 2-3) for this.
e The mouth of the River Tees
In this unit, you will investigate one river
in detail, the River Tees, in northern
England. This river is shown in Image A
from source to mouth. Map-flap C
provides 1:50 000 OS maps for three
locations along the course of the river,
shown as 1-3 on Image A. These OS
maps will help you investigate the
different river landforms throughout this
unit. These river landforms can be
found in most river valleys. There may
be a river in your local area you could
study as well.
You will also explore river flooding and
how it can be managed.
c) Describe how the source and mouth of
the River Tees are different in terms of
width, depth and other features.
d) List evidence that shows different ways
that people use the source and mouth of
the River Tees.
4 How important do you think rivers are to
people? Write a paragraph to explain your view.
5 a) What is the nearest river to where you live?
b) Find a map that shows the course of your
local river, and use it to draw a sketch map to
show the river from its source to its mouth.
 6.2 How does water flow into rivers?

Learning objectives
► To understand what the water cycle is.
► To understand how water flows into rivers.
• • •
• •• • • • •• •
• •
What is the water cycle?
The water cycle is the journey water takes between
the hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere.
At its most simple this involves:
• evaporation - when the Sun heats water it
changes into water vapour and rises into the air
0 The water cycle
• condensation - as air rises it cools and the
water vapour forms clouds
• precipitation - water droplets form and fall to Condensation
the ground as rain, hail or snow
' '
• rivers - water flows in rivers to the sea.
This simple cycle is shown in Figure A.
" t
What happens when water - Interception by
plants

reaches the ground? Stemflow through

plants
If you go outside your classroom and pour water on
different surfaces you can see what happens. It may: t
Surface storage
(puddles, lakes)
- Surface run off -
• be intercepted by plants
t
• be stored on the surface in a puddle
• soak in - infiltrating into the soil
t
• run off down a slope Soil water Throughflow -
• evaporate immediately. t
Percolation
These processes are all part of the water cycle, but through rock
if you add them to a diagram like the one in Figure A
it gets much more complicated, as Figure D shows. Groundwater Groundwater flow .
This is why geographers use systems diagrams like
the one in Figure B to clearly show a range of
-
stores and how they are linked by transfers.
t
- Sea -

4) A water cycle systems diagram

v�1;
·"'�, ;,?":1 0 What happens when water
hits the ground? Give it a try!
 / Precipitation

Clouds
How does the water get from
the source to the mouth?
/

Condensation
A drainage basin is an area of land which feeds a
river, see Diagram E. All of the precipitation that
Infiltration falls in this area will flow into the river through
Evaporation Transpiration
Surface
surface run-off, throughflow and groundwater
run off flow, as shown in Diagram D. There is a divide
between one drainage basin and another, called
the watershed. This is marked with a dashed line
Ocean
on Diagram E.

(:) A more complicated water cycle diagram

--
,,, -
... - ....
''
/

I
· Drainage basin
I
//'-
I ' ..............
1// ....... ,,,
1 �
1
..---:-s- � Channel
'" :,._"-=
I / \
\
\
\
I
'
\
\ I
\
\ I
I
I () A hydrologist at work
/,\
,- Hydrologists study how water flows across the
land. They research and measure groundwater,
and the drainage basin processes. It is important
Q A river's drainage basin that hydrologists study these processes to better
understand river floods and droughts.

Activities
1 Look at the simple water cycle in Figure A. 5 Look carefully at Diagram E.
Make a copy of this diagram and add labels to a) What is a drainage basin?
show evaporation, condensation, precipitation b) Make your own copy of Diagram E.
and rivers. c) Label the following on your diagram:
2 Draw a table with columns labelled: ·surface watershed, source, mouth, tributary.
type' and 'Observations'. Go out of your 6 Write definitions of all the key terms introduced
classroom and pour water on different surfaces in this lesson, using the Glossary (page 302) to
(grass, soil, concrete, etc.) as is shown in Photo help you.
C. Record your findings in your table.
7 a) What does a hydrologist do?
3 Write a paragraph to explain how the water b) What do you think the hydrologist is doing in
cycle works.
Photo F?
4 a) Make a copy of the water cycle systems c) Why do you think it is important we
diagram shown in Figure B.
understand how water gets into rivers?
b) Add the following terms in the blank boxes:
d) Compare what you have learnt about
precipitation, evaporation, infiltration and river.
hydrologists with the vision statement for
c) Add all the key terms shown in Diagram D to Progress in Geography on Map-flap A.
your copy of the water cycle from Question 1.
Explain why you think hydrologists are
excellent geographers?
 6.3 What work do rivers do?

Learning objectives
► To know the terms erosion, transportation, deposition.
► To understand how rivers erode, transport and deposit material.

How do rivers erode landscapes?

River erosion is the wearing away of the banks and bed of the river by the power of
the flowing water in the channel. Rivers flow downhill from higher land due to gravity.
Where the gradient of the river in upland areas is steep, the river is fast-flowing,
providing more energy to erode landscapes. The river channel is full of bits of rock
and finer material, which is called bedload. This bedload is eroded, transported and
deposited by the river. T here are four ways that rivers erode, shown in Diagram A.
• Abrasion - the material being carried by the river hits the sides and bed of the
channel, each impact breaking pieces off the bed and banks.
• Attrition - rocks and stones in the river bang against each other, chipping bits off
so the rocks become more rounded and smaller.
• Hydraulic action - the force of the water pushes into cracks in the rock at the bed
and banks, breaking bits off.
• Corrosion - rocks such as chalk and limestone are dissolved in the river water and
carried away as dissolved material.
0 Types of river erosion How do rivers transport
material?
Hydraulic
action

As rock is eroded by rivers it is then transported.

If a river is flowing fast, either where it flows
Attrition across a steep gradient, or after heavy rain when
-L Corrosion there is a greater volume of water in the channel,
the river can transport or carry more material.
Transportation happens in four different ways, as
shown in Diagram B.

4) River transportation processes

•• ..
... ..... ...........
• • • •• • • • •• • •
...
• .•"• • ••• • • • •• • .• •• • •
:.
Suspension: The water Solution: The dissolved
••• •••• •• • • • • • • • • •• • •
.···.•. •-.-.. . ...
carries along fine, light material is transported
. . .
···· .
. . ... : ....•
• •• • • • •
particles of material

Traction: Boulders and large Saltation: Small pebbles

rocks are slowly rolled along and stones are bounced
•
. .
, , - - - , the bed of the river along the river bed

. . • .• •• . . . . .. .•.'� . .. ..· .
,, ••
•• ' I
• ' -------... ... ,-- ------- - ...
. ..• •.•• .,, '.
• •
,"
,;
. •
,""
'"",<:
... ...
•
River bed
Why do rivers deposit their load?
Deposition takes place when a river slows down
and no longer has the energy to carry the material
it is transporting, so it drops some. The larger rock
fragments are dropped first due to their greater
weight; finer materials are deposited later, when
the river has even less energy.
e Bedload below the
surface of the river
G) A bend in the
River Tees
Activities
1 Write definitions of erosion, deposition and
transportation, using the Glossary (page 302)
to help you.
2 What is the bedload of a river?
3 Write a paragraph to explain how a river
erodes landscapes. You can draw diagrams as
part of your explanation.
4 Which process of erosion has likely caused
the following? In each case explain your
choice.
a) This has made rocks smoother, smaller
and more rounded.
b) This has made the river banks weaker.
c) This has made the bedload disappear.
d) This has widened and deepened the river
channel.
The energy of a river decreases, leading to
deposition if:
• the gradient of the river or the volume of water
decreases
• the water slows down on the inside of a bend
in the river
• the river channel becomes shallower
• the river enters a lake or the sea.
5 Draw a cartoon strip or mind map to show
the four ways that a river transports bedload.
6 Write a paragraph to explain why and where a
river deposits material.
7 Look carefully at Photo C.
a) What different processes are happening at
the locations 1-3 in the photo?
b) Justify your choice in each case.
8 Look carefully at Photo D.
a) What different transportation processes
are happening at the locations 1-3 in the
photo?
b) Justify your choice in each case.
 6.4 How do rivers change from source
to mouth?

Learning objectives
► To understand how a river
changes from source to mouth.
► To know what the long profile
of a river is.
► To be able to draw a cross­
section from an OS map.
The river processes you studied last lesson form a series of different
landforms. Although no two rivers are alike, many share a similar
long profile, which shows changes in the gradient of a river from
source to mouth and cross profile, the slopes across the valley.
Map A uses GIS to show the River Tees and its long profile. You can
use this online to see how the gradient of the Tees changes from
source to mouth. The river creates different landforms in its upper,
middle and lower courses.

0 The long profile of the River Tees , from ArcGIS

tliwtlci,ool

..
Re I •

SI <IICfl
�n Te

..

..

In the upper course, rivers have a steep gradient, as you

can see in the long profile of Map A. T he Tees is flowing
quickly across this slope, down the Pennines. This gives
the river the energy, but there is not a lot of water in the
channel so it erodes downwards, creating steep valley
sides, and a narrow valley floor filled by the river
channel. This is known as vertical erosion and it creartes
a v-shaped valley. The river doesn't have the power to
cut through hills so it winds around them, leaving a spur
of land jutting out from the valley side. These are called
interlocking spurs; the river zig zags around these
spurs, as shown in Photo B.

0 Interlocking spurs
You can create your own cross-profiles for the valley by First go back to Lesson 1.7 (page 14) and remind yourself
drawing a cross-section using the contour lines on the OS how height and slopes are shown on OS maps with
maps on Map-flap C. contour lines. Then follow the stages outlined below.

How to draw a cross-section

1 Place a straight-edged piece of paper across the OS map, between two locations, either
e Step 2

side of the valley.

-
787

2 Mark off every point where a contour line crosses the edge of your paper. Record the I

height of each contour. Remember: contours are drawn every 10 m. Some have their
height marked on them. Every fifth contour is shown with a thicker line - every 50 m.
3 Draw a vertical axis for your cross-section, using a scale of
1 cm for 100 m for a 1:50 000 map.
-650
4 Place your piece of paper on the bottom edge of your graph as shown in D. Draw a dot on the -River Tees
=650
correct height line on your axis, directly above each contour line marked on your piece of paper. -
5 Join the dots together with a smooth, freehand, curved line. Shade in below the line. -700

6 Label the main physical and human features along the line of the cross-section. Add a title
to the vertical axis, and write the six-figure grid references for the two end points.
'
Litt.le �n fell
842 "'- -750
• 710329
,. ,

4:) Step 3 Q Step 6 ·-.""·

Great l:
800 800
848•
River channel
700 700

600 ISl 600

500 +-> 500 OS map
400 -� 400
.µ Piece of
300 �300
-� paper
200 :r: 200

100 100

a aa a�
LOLO aLO LO
CT)
N LO <.£><.£>
CT)
N
t<) r:--- r:--- t<) t<)
a �

River Tees r=::

Activities
1 What are the long profile and cross profile of the upper course of a river.
a river? b) Label the river channel, v-shaped valley and
2 Look carefully at Map A and view the ArcGis interlocking spurs on your sketch.
version at https://bit.ly/2kWG4il. c) Write a paragraph to explain how these
a) Draw your own copy of the long profile for features are formed.
the River Tees. 4 a) Draw a cross-section from 710351 to
b) Look back at Lesson 6.1, Map A, on page 710329 for the upper course of the
102, and mark the locations of the three River Tees on Map 1, Map-flap C. Use the
OS maps on your long profile. guidance above to help you.
c) Write a paragraph describing how the b) Draw a second cross-section from 755350
gradient of the River Tees changes from to 755320.
source to mouth. c) Compare your two cross-sections, and
3 Study Photo B. describe how the River Tees changes over
a) Draw a fieldsketch of the river landscape for this distance.
 6.5 How do rivers shape the land?

Learning objectives
► To identify and explain the formation of river Waterfall
landforms - waterfall, meanders, ox-bow lakes. retreats upstream

► To identify river landforms on OS maps and Hard rock above topples

-- - I ------------------------------·
River over under its own weight
photographs.
I
Hard rock Former position of waterfall
\ showing location of
Erosion, transportation and deposition occur Softer rock \ retreat and gorge
Waterfalls are
in all rivers. Each process has a role to play in often formed Undercutting: Eddy f':i Pebbles, stones
the formation of different river landforms. In where hard rock currents and turbulence -+--- (i and boulders
·
the previous lesson, you d ·1scovered how lies on top cut a plunge pool
in the soft rock
......___..,,
of softer rock J,l,c
rivers create v-shaped valleys and interlocking
spurs in the upper course. In this lesson you
will further investigate river landforms.
0 The formation of waterfalls

How are waterfalls formed?

A waterfall forms at a steep drop in the long
profile of a river. This is usually where a river
flows across a geological boundary between two
different rock types; where a hard layer of rock
lies over a softer, less resistant rock. This is the
case at High Force waterfall, along the course of
the River Tees (see Diagram A and Photo B).
As the river flows over the steep drop, it suddenly
gains energy. The river can now pick up large
rocks at the base of the waterfall, hitting them
against the softer rocks. The rushing water forms
a deep pool in the river bed at the base of the
waterfall, called a plunge pool. These less
resistant rocks are eroded quickly, undercutting
the harder rock above. Eventually the
overhanging hard rock collapses, as its weight
can no longer be supported. The large angular
boulders that fall into the base of the plunge pool
are then used by the river to further erode the
softer rock. This process of undercutting and
collapse repeats many times and slowly the
waterfall retreats upstream, leaving a steep-sided
deep gorge that marks where the waterfall once
was located.

C, High Force waterfall

 �',i.•:,f•�
'
·- ,,t ,._. J' I ' •
..•..
, ...
.
• l• .
-.
. ,.. -

Slowest flow is on Fastest flow is on the

How are meanders the inside of the bend outside of the bend

formed? Deposition
takes place
Meanders are bends in the course of a
A small beach
river. On the outside of a meander the of materials
water is deeper and the current flows builds up
faster. The force of water undercuts the
bank of the outside bend, forming a The bank is worn
away and a river
steep bank. This is called a river cliff. On cliff develops
the inside bend the current is slower, the The channel
is shallow The channel is deepened
river deposits sand and pebbles, forming
a gentle slip-off slope. Meanders slowly
move across a landscape, as the erosion
bank cuts into the valley. Lateral erosion
e
Features of a meander

occurs at this lower stage of the river, forming a wide flat valley called a flood plain.
Sometimes when the loop of a meander bend becomes extreme, two erosion banks can
meet at a narrow neck of a meander. Eventually the channel cuts through leaving the
meander loop detached, forming as an ox-bow lake (see Diagram D).

1 2 Deposition results in the

old meander being sealed
off from the main river
I

, I

I
I

Meander neck
I

Erosion 'gradually makes the is cut through

1Aeck�of tpe meander narrower completely as
I
,
I ...----... '
\ water takes the
quickest route
\
I
I

and makes the

I

straighter
path dominant

4:) The formation of

an ox-bow lake

Activities
1 What are a waterfall, plunge pool and gorge?
2 Look carefully at Map-flap C, Map 2.
a) Give the six-figure grid reference for High
Force waterfall.
b) Look at the contour pattern around High
Force. What evidence is there to suggest
there is a gorge?
c) What evidence can you find to suggest the
waterfall is popular with tourists?
d) What evidence can you find to suggest the
hard rock that caps the waterfall is used by
people for building material?
e) Draw a sketch map from the OS to show
High Force waterfall and gorge. Draw an
arrow on your sketch to show the direction
the waterfall is retreating.
3 Look carefully at Diagram A and Photo B.
a) Name the features labeled 1-6 on Photo B.
b) Draw a cartoon strip or flipbook to show
how a waterfall forms and develops.
c) Write a paragraph to explain which of the four
processes of erosion will contribute to the
formation and changing state of a waterfall.
4 What is a meander?
5 Study Photo C.
a) Draw a cross-section of a meander loop
from river cliff to slip-off slope.
b) Annotate your diagram to show where and
why erosion and deposition are happening
and how the meander moves sideways to
create a wide, flat, valley floor.
6 Create a flipbook or cartoon to show how an
ox-bow lake is formed using Diagram D.
 6.6 How do I conduct a river fieldwork
enquiry?

Learning objectives So far in this unit you have investigated river

► To understand and apply the Bradshaw rivers model.
► To conduct fieldwork to measure the width, depth
and speed of a river.
► To present and analyse data to compare a real river
to elements of the Bradshaw model.
► To draw conclusions from the data.
► To evaluate fieldwork methods and findings.
The subject of your research:
Bradshaw's model
The world is a complicated place, so sometimes
geographers create models to simplify situations. This
helps us to better understand patterns in the landscape.
An example is the Bradshaw model, used for rivers.
Bradshaw was a geographer who noticed that there
were particular characteristics of rivers which changed
from source to mouth. He made a model to show
which characteristics get greater and which get smaller
as a river flows along its course (see Diagram A).
I
Upstream Downstream
Channel depth
Occupied channel width]
landforms. In this lesson you will do the work of a
hydrologist and investigate a stretch of river. You
should follow Steps 1 to 7, and either conduct
your own fieldwork or use the data provided from
already completed fieldwork.
Step 1: Create your enquiry
questions
To start your fieldwork you need to write your enquiry
questions, which you will answer once you have
analysed your findings. For this fieldwork enquiry, you
are going to test three parts of Bradshaw's model.
Write the questions you need to answer about the
depth, width and velocity of the river.
Step 2: Select the fieldwork
location
The next step is to identify a river to investigate. For
your own research you need to use an OS map to
identify good places to conduct the fieldwork.
Locations which are safe and easily accessible, but
also seem to show different river features, are worthy
of investigation. The fieldwork data provided here
was conducted at five different locations along

I
Holford Combe in Somerset (see Map B).
Mean velocity

I
0

Discharge

Volume of load I
I Load particle size

I Channel bed roughness

I Gradient

0 Bradshaw's model
To test the accuracy of a model or theory,
geographers conduct fieldwork. Following the steps
given right, you are going to carry out your own
fieldwork to test three parts of Bradshaw's model:
..
,.

• the depth of the channel

• the width of the occupied channel.
• the mean velocity (average speed downstream) of
the river.

18
Step 3: Collect your data (9 Measuring the width and
depth of River Holford
Once you have written your enquiry questions, and chosen your
fieldwork location, you need to collect your data. At each of the
locations selected you need to:
• Measure the width: Use a tape measure to measure the width of
the river from one side of the water to the other.
• Measure the depth: Use a ruler to measure the depth at the
midpoint.
• Measure the speed: Measuring speed is slightly harder. Measure
5 m down the river, then time how long it takes a1n item such as
a cork or orange to travel that distance. You may wish to do this
three times and take an average (add up all three times and
divide the answer by three)
• Speed = distance
time
@ Measuring the speed of River
Repeat these surveys at your selected points along the river so that Holford
you can compare your findings.

Step 4: Present your data

For each of the methods of data collection, write a few sentences
to describe how you carried out your research. Then present your
data as in Table E below. Complete this table by calculating the
speed of the river for each location.

Q Table of data collected

Site Width Depth at mid- Time for orange Speed Other notes
(m) point (m) to travel 3 m (s) (m/s)
1 1.0 0.005 88 0.034 Shallow, orange frequently
got stuck
2 0.75 0.045 29
3 1.2 0.03 55 Shallow - orange got
stuck
4 1.2 0.085 25.4
5 3.3 0.04 33 Furthest site from source

Step 5: Analyse your data Step 7: Evaluate your fieldwork

Draw graphs to show the width, depth and speed
of the river over the five locations that you have
investigated, or create graphs from the data in
Table E.
Step 6: Reach conclusions
Look again at each of your three enquiry
questions and write responses to each using the
evidence you have collected or the evidence
shown in Table E
and results
Evaluate how the fieldwork was carried out and
consider the following:
• Why might the width, depth and speed of the
river not have been measured accurately?
• Does this mean your conclusions are not
reliable?
• What could you do to make the investigation
more accurate?
 6.7 How are rivers important to people?

Learning objective Rivers are important to people. Many major cities are located along
► To identify and describe how
rivers. Rivers provide water supply and a source of energy. Look
people use rivers.
back at Lesson 2.6 (pages 32-33) and remind yourself how people
use water. In Lesson 3.7 (pages 54-55) you discovered that ports
are often located at river mouths.

How are rivers used as a

water supply?
Cowgreen Reservoir (see A) on the
River Tees was built between 1967
and 1971. A dam was built across the
valley creating a 2 km-long reservoir. It
was built to control the flow of water
along the River Tees. The water is used
by towns and cities along the river, in
particular the industries of Teesside at
the river mouth.

0 The dam at Cowgreen Reservoir

0 Teesport, at the mouth of the River Tees

How do people use the mouth of the River Tees?
The River Tees has created a deep wide natural
harbour at its mouth. Teesport has been developed
on cheap reclaimed river mudflats, the deposited
load at the mouth of the Tees. Such land is ideal for
heavy industry. The deepwater port is deep enough
for very large ships, which bring in raw materials for
the industries that have located on the surrounding
flatland at the river mouth. Teesport is the third
largest port in the UK and handles over 56 million
tonnes of cargo every year.
 14r---r-----T'r"'"""'�.....,.....,�-,-.rn.
_______________ .:f
••.•• Alslaby
Grange

39---------··-·-··-··
... .
I�

(j 1:50 000 OS map

of Yarm

39 41 45

C:) Y arm, on the south bank of the River Tees

Why are settlements
located near rivers?
Historically settlements grew up next to
rivers, for a number of reasons. The river
water supplied drinking water, narrow points
along a river channel provided bridging
points and a focus for roads, where people
could trade, leading to the growth of a
settlement. Some settlements like Yarm,
shown in Map C and Photo D, were sited
in the loop of a meander for protection. In
these locations in the past, the river acted like
a natural moat and often a wall and castle
were built at the neck of the meander to
provide all-round protection from invaders.

Activities
1 Compare Photo A of Cowgreen Reservoir
with Map-flap C, Map 2.
a) What is the six-figure grid reference for
where this photo was taken?
b) In which direction was the camera pointing?
c) What are the advantages of this location
for a reservoir?
d) How is the water from Cowgreen
Reservoir used by people?
2 Compare Photo D with Map C of Yarm.
a) In which direction was the camera
pointing when this photo was taken?
b) Name the types of features located at
points 1-3 labelled on the photo.
c) Write a paragraph to describe and explain
the site of Yarm.
3 Compare Photo B with Map-flap C, Map 3.
a) In which direction was the camera
pointing when this photo was taken?
b) Identify three examples of heavy industry
on the map and photo and give six-figure
grid references for each.
c) Write a paragraph to explain why heavy
industry and port facilities have located at
the mouth of the river.
d) Draw a sketch map of the mouth of the
Tees. Label all the different land uses on
your sketch.
4 Consider all the evidence you have collected
this lesson. Write a paragraph answering the
enquiry question for today's lesson: How are
rivers important to people?
 6.8 How do river floods create problems?

Learning objectives A flood occurs when a river has too much water in its channel. The
water in the river overflows its banks and spreads out onto the
► To know some human and surrounding area. This is what happened in the north of England and at
physical causes of river floods. the city of York in December 2015. Article A highlights that the city of
► To know some ways in which York floods on a regular basis. Diagram B identifies the reasons for this.
people respond to flood risk.
0 Article from The Yorkshire, 20 December 2015
York floods 2015 oh no, not again, and again ... when will it end?

Y ORK has known devastating flooding 111any ti1nes before. Ti1ne

and again, the city's defences have been improved and adjt1sted, as
new lessons have been learned. Since the Second World War, notable
floods in 1947, 1978, 1982 and 2000 stood out, and n1.ore recently,
serious floods in 2007 and 2012. But despite the history, the events
that unfolded i111111ediately after Christ1nas 2015 were shocking and
devastating. Over the cot1rse of a few days, York suffered its worst
flooding in a generation. A succession of storms brought record levels
of rainfall to the area.

People have got used to the River

Ouse flooding, but this time they were
st1rprised, and angered, that the River
Foss was allowed to flood. The Ouse
floodwaters backed up the Foss for the first
ti111e since 1982. The Environment Agency
Al tJ\t ouse naa roCMC1
faced questions on Monday over why the critical level the barrier
had been lowered.
barrier had been opened on Boxing Day. Pumps continued to
divet water from the
The agency said it was left with no option ·""-..... Foss into the Ouse
bt1t to raise the Foss Barrier in the city
after the barrier's pu1nping station became
'overwhelmed' by flood water, risking
electrical failt1re. The barrier, at the point
Tht pumping station
where the River Foss flows into the River flooded raJsinCJ fNrS the
Ouse, was built in 1987 and is designed pumps might fall. The
decision was takm to
to be lowered when the Ouse levels rise, raise the bmler whktl
allowed water from lbe
to prevent water from the Ouse flowing Ouse to flood tht Fou
t1pstrea111 into the Foss. The Environment
Agency said that if the electrics in the pumping station had failed with
the barrier down, the Foss would have been blocked off entirely with
even worse flooding as a result, potentially affecting 1800 properties.
In total 250 people had to be evacuated fron1. their ho1nes, 111any by
boat. Lisa Pallister, 36, was rescued from her home in the Huntington
area of the city by boat. 'We didn't think it wot1ld reach us because we're
raised off the ground and have three storeys bt1t, by this n1.orning, it was
on the steps, so we had a boat ride out,' she said. 'We're feeling all right.A
bit tired, a bit shocked. We're lucky thot1gh, a lot of other residents were
flooded last night early on.'
 Source of the tributaries
The tributaries begin in the Yorkshire Dales
and North York Moors where the land is
steep. This leads to water flowing quickly from
the hills downstream towards York.
Tributaries of the Ouse
The size and number of tributaries that flow
into the River Ouse, as shown on the map,
means that water flows off the drainage basin
very quickly. This increases the risk of flooding.

Changes of land use in the drainage basin

The removal of peat from the moors and
forest from the slopes of the hills, has led to
an increase in surface run-off and water
getting into the rivers more quickly.

Record levels of rainfall I

.. ,
I

In December 2015, the UK experienced record

levels of rainfall, from a series of extreme ''
depressions moving across the UK from the
I

.. _ -.. ' --
Atlantic Ocean. Storms Desmond and Eva, in ' I
- .. .. -..
..... ,.

quick succession, caused widespread flooding 'I

across the north of England. As a result, the
--.... _
ground in drainage basins was saturated, so
further rainfall flowed straight into rivers.

The growth of York t The site of York

New buildings and roads in the
city and surrounding villages
have covered large areas of
land in concrete and tarmac.
This stops water infiltrating
into the ground, encouraging
rapid run-off into rivers.
York is sited at the confluence (place 4km
where two rivers meet) of the River Foss
and the River Ouse. This increases the
likelihood of flooding, which is why the
Foss Barrier was built. This was designed
to stop floodwaters from the Ouse
flowing into the Foss and creating more
flooding.

C) Reasons for the frequent flooding in York

Activities
1 When does river flooding occur?
2 Read Article A carefully.
a) What point is the headline making?
b) What is the Foss Barrier?
c) Why was this barrier opened during the
flood?
d) Imagine you and your family lived in
York and were evacuated. Describe how
you would feel about the flood and the
damage it caused to your home.
3 Look carefully at Figure B.
a) Which tributary joins the Ouse at York?
b) Draw a two-column table with columns
headed: 'Physical geography causes' and
'Human geography causes'. Write an
overall title for your table: 'The causes of
the 2015 York flood'.
c) Write each cause shown in A and B in the
correct column of your table.
4 Look back at Lesson 6.2, page 104, and
your definitions of the key drainage basin
processes. Write a paragraph to explain how
and why these processes didn't slow down
the flow of river water to York in 2015.
a) What problems did the flood of 2015
create for York?
b) What do you think was the main cause of
the flood? Justify your answer.
 6.9 How can flooding be managed?
The Environment Agency (EA) is a government body and has responsibility
Learning objective for the protection and enhancement of the environment in England. Their
responsibilities include managing the risk of flooding from main rivers,
► To identify different ways
floods can be managed. reservoirs, estuaries and the sea, as well as making people aware of flood
risk and advising them how they can protect themselves. This spread looks
at the EA's five-year plan in response to the York floods (B and D). It
includes the views of local people which were given at a public enquiry
0 Mark Scott speaking into the flooding (C). One area of agreement was that work was required
to upgrade the Foss Barrier. Eight pumps capable of pumping 30 per cent
about the Environment
Agency five-year flood more water were installed as part of a £17 million project.

The rivers Ouse and Foss flowing through York have been instrumental in the city's success,
providing -Arst a defensive role for the Roman settlers, then an artery for trade and industrial
growth as the city expanded. Our relationship with the rivers has not been without problems.
Throughout history the city has regularly flooded, none as painful as the events of December
2015. We cannot prevent all flooding. What we can do is manage water better. Building new and
improved defences throughout the city, and looking upstream at the catchment as a whole for
new ways to slow the flow, store water, and reduce the impact of flooding on York. The £45
million investment provided to York by the government is the -Arst step towards that. Over the
next -Ave years, we will carry out a major programme of upgrading flood defences within the city.
This plan outlines our options and where we think the greatest improvements can be made.

C) Environment Agency flood plan, published November 2016

How this could tool< Embankments En!Nnkmtflt

lh1, ,., a µerm,me I rnr-�'ll bar1k ur e,1•1h. Ihi)' u-.ually 11?qm e
morP 5pa•e. ccmpart"d tn a wal and the re'ore teno ,o be ::iu1 t
111 opt'n ,p ti', a�d rm I ;i,pll'o
These are illustrations of the type of things we could Vort is prctec1ed by earth e:nbankmencs such as those a�
Uifto 118!, a:id th� b.., k5 around S• Olavc'!'. Sd:oo\ a d n
do. We will agree the most suitable option for each Ma 1<.1"11 1m r.�ran c:.

location by working closely with City of York Council Wl'WrP tile e ,., -.p.iu. ,v11 tou tl •,11w I """ emb,1•1lm!-nh w,•h
eanh m,k-ri.l and .�he:rc (l)er.-? 1s nu1 the space 11e could bu1kl
a ra"<>d r:ef.,rirPa 011g I h<' top
and the relevant communities.

Permanent part walls and demountables

Permanent walls and gates
1111.,,,• dl'fl':ice:. 1t•mai11 fully ,n pl;ic" ar., an• built 1·do th1•
n.:m.1rzl sucrouod,ugs Dunrg a nood. ,nle aroon 1s reou r.xl
0 her lh,m c JSll'lg gill�
5omP p-·mi11Pnl llood d-Pnc-\ can b<> ra,""d ,v�.-n a llood � Pl(P,-(l!'ll 17\1 adrling a opmo1,;nt.it>IP ,Prtlon th.i'
c.li be removed w hen not needed Ith.ls pre lns!Jll� four0o11ions and supports wn ch rcciu re opcrauon l)llOf to .:i
Glas,wal, t.ooo. 'We l'1ou d lool: to use demou ta�I;' delel1Ce5 Nhere "' n�d arcess or o�n space when the•e is no t1ood1ns
Fully dmountlble Partially dfmountable

Voric: has se�eral a eas prot�ed by llood ,1alls and gates such
as WP J,ngton Row, North S1r,�1 and Lo- 8oo'.hil'll

We can ra se ,nese ,�a:ts 'JV simply !:>U Id n!l the-m tt;gner by

1 ,.,.ng lhl! l eVE I ul lhe cu11•1K <,to ,.., cI u,ir· i: gla,s 1i.1 el-. or
d.:!noo t.ible .I m� ts 011 top or lhc fi1<L-d stcuw.. rc.

• RatSin1 with 1tass panes

°"
SorllL, " ... 11 11\J'i i,u<,�.il,· lo IIIUC·a..e IIc he 1:'ll of W,J 11,
U'-11S wa•; p:1n.-� to I" n m th!' vi V

• Raising the Might of th e nood walls wfth coping stones

1,\a.�v riod,.r ttoOli v,c,I s sJch as ·"IOSe use<1 at W•tt• End
ace c.onstructed ,n a wav that .illows th(?l)l to oc cas,�; raised
m tt.e t.1:11re Temporary defences Metil ttmporary defences

Iris HIVO�,cs Clll;JVI ,g lh.! ooµlng �'.O e,, al the lop and fh�.,c Ire �,an<l 11g f<11116 Cdll be Ill\�( i'C �1101 IO d ro.mc.J aitl
add,ng add 11onat ro,vs ot bncts. rPmO\ei1 when wa•pr e'vt'ls �avf' droppPd

Ira<. re4uwl'S ,trani: lu••�ntl ho , bu It tu\•� lhlam.1 ti-¥ lhll Cl!f101lt.r11 l!, for tJ<oJ i: ll'n:'por.uy !lau Pf •vstmh 1r1 Yorkt,
increa� load trom highef ml.s, so t � not a .va� poss,� lim;ted and till",' a r e not thl:' most l'ltective so :uuon
for o 1.,, wa I�
I'� CJn't IUS1Jf,; the use or pcrm.1ncn1 d�e(')CC!i oo tccru,1c.il
or econom c grOJnds then v,e may corrsider using te;nporary
dtlences.

(9 Views expressed at the
public consultation, York
I love living in York, it has beautiful
old buildings, and real history.
I think this outweighs the risk
of the odd -Aood.
The problem was obviously
the huge amount of rain. However,
it shows that the -Aood defences were
just not up to it. This has put
lives at risk, they must
be improved.
Our long-term vision
The options in this document focus on improvements we can make m the next 5 v�ars.
but we also need a long-term plan to better prepare York for the risk of future flooding
and to mitigate the effects of climate change. To achieve this. we need to look at the
catchment as a whole and understand the nsks of flooding beyond the City of York. We
have therefore starred to develop a plan of action. working with a wide range of partners
across the city and the surrounding area to prepare York for the lulure.
The plan will focus on:
• Enhancing the W<f./ the development planning sysrem can reduce the nsk
and impacts of noocting to new and existing developments. Washland� and re,ervo,rs: felting
• l'Tlprov1ng flood forecasting tool� and technology to provide more timely water \pread naturally across
and targeted flood warnings. farmland reduc•s the! rate 11 which
,1 arrives In York.
• Upstream storage and natural flood management techntques
thal can slow the llow and help regulate the flow of wc.1Ler mto
the city.
These are just some of the options we are cons1dermg,
and we will be seeking your views on what
else we should include. rhls will begin
m early 2017 and we will keep
Tre•-plantlna can
you updated as to when
slow wat,r clown
and how you can or prevent it
�......._ R!achmg rivers.
get involved.
• 1

�uilding higher walls will land management: l Slow ng the flow� �l&ht

<
'-. worklni with farmer� and changes to fields and
not, by itself, protect our
•
landown•rs 10 manaie drains stop water arriving
farmland run-off. In the r11.er all at one• .
towns. It will spoil the look of
L York, but it won't protect
us from -Aoods.

Protection of farmland seems to be

above the safety of towns and l 'I
cities downstream. Rivers in -Aood
plains upstream have been
straightened, and drainage
-I----,
• • -
• • •
•
R�1lien1 homes: building
channels dug to get water off -Aelds. I I I
and restoration methods
that minimise the
This has increased the -Aow of water, l damasl' a flood can do

making -Aooding in York more likely.

We have a choice: -Aelds or cities.
G) Views on the long-term vision of flood
protection from the Environment Agency

Activities
1 What is the Environment Agency?
2 Read the views expressed by Mark Scott, on
behalf of the Environment Agency, introducing
the five-year plan.
a) Why did York develop alongside rivers?
b) Why is the River Ouse a friend and foe to the
people of York?
3 Look carefully at B. It is a page from the
Environment Agency's five-year plan for flood
protection in York. Write a paragraph explaining
how they will improve existing flood defences to
protect York in the future.
4 A public consultation about a flood plan was
organised by the City Council. C presents views
of local residents. In a small group, discuss
these views. Decide whether or not they are in
favour of the flood plan.
Which view do you agree with most? Justify
your choice.
5 Extract D from the plan shows longer-term
ideas for flood protection. Explain why these
are necessary.
 6.10
Why are rivers important? Review

In this unit you have learnt:
► what rivers are and how water gets into them
► how weathering, erosion and transportation
create river landforms
► to identify river landforms on OS maps
► why rivers are important to people.
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood!
Throughout this unit you have investigated
different aspects of rivers and how different
landforms are created along a river's course.
You have also seen how rivers are used by
people in different ways and at different points.
Although this unit has focused on rivers in
northern England, the principles are similar for
rivers all over the world. Map C shows the
world's major river basins. You will investigate
some of these rivers in future units.

1l
4fl •

River characteristic Section A: Source Section B: Steep Section C: Lower Section D: Lower
valley slopes course
Process - erosion, transportation
or deposition
Width of channel

Depth of river

Speed of river

Width of valley
-
Shape of valley
-
River landforms

Ways people use the river

Problems river creates for people

 6 Why are rivers important?

<>=.-- -

.•
. .•

•.

\,.
"-\,�
.
'. .

, '
(7

(j The location of the world's major river basins

Activities Future learning

1 Study the river basin shown in Diagram A.
You will have opportunities
a} What view of a river is shown?
to further develop your
b} Name the river features at points 3, 5 and 6. understanding of erosion,
c} Name the ways people are using the river at points 1, 4, 7 transportation and
and 9. deposition again in Unit 9
d} Name the drainage basin process that slows down the flow Coasts and Unit 14 Glaciers.
of water into the river at 2. You will investigate river
e} What are locations 7 and 8 called? flooding in Unit 10 Asia, and
2 In a group discuss how the river changes from the upland in Unit 15 Climate you will
area to the sea. investigate how scientists
3 a} Draw your own copy of Table B. think river flooding will
change in the future.
b} Compare Diagram A and Table B and fill in your copy of the
table. This will summarise what you have learnt in this unit.
4 Write a paragraph to explain how the river characteristics
shown in the table are interlinked.
5 Look carefully at Map C which shows the world's largest river Future learning
basins. at GCSE
a} Compare the map with an atlas map of the world showing At GCSE you can further
rivers.
progress your
b} Name the river basins labelled 1-20. understanding of rivers and
6 Write a paragraph to explain why rivers are important. flooding in the UK.
 In this unit, you
will learn:
► to define development
► to compare development
around the world
► to understand where and
why inequality occurs
► to understand the actions
taken by individuals,
governments and
communities to aid
development.
Development is a complex term. Most simply, development means
people reaching an acceptable standard of living or quality of life.
Other definitions are provided in C. Quality of life means the general
well-being of people, which includes income, health, education,
employment, and the environment. The photos in A, for example,
show how access to toilets varies in quality across the world. The
access people have to quality sanitation will impact their health and
therefore will affect their quality of life.
Every country in the world is at a different stage of development. If a
country is developing it is changing for the better. This is a complex
process to achieve and maintain, often with many barriers and
setbacks to overcome. In this unit you will investigate development
around the world.
0 Images from the Dollar Street website showing toilet access
across the world

•
� Toilets • 1n the World • by income

POOREST

Imagine the world as a long street, Dollar
Street, poorest to left and richest to right,
everybody else in between. The house
numbers equal the income you have. We sent
a team of photographers across the world
to visit families in their home and take
photographs according to 135 categories.
e) Anna Rosling
We want to show how people really live. It
seemed natural to use photos as data so
Ronnlund has
created
people can see for themselves what life
looks like on different income levels.
Dollar Street
�e World Bank uses a wealth indicator to
define poverty. It has set a poverty line of
US$1.90 or £1.40 per person a day - those
receiving less than that are said to be living
in extreme poverty. The World Bank
believes that, in 2013, an estimated 767
million people lived below this poverty line
figure. That's almost 11 people in every 100
' in the world or 10.7 per cent of the world's
population.
 Natural. Questions or
observations about the

The Development Compass

environment. For example:
What is the weather like?

Economic. Questions or
observations about money.
Rose
For example: What jobs
are people doing? Understanding and questioning the idea of
w-- --E development involves thinking about a variety of
Who decides? Questions
factors. The Development Compass Rose (D), is a
or observations about
who is making the
tool to support this thinking. The OCR encourages
decisions. For example: you to ask a range of questions and explore links
Do these people
have a say? between four areas - Natural, Social/cultural,
Economic and Political (Who decides?). You will use
Social. Questions or this tool to investigate places and issues around the
(:) The Development
S observations about people.
For example: How does culture
world, as part of an investigation or geographical
Compass Rose affect the people here?
enquiry, in this unit of work and beyond.

e Definitions of development Activities

1 a} What is a simple definition of development?
People are the b} What is meant by the term 'quality of life'?
rea I wea Ith of 2 Read the different expert views about development, given in C.
nations.
EngUsh v
a} For each, identify what they think of development.
b} Write a sentence stating your own thoughts on each view.
Mahbub ul Haq c} Write your own definition of development.
- International
development theorist
d} Compare this with your answer to Question 1a. Identify
RICHEST how it is different.
3 a} How does the World Bank define world poverty?
Development is a b) What do you think you could buy for £1.40? Make a list.
process of expanding
c} Do you think many people in the UK are living on less
freedoms equally for all
people - male
than £1.40 per day?
and female. d} How is this statistical measure of poverty different to the
views of the development experts?
4 The images shown in A are taken from the Dollar Street
The Nobel Prize­ website.
winning economist
Amartya Sen
a} Read 8 and explain what the website is trying to achieve.
b} How do the photos of toilets shown in A, help you better
understand development?
The welfare of a nation can scarcely 5 a} Draw a Development Compass Rose.
be inferred from a measure of b} Write two questions for each part of your rose about
national income. what you can see in Image A.
c} Go to the Dollar Street website www.gapminder.org/
Simon Smith Kuznets - 1971 Nobel
dollar-street/matrix. Select a different category of
Memorial Prize
photographs for families on the street, by selecting from
the dropdown menu.
d) Repeat the activities above for this different category.
Development is about transforming 6 Reread your definition of development from 2c. Are you
the lives of people, not just happy with this definition or, having investigated real
transforming economies.
families on Dollar Street, do you now want to change it? If
so, write your new definition.
Joseph Stiglitz - 2001 Nobel Memorial
7 Explain why development is a complex idea to understand.
Prize in Economics
 7.2 How is money spread around
the world?

Learning objectives The World Bank is an international organisation which provides

► To understand how to
measure development using
one economic indicator.
► To interpret different ways of
presenting development data.
► To investigate the patterns of
wealth across the world.
loans, advice and research to countries to support economic
development. The World Bank uses one main indicator to measure
development, Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. This is the
dollar value of a country's final income in a year, divided by its
population. Tables A and B show the top ten and bottom ten
countries in the world using this indicator to measure development.
Map C shows a choropleth map of the world of GNI per capita. It
can be used to compare development at a global scale.

0 Top ten countries ranked in

terms of GNI per capita, 2016
Key
Country GNI per Population GNI per capita
capita 1111 High income (US$12,476 or more)
Norway 82,330 5 ,232,930 CJ Upper middle income (US$4,036-$12,475)
Switzerland 81, 240 8,272,100 CJ Lower middle income (US$1,026-$4,035)
Luxembourg 76,660 582,970 1111 Low income (US$1,025 or less)
Iceland 56,990 334,250 CJ No data

e
Denmark 56,730 5,721,120
USA 56,180 323,127,510
Global distribution of GNI per capita, 2017
Sweden 54, 630 9,903,120
Australia
Ireland
54,420
52,560
24,127,160
4,773,100 -
--
Singapore 51,880 5,607,280

e) Bottom ten countries ranked in

terms of GNI per capita, 2016

GNI per Population

capita
Burundi 280 10,524,120 � 1\
Malawi 320 18,091,580 �-·.•..
...
• • <:,, �--:,,:
Central
African ' .
Republic 370 4,594,620
Niger 370 20,672,990
Liberia 370 4,613,820
Madagascar 400 24, 894, 550
Congo, Dem.
Rep. 420 787,386:150
Gambia, The 440 2,038,500
Mozambique 480 28,829,480
Sierra Leone 490 7,396,190
 THE
RICHEST PEOPLE OWN Activities
THE SAME WEALTH 1 a) What is GNI per capita?
AS THE 3.5 IILLION
POOREST PEOPLE b) Which organisation uses GNI to measure
development?
2 Look at Tables A and 8.
a) Locate the countries on an outline political
world map.
b) Using two colours, one for the top ten
countries and one for the bottom ten
countries, shade and label these countries.
c) Describe the distribution of the top ten and
bottom ten countries in the world for GNI per
capita.
EVEN G d) Do any of the top ten countries in Table A
IT UP OXFAM
surprise you?
(i) An Oxfam campaign poster 3 Map C shows the GNI distribution for all countries.
showing global wealth a) Use an atlas to help you name the countries
inequality (2015 figures)
labelled 1-10.
b) Create a table listing these ten countries in
terms of wealth using the key on the map,
with the highest one first.
c) Why is the GNI per capita measured in US$
even though countries have different currencies?
d) Why do you think GNI per capita is a useful
figure to compare the level of development
. ?
for rountnPs.
4 Look carefully again at Table A comparing the GNI
per capita and population of the USA and Iceland.
The GNI per capita data suggests that Iceland is
richer or more developed than the USA. The
population data for these two countries provides a
clue as to one of the problems with using GNI per
capita as a measure of how developed a country
is. Explain what this problem is.
,
, 5 Look at D.
a) Which organisation has published the poster,
.....
what is their message, and the name of the
.:

campaign?
b) Discuss with a partner what you think about
this poster.
c) Write a paragraph outlining your view of it.

'
•I
d) Look again at Map C. Where in the world do
you think most of the 3.5 billion poorest
people the poster refers to, are located?
6 Write a paragraph to identify what you have
discovered about the global distribution of
,, development, using GNI per capita as the indicator.
 7.3 What other ways can be used to
measure development?

Learning objectives
► To identify different measures
The Human Development Index
of development. In Lesson 7.1, the expert views and the Development Compass
► To understand the benefits of
Rose remind us that there are things to consider, other than just
using different measures of GNI per capita, when measuring development. In 1990, the
development. Human Development Index (HDI) was created to better
measure development. HDI combines three elements:
• living standards: the GNI per capita
• health: the life expectancy or average age which people live to
• education: the average number of years of schooling children
receive.
The HDI has a vallue between O and 1. The higher the number the
greater the level of development. Map B shows the global pattern
of HDI.

0 The HDI rankings for a GNI per capita I Life expectancy I Education HDI
selection of countries China 8260 76 7.6 0.74
at different levels of
Costa Rica 10 840 79.6 8.7 0.78
development, 2015
Japan 38000 83.7 12.5 0.90
Malawi 320 63.9 4.4 0.48
Mexico 9040 77 8.6 0.76
Nepal 730 70.0 5.3 0.56
Norway 82330 81.1 12.7 0.95
Sierra Leone 490 51.3 3.3 0.42
- f---- -
UK 42390 80.8 13.3 0.91
USA 56 180 79.2 13.2 0.92
4) Map to show global
HDI levels, 2017
- =:--

..

.......

Key .,
• Very high - Over 0.8
\
- High-0.7-0.79
D Medium -0.55-0.69
D Low-Up to 0.54
D No data
Note: Only countries with the
available HDI values are included.
Environmental impact
In Unit 2 you were introduced to the term
sustainability. Some development experts believe
that development should consider the impact of
human activities on nature, or its ecological
footprint, shown in Map C. This is a measurement
of how many natural resources a country
consumes and how many planets would be
required to support the world if every country
consumed that amount.

....
.·

."
\.

l.
��,

""'""'-
....
..
•

•.

Key
• More than 4 planets
D 2-3 planets
D 1-2 planets
D Less than 1 planet
D No data
e An ecological footprint map, 2013

Activities
1 What is HDI?
2 Look at Table A.
a) Sort the countries in Table A into a rank
order for each indicator: GNI, life
expectancy, education and HDI.
b) What differences do you identify in the rank
order for each indicator? Explain the
differences.
c) What conclusions can you make about
using just one indicator of development?
3 Study Map B carefully.
a) Describe the distribution of countries with
very high HDI.
b) Describe the distribution of countries with
very low HD I.
c) Which countries have no data?
d) Why might there be problems collecting
data in these countries?
e) Identify problems in collecting reliable data
for measuring development.
4 Compare Map B with Map C in Lesson 7.2,
pages 124-125.
a) What differences can you identify? (Hint:
look at Argentina and South Africa.)
b) Which aspects of the Development
Compass Rose are ignored by HDI?
5 Look at Map C.
a) What is the ecological footprint?
b) Look again at the countries in Table A.
Locate them on Map C and identify their
ecological footprint.
c) What extra information about development
does this provide for each country?
6 Go back to your Development Compass Rose
from Lesson 7.1. Add new questions to your rose
about the development indicators you have
studied today.
7 Reread the expert view from Kuznets from Lesson
7.1, page 123. Write a paragraph to compare this
view with the findings you have made about the
different indicators in this lesson.
 7.4 How can development change
over time?

Learning objectives In your history lessons you will study the way in which the
UK was transformed by the Industrial Revolution. As you
► To understand that development is a discovered in Lesson 3.1 (pages 42-43), the UK economy has
process of change.
changed a lot in the last 200 years. This is shown by the facts
► To understand that development in A and B. The Industrial Revolution lead to change. Other
occurs at different rates and times in countries, such as Germany and USA, went through a similar
different countries. process. People began to leave the countryside for new jobs
in growing cities. New ideas and inventions transformed the
country. Examples of this are shown in Figure C. This growth
happened at a relatively slow rate compared to other countries.

0 UK 1791 Q UK 2011

Population: Eleven million. Eighty per cent of people lived
in the countryside.
Work: About 75 per cent were employed in the primary
industry. The most important work was farming, food and
wool production. Fifteen per cent were employed in the
secondary industry and ten per cent in the tertiary industry.
Education: Only a select few children were allowed to
attend school.
Health and medicine: Many babies died before their first
birthday and 25 per cent of people died before they were
five years old. People did not know that germs caused
disease. Average life expectancy was 40 years. However,
people could live to over 50 years of age if they reached
adulthood.
Travel: It took ten days to travel from London to Edinburgh
by road.
The vote: Only five per cent of the male population could
vote in elections.
(Population: Sixty-five million. Seventeen
per cent of people live in the countryside.
Work: One per cent of the population are
employed in the primary industry, 18 per
cent in the secondary industry, 57 per cent
in the tertiary industry and 24 per cent in a
new sector, the quaternary industry.
Education: It is a legal requirement for
children to attend school after their fifth
birthday until they turn 16.
Health and medicine: Five in every 1,000
children born in the UK die before the age
of five. Life expectancy is 79 years for a
man and 83 for a woman.
Travel: It takes 80 minutes to fly to
Edinburgh from London.
The vote: From the age of 18, UK citizens
have the right to vote.

1878 1892 Early 1900s 1928 1955

The first light bulb was The diesel engine was Fertiliser was created Alexander Fleming's Malcolm McLean, an
created by Thomas created in 1892 by by German chemists work towards the American entrepreneur,
Edison in the USA in Rudolf Diesel,from Fitz Haber and Carl development of invented the container.
1878. This transformed Germany. It soon became Bosch. This boosted antibiotics led to This allowed goods to
people's way of life and a crucial invention world food production improvements in be transported all
enabled people to work powering trains, for the growing global medicine and around the world.
longer hours. generating electricity population. increased life
and driving factories . expectancy.

(9 Progress in the UK's development was not How did these inventions transform the country?
possible without innovat ion. These invent ions
are described in T im Harford's book 50
Inventions That Shaped the Modern Economy.
BRICS 4:) China 1990

Today, five countries, Brazil, Russia, India, China

and South Africa, are considered to be at a similar Tertiary
18%
stage in a process of rapid economic
development. These are called BRICS. These
countries are developing at a rapid rate, all at once,
Secondary Primary
as they benefit from global inventions and ideas. 22% 60%
Countries like the UK developed more slowly. The
inventions and discoveries were made more
slowly, leading to a slower rate of development.
In some ways, China is becoming more developed
than countries like the UK:
• In 2010, China became the world's largest «) China 2014
exporter of manufactured goods.
• China is now the second largest economy in the
Primary
world after the USA. 28%
• In the last 35 years, China has lifted 800 million Tertiary
42%
people out of poverty.

Secondary
30%

Activities
1 Identify five ways that the UK changed over
200 years.
2 Look at the examples of inventions in
Diagram C.
a) What inventions are highlighted?
b) Why do you think these inventions were
important for the development of countries
like the UK, Germany and the USA.
c) In small groups, think of three other
inventions that have shaped our lives
today. Be able to explain why you think
these are important.
d) Share your inventions with the class. As a
class decide the top five inventions for the
development of the UK.
e) Explain the reasons for the chosen top five.
3 Write a paragraph to explain why the UK's
development was gradual over the last
200 years.
4 a) Who are the BRICS?
b) How are these BRIC countries able to
develop at a much more rapid rate than
the UK did?
5 Compare Pie charts C and D. What do you
notice about how China's economy has
changed.
Stretch and challenge
Visit www.gapminder.org/tools.
Gapminder is a website that uses statistical data
visualisation tools to better understand the
world. Dollar Street is part of this site. Select the
UK and China in the select box. Play the data
animation. It will track change between the two
countries. How does it show the different rates
of development through the time period you
have investigated in this lesson?
 7.5 What is the global development
map missing?

Learning objective So far you have investigated development and inequality at a

► To understand that inequality
global scale and established that development is uneven. But
occurs within countries at inequality also occurs within countries and even within cities or
different scales. neighbourhoods. We now need to zoom between the scales,
from global to local, to look at internal patterns of development.
Maps A-C provide evidence to show inequality across the UK,
and Photo E shows inequality in Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Key
Total household income £ per head Key
•20,000-22,516 Male life expectancy age
-81.0-81.4
-18,000-19,999 -80.5-80.9 tP
�
D 16,000-17,999 -80.0-80.4 .1,
D 15,500-15,999 -79.5-79.9 11
□79.0-79.4 I' .
D 15,000-15,499
□
-◊6
78.5-78.9
('
Scotland
014,347-14,999 □78.0-78.4
UK average - 17,559 077.5-77.9
077.0-77.4

....N ...N
0 0 200 km
��C:::::::::::J

() Total household income in the UK 4!» Map of male life expectancy in the UK
Key
Percentage
-67.5-79.0
066.0-67.4
064.5-65.9 h
063.0-64.4 In Kensington in
cotland Central London, a /)
newborn boy can
hope to reach an
age of over 84 and
a girl 89. In the
country's least­
healthy area,
Greater Glasgow
and Clyde, it was
just over 73 years
for a boy and just
under 79 for a girl.

...N The great class and cash divide: Rich southerners are
0 200 km increasingly likely to make it to 75 when compared to people in
the poorer north, according to the latest Government statistics.

(g Percentage of GCSE students awarded A*-C G) Image similar to one that appeared in the
in Wales, England and Northern Ireland Daily Mail for an article about UK North-South
divide, 9th June 2011

•• •
fI U populations not
(j Inequality shown in Sao Paulo, Brazil
Activities
1 Look carefully at Maps A-C.
a) Describe the distribution patterns shown in
each map.
b) How does this data show that there is
inequality in different regions of the UK?
c) How does your local region compare with
the rest of the UK?
2 Look at Graphic D.
a) What does it suggest about regional
inequalities in the UK?
b) Compare Image D to what you have
discovered from Maps A-C. Do you agree or
disagree with what Image D is suggesting?
Justify your choice.
3 Study Photo E.
a) Describe what this photo shows using the
enquiry questions from Lesson 1.1 (pages 2-3).
b) How does this photo show inequality in Sao
Paulo?
0
Most vulnerable
captured by
household surveys
H ot1sehold surveys are used to
n1easure poverty around the
world. However, difficulties in
measuring how many people live in
certain areas 111ean that ma11y
individuals are not included in their
results. People such as the homeless,
migrants and those living in slums
may be unrepresented as they are
11.ot able to participate in the st1rveys.
I An estimated 350 111illion people
,
worldwide are thought to be
excluded from the household
st1rveys and these are likely to be the
poorest and most in need of help.
I
I.
4 Read Extract F.
a) Which groups of people are difficult to
count in surveys?
b) What impact might this have on levels of
development such as HDI for countries?
c) What does the article suggest about the data
you have been using in this unit so far?
5 Think about the regional inequalities you have
investigated this lesson.
a) Answer the lesson's enquiry question 'What
is the global development map missing?'.
b) What is the problem of only measuring and
comparing development for different
countries?
c) Has your view of development now changed
or is it still the same as for Lesson 7.1,
Question 6 (page 123)? Justify your choice.
 7.6 Why do people live in poverty?

Learning objective What is poverty?

► To understand the causes of The World Bank ,estimates that 767 million people live on less than
poverty.
US $1.90 per day - that's 10.7 per cent of the world's population
living in extreme poverty. Poverty, however, means more than just
money. Lacking access to basic resources such as clean water,
shelter, food, work, healthcare, sanitation and education are all
significant. Photos A-C show examples of the reality of this poverty
around the world.

Reasons for poverty

Just as measuring development is a complicated process, so is
understanding the reasons why some countries are less developed
than others. Some of the main factors are given in Diagram D.

4:) The causes of poverty

0 A boy ploughing a field in

Eritrea Location - if a country has no
coastline, or access is limited,
it can be difficult to trade with
other countries.
Mali, the fifth largest country
in Africa, is landlocked. This
means its opportunities for
growth and development are
limited. Per capita incomes are
amongst the lowest in the
world.
Climate - in extreme climates
it can be difficult to grow crops,
which makes food supply unreliable.
Between 1978 and 1998 Ethiopia
suffered fifteen droughts and
famines, leading to the displacement,
injury or death of over 1 million
people.

Politics - politically unstable

countries are often in poverty
C) Housing beside a river
and countries can often be What
affected by political decisions
polluted with sewage in India for decades. causes
poverty?
Many African countries are
locked into unfair trade deals
with European countries
following their colonisation in
the 1800s.

War - war-torn countries' services Gender inequality - when women

are continually disrupted, buildings
and roads are destroyed, people are
killed or forced to flee.
As a result of the conflict in Syria
millions of people have been forced
from their homes, scattered across
9 War-torn Syria Europe and beyond as refugees.
have fewer rights and less education
than men, a country is not fully
using its workforce. You will find
out more about this in the
next lesson.
 32% ■ Primary Nepal fact file
48% Secondary • Nepal is the twelfth poorest country in the world.
■ Tertiary • 2.4 million people live in extreme poverty.
20%
• Nepal is a landlocked country: it is surrounded by India
to the east, south and west, and by the great Himalayan
range to the north.
Q Nepal's economy • Mountains and hills cover almost 75 per cent of Nepal's land
area, which is unsuitable for farming and makes building
roads and bridges extremely difficult.
• About 80 per cent of the population live in rural areas and depend on subsistence
farming for their livelihoods.
• According to a UN ESCO report in 2011, the literacy rate of Nepal is 56.6 per cent, with
a huge variation between male and female: male 71.6 per cent; female 4 4.5 per cent.
• Gender inequality is a major issue. Rather than attending school, girls are expected to
marry at an early age and work in the fields and at home.
• Nepal suffers from natural disasters. In 2015 an earthquake devastated buildings, roads
and bridges. Over 3,000 people were killed and many more lost their homes.

Natural hazards - many countries

experience earthquakes or volcanoes,
frequently. The country is then
continually rebuilding or recovering
from disasters, making it much harder
to escape poverty.
I
Persistent flooding in Bangladesh
affects millions of people. Floods in
August 201 7 affected one-third of
the country and 6. 9 million people.
Access to education and
Activities
1 Look at Photos A-C.
a) Draw a Development Compass Rose. Write two questions for each
point on the compass about what you can see in the images.
b) Write a thought bubble for the people in the images, imagining what
they might be thinking.
2 a) Write a list of the causes of poverty.
b) Identify which causes are shown in Photos A-C.
c) Go back to your Development Compass Rose. Add each of the
causes where you think they fit into the compass.
3 Study the data shown in E and the fact file about Nepal.

---- healthcare - a lack of education can

result in a shortage of people to carry
out skilled jobs, and it can be harder
a) Use an atlas to help you describe the location of Nepal.
b) Look at the fact file and compare it to Diagram D. Draw your own
to maintain high levels of hygiene spider diagram to show causes of poverty in Nepal.
and health.
c) Write a paragraph to describe how poor Nepal is, and the causes of
I
In 2015, 89% of all malaria cases this poverty.
were in sub-Saharan Africa where
two-thirds of deaths were of children
under 5 years old. This has also
meant that fewer children are able to
attend school.
 7.7 How can gender equality increase
development?
Learning objectives
► To understand gender
inequality.
► To understand how gender
equality can lead to higher
levels of development.
0----­
Gender inequality
world facts
• One in five teenage girls around
the world is denied access to
education.
• One in three girls in the lower
income countries will be
married by her 18th birthday.
• Difficulties in pregnancy and
childbirth are the leading cause
of death for girls aged 15 to 19
in developing countries.
• Between 2009 and 2013 there
were attacks on schools in at
least 70 different countries.
A number of these attacks
were directed at girls, parents
and teachers who argued for
gender equality in education.
• In the UK there is also
inequality. For every £1 earned
by a man, a woman earns 81p.
• In the largest 350 UK
companies, women only
represent 23.5 per cent of the
top positions.
Gender inequality occurs when people are treated differently and
given different opportunities just because they are male or female.
In many places throughout the world girls do not experience the
same rights as boys. This can take many forms including being
deprived of education, forced into early marriage, or held back from
opportunities at work. This inequality often takes place because of
cultural beliefs or economic factors, but it results in half a country's
population being held back.
Below, Sadia tells her story about being a child bride. Poster C
shows the impact of investing in girls, and illustrates the true cost of
stories such as Sadia's.
Q Story taken from plan-uk.org
Sadia's story
My name is Sadia and I was a
child bride. I'm now 16 years
old, and have lived all my life in
a small village outside Dhaka in
Bangladesh.
I was married at 14. My husband,
Sumon, is four years older. My
husband is a farmer. His family
moved here a few years ago, and
we live with the rest of his
extended family. I didn't know him
before we were married; I had
never seen him before. I enjoyed school, especially maths, which was
my favourite subject. But in eighth grade, I was suddenly told by my
parents that I had to quit. I think it was four or five days after I left
school that my grandmother told me what really was going on. I was
shocked and completely devastated. Marry 1 Me? But I said nothing to
her. I didn't meet my husband before the wedding, but they said he
was a good man.
I knew little of what was expected of a bride. Grandma had been married
very young, probably much younger than me, so she tried to help. She
said I would be responsible for the household, I had to take care of my
husband and I had to take care of his family.
Six days later I was married. The first words he said to me were to tell
me to stop crying.
I had a difficult pregnancy and was sick a lot with a lot of pain.
I have become accustomed to my new life. I have my duties as a wife
and mother. But I worry a lot. I worry about money, my husband, my
child and my chores but most of all I worry that my own daughter will
also one day be married off early.
 e A poster created by
Women Deliver, an
organisation that works to
•
, ·
•
•••• •••••• progress women's health,
If meet the •• •••••••• rights and well-being. They
need for modern •••
contraception and •• •••••••••
••
advise organisations
••
provldt 111 pregnant
wome and ne borns
•
including international
Evidence shows
with quality Wt,
can reduct matern.111 that Qlr1S and agencies such as the World
-.omen reinvest
deaths by 73% and
newborn dtaths by 80�
••
...••••••••...• more of their Bank. They influence and
tll'lltld Income
In their families act both globally and
tllan men.
locally
GIRtS & WO EN·
� yclo nQ the
9 qP n
workPlac:es wo d •
1 up toSZB

ARE lli THE HEART

tr on na
:' GDP by 2025
••.
•

OF DEVELOPMENT
•••
•
••
••••••••••

·······••
•••
••
••••••••••••••• •
Growln9 tvldtnce
shows that
.
·• •
cOl'pontlons ltd lncn1sln9 ICteSS
by womtn art to ruourns 1nd
more focustd on dos! 119 the vendfr
sult1irl1bi&ty. CJIP in 19riculture

·•..••••••••••••• ,oi,d ure 100·150

people out ot
hunger.
,•
• •• ••••••
•• •

"WO EN DELIVER WHO WINS'? EVERY ODY.

Activities
1 a) Identify an example of gender inequality 4 Look carefully at Poster C.
and an example of gender equality. a) What is the poster showing about gender
Discuss your ideas with a partner. inequality and development?
b) Write your own definition and example of b) Who has created this poster?
gender inequality. c) Why do you think this organisation has
c) Read the facts in A about gender inequality. published this poster?
Do any of these facts surprise you? Discuss d) The poster identifies six reasons why a
which one shows the greatest inequality. country should invest in girls. Discuss each
Summarise and justify your findings. reason with a partner, and rank them in
2 Look carefully at B. order of importance.
a) How did Sadia's life change after marriage? e) Justify your rank order decisions.
b) How do you think Sadia felt when she married? 5 Write a paragraph to explain why girls and
c) Why is Sadia likely to have more children women can be at the heart of development.
over her life than if she married later?
What do you think her future holds? Stretch and challenge
3 Explain why you think gender inequality exists Write an alternative future for Sadia from 14 years old
in some countries. if she had stayed in education.
 7.8 How do countries and organisations
support development?

Learning objectives International aid is the voluntary donation of money, goods or

knowledge from one country to another, often a developed country
► To understand how bilateral and supporting developing countries. There are two main types of aid:
non-governmental aid supports
development. • Bilateral aid - a government in one country provides aid to the
► To understand how development government of a foreign country.
aid may change over time. • Non-governmental aid - charities called non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) raise money from the public to support
development projects in other countries.
0 Countries receiving most Bilateral aid
I
aid from DflD, 2017
The Department for International Development (DflD) is
Top ten places Budget in£ responsible for administering bilateral aid from the UK. The budget
DflD work million for aid projects in 2017 is shown in Tables A and B. Between 2014
Afghanistan 135.8 and 2015 DflD gave £249 million in aid to Pakistan (Poster C).
Congo Dem. Rep. 157.5
Ethiopia 235.4
Kenya 136.2
Nigeria 275.6
Pakistan 395.5
ml
Somalia 209.6
FOR 2011 - 2016
uKaid
_.,. __
PAKISTAN
South Sudan 166.8
Tanzania 166.1
Yemen 146.4 COUNTRY CONTEXT
(• 3 60/ Approximately 36" of people
� 10 live on 30p a day or leu.
Population: 185 million N

r
...._.

4) Project budgets for DflD in

t,
I> 14 I 000 women die In � One in 11 children die
before their fifth birthday.
..
childbirth each year.
2017
DflD project

Agriculture
I Budget in£
million
309.1
I 2014-15 DFID'S PROGRA
1GIRLS ,A'ND 1WOME,N
LIO
E AS £249 ILLIO
JOBS 1AND 1GROWTH
OPLE
_
0
0

a
Disaster relief 1071.0 in primary school have will access microfinance so
benefited from UK support. loans to establish their
Education 555.3 own small businesses by
500, 2016. 900,000 people have
Environmental 240.2 have been able to access already benefited from
financial services. such loans.
Free and fairer 541.3
elections 6
will receive training in new
Health 1051.0 marketable skills by 2016.
affected by devastating floods
Scientific research 248.1 have received lifesaving
assistance such as water.
ER 3.12 ILLION
Social welfare 230.2 food and sanitation.
of the poorest people
services will receive financial
support to help
Transport and 171.7 them meet their
storage .3 ILLIO basic needs such
primary school children have as food, health
Water and 193.6 already benefited from DFIO and education.
sanitation support. By 2016, 7.5 million by 2016.
children will have benefited.
In Punjab province, student �
participation has increased
from about 79¾ to 90%. DJ
Q DflD Development
Report on Pakistan,
2016
(:) ActionAid's vision and mission
statement
Our vision is: 'a just, equitable and sustainable world in
which every person enjoys the right to a life of dignity,
freedom from poverty and all forms of oppression.'
Our mission is: 'to work with poor and excluded people to
eradicate poverty and injustice.'
NGOs
ActionAid is an international NGO which works
with over 15 million people in 45 countries. It has
been working for a world free from poverty and
injustice for over 40 years. Its vision is shown in
D. Today, ActionAid uses a Human Rights Based
Approach (HRBA) to reduce poverty in the world.
Table E shows examples of their work.
Q Examples of ActionAid's work
ActionAid's Examples
project themes
I
Defending In Nigeria, many families may only pay for
women's rights boys to go to school. By encouraging girls
clubs in Nigeria, it gets the community to
understand the importance of education
and fewer girls drop out early to marry.
Tackling violence In Rwanda, ActionAid provides cows and
against women seeds to women in rural areas. This means
and girls and they can fertilise their gardens and
securing provide milk for their children. Any food
women's that is sold can provide money to reinvest
economic justice into the community.
Encouraging In Brazil, there are many slums, known as
action by the 'favelas', which house poor people on the
people and edge of big cities. Many are built without
responsibility by any planning, so lack basic infrastructure.
governments to One favela, Heliopolis, was particularly
create female­ dangerous because it had little or no street
friendly public lighting. Women and girls, in particular, were
services afraid to go out at night. ActionAid helped
organise a candlelit march through
Heliopolis to draw attention to the problem.
As a result, broken street lights were
replaced and the City Hall made a
commitment to provide better LED lighting,
allowing people to move more freely at
night, for work, education, family activities
or socialising.
Activities
1 a} What is international aid?
b} What are the two main types of aid?
2 Look at Table A.
a} On an outline map of the world, plot and
shade the top ten countries the UK
provides aid to.
b} Go to Map C on pages 124 and identify
the GNI for each of these countries. Add
this to your outline map.
c} Describe the distribution of these
countries and their GN I.
d} Explain why you think the UK donates aid
to these countries.
3 Look closely at Table B.
a} Draw a bar graph to show total spend on
each type of project.
b} Describe the types of project the aid is
spent on.
c} What is the problem of spending the
most money on disaster relief?
4 Study Poster C.
a) Identify the development challenges for
Pakistan.
b} Draw a Development Compass Rose. For
each point of the con1pass, write huw the
UK has supported development in Pakistan.
c} Explain which strategy you believe is the
most important to support development
in Pakistan.
5 Study Statement D and Table E.
a} How does ActionAid's mission statement
link to economist Amartya Sen's
definition of development in Lesson 7.1,
page 123?
b} What is a Human Rights Based Approach
to development aid?
c} How do the examples in Table E link to
the mission statement for ActionAid?
d} Use the examples in Table E to explain
how the projects support countries to
develop.
e} What kind of challenges do you think
ActionAid may face when carrying out
their projects?
6 Explain how ActionAid's work is different to
the UK's bilateral aid.
 7.9 What are Sustainable Development
Goals?

Learning objectives The United Nations (UN) is an organisation of 192 countries. It was
set up in 1945 foHowing the end of the Second World War. It aimed
► To understand Sustainable to bring nations together to prevent future conflict.
Development Goals.
From 2001 to 2015 the UN set up eight Millennium Development
► To understand the purpose of
these goals in reducing world Goals. They focused on reducing global poverty. In 2015, a new set
poverty. of seventeen targets - Sustainable Development Goals - were
created (see Poster C). These goals call for action by all countries
and aim to end poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle
climate change by 2030. The goals are not legally
binding, but governments are monitored to see if
they are working towards them. Poster A was
1Y:MAR0ReETOEHEER created by the UN to help explain the first goal.
HAL'f Or ALL THE PEOPLE BUT EVERYONE
LIVE IN POVERTY� DESERVES THE CHANCE
TO PROSPER�

SUSTAINABLE
DO
ABOUT
IT...?
A LOT!
ACCESS TO
we CAN ENSURE
"SOCIAL PROTECTION"

HEALTH CARE +
PROTECTION
uN�1�lJeNT
DEVELOPMENT

we CAN MAKE SURE THERE IS EQUAL ACCESS TO THINGS LIKE:

BASIC LABOR TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS AND JOB
SERVICES & LANO OPPORTUNITIES

0 UN poster on the first Sustainable

Development Goal
 A sustainable world is one where people can escape
poverty and enjoy decent work without harming the
Earth's essential ecosystems and resources; where people
can stay healthy and get the food and water they need;
where everyone can access clean energy that doesn't
contribute to climate change; where women and girls are
afforded [given] equal rights and equal opportunities.
Q Former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
speaks about the importance of the
Sustainable Development Goals, in 2015
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
G�:��LS
Activities
1 What is sustainability?
2 Read Ban-Ki Moon's quote in B and Poster C.
a) What are the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs)?
b) Why is sustainable development so
important for the future of the planet
and its people?
c) Why is it important that the goals apply
to all countries, not just countries with
low levels of development?
3 Look carefully at Poster A.
a) Why do you think poverty is the first
goal?
b) Explain how the UN aims to stop
poverty.
4 Look closely at Poster C.
a) Think back to the geography you have
already covered in this unit. Which of the
development goals have you learnt
about?
b) Which goals are you unsure about? You
will learn more about these in the other
units in Progress in Geography and in
Unit 15 you will look back at all of them.
c) Look bark at the visinn statPment on
Map-flap A. How does Poster C
demonstrate the world working together
to be good geographers?
d) Draw a Development Compass Rose and
group the goals according to the
categories. Write questions on the rose for
each goal.
e) Which three goals do you think are the
most important? Justify your choice.
5 Why may some governments find it difficult
to implement the SDGs? Look back to the
causes of poverty in Lesson 7.6, page 132,
to support your answer.
e The seventeen UN Sustainable
Development Goals
 7.10
What is development? Review

In this unit, you have learnt: You are to apply what you have learnt in this
unit to make decisions and write a report on
► to define development behalf of the Bolivian Government about future
► to compare development around the world development strategies. Bolivia is located in
► to understand where and why inequality South America (Map A). It has many physical and
occurs human challenges to development, shown in the
resources below.
► to understand the actions taken by
individuals, governments and communities
to aid development. • The total population is 10,561,887.
Let's see what you have remembered • Forty per cent of the population live below the
and understood! World Bank's poverty line of US$1.9.

j
Key
Lowlands
Hills
Mountains
'

BRAZIL
-� < 1
0 ,1t
PERU !& \
8(<
1 s1
..</

sci1v1A
,,J
\ l\i
la Paz 0,
• ... <:Y--?,\
Nevada lllimani Chapare �"--
64()l
• 'serrania De Santi
Cochabamba , C ruz 7555
S anta •
South Cerro San Miguel
4830
Pacific �
Ocean

PARAGUAY

ARGEN
�
e) Landscape of Chapare province in Bolivia
0 Map of Bolivia
Between 2001 & 2010
Extreme poverty in the Chapore decreased by 220/o
While nationally it decreased by 15 0/o
The number of children with serious cases of diarrhea
Primary
32% j_, by 18 °/o
Tertiary
48% The literacy rate improved by 13.50/o
I by
4 01A1!"
rD

14 O/o
Ui
Secondary & School Attendance
20% Compared to a 4 0/o increase nationally

e Economic sectors of
employment in Bolivia, 2015
The percentage of people who receive tap water
and
I
SQO/o have access to a bathroom or latrine
by 4QO/o

G) An example of the Sustainable Development Goals

being implemented by one community in Bolivia
 7 What is development?

Activities
1 Look at resources A-C. Answer the 4Ws and
2Hs enquiry questions (from page 3) about
Bolivia.
2 Use the maps from Lessons 7.2 (pages (124-
125) and 7.3 (page 126) to find out Bolivia's
level of development (HDI and GNI per capita,
World Bank grouping).
3 Use A-E, and what you have learnt about the
causes of inequality to explain the challenges to
development that Bolivia needs to overcome.
4 Look at D, an example of how the Sustainable
Development Goals have been implemented
in one area of Bolivia.
a) Why were these SDGs a focus in this area?
b) What SDG priorities are identified for Bolivia?
c) Do you agree with these priorities?
5 Write a report on behalf of the Bolivian
Government on the priorities for future
development of the country. In your report,
identify and explain the following:
• the problems Bolivia needs to overcome
• the type of aid that can be obtained from
the UK Government and ActionAid
• which SDGs Bolivia should prioritise.
6 In Lesson 7.1, page 123, you produced a
Development Compass Rose. You wrote what
you thought were important questions on your
rose. Now that you have made progress in your
understanding of development, go back and
reread your questions. Do you still think these
are the important questions in each category?
Add new questions to your rose. Share your new
questions with the class.

Q The Kjapa family, from the Dollar Street website

Future learning
You will get the opportunity to
consider your new Development
Home of Monthly 1nca.me Compass Rose questions as well as
Kjapa1 Bo[lvia $254 progress your understanding of
development in the following units in
Progress in Geographjl.' Key .Stage .3:
Unit 8 One planet, many people:
How are populations changing?; Unit
10 Diverse and dynamic: How is Asia
being transformed?; Unit 12 What are
the challenges and opportunities
facing Africa?; Unit 14 Why is the
Middle East an important world
region?; Unit 15 What is the future for
the planet? A geographer's view.

Juan is 39 years old and works in construction. His wife is

Future learning at GCSE
Paulina, 31, and she works as a bus cleaner. They live with their An understanding of development is
four children. The eldest, Juan, 9, and Kevin, 6, are both students. an important aspect of GCSE
The youngest, Paola, 3, and Eric, 1, do not yet go to school. geography. You will be required to
They live just outside La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. They like living consider change in at least one lower
outside the city as the rent is much cheaper, but would prefer if income country or one that is within a
people didn't dump trash in the river nearby. Their house has
electricity, but they must use a public pay toilet outside the house newly emerging economy. You will
which costs 28 Bolivian Bolivianos (4 USO) per week. Half of their investigate how it is changing, and the
family income is spent on buying food. Water must be collected characteristics of international trade,

l from a glacier run-off and is not always safe to drink. Safe

drinking water will cost up to 10 per cent of their income.
---
aid and geo-political relationships with
respect to that country.
 () Information from the Worldometer website
In this unit you will learn:
► about world population distribution
and change
Current World Population
► how countries attempt to control
population change
7,588,152, 731
► about types of migration TODAY I THIS YEAR I
► to understand urbanisation and how
Births today Births this year
cities evolve.
244,863 134,518,965

Deaths today Deaths this year

The number of people living in a particular place
is known as the population. Image A shows the 101,420 55,716,720
estimated world population at the time this lesson
was written. Graph B shows that for much of Population Growth today Population Growth this year
history the world's population growth was very 143,443 78,802,245
gradual, but in 1800 it reached 1 billion and since
then growth has become very rapid. This has
been called a population explosion.
As the world has developed, people live longer, Why measure population
and more babies are born. This rapid increase in
population places a great strain on the planet and
growth?
its natural resources, which you investigated in In the last Lesson, 7.10 (page 141), you wrote a
Unit 2. In this unit you will investigate how the government report about Bolivia, to identify
world's population is changing and the priorities for development. In order to develop and
consequences of these changes. improve the quality of life of the people in a country,
its government needs to understand the size and

e The world's population from 1800 to 2011

composition of the population and the rate at which
it is changing. As a result, every ten years many
countries conduct a census for its population.
Year World
population
in billions
1800 1
1930 2
1960 3
1974 4
1987 5
1999 6
2011 7

Q World population from 10,000 BC

10,000 BC 8000 6000

 UN says world population will reach 9.8 billion in 2050

A recent United Nations report forecasts that the

current world population of nearly 7 .6 billion
concentrated in just nine cot1ntries - India, Nigeria,
Congo, Pakistan,Ethiopia,Tanzania, the USA, Uganda

will increase to 8.6 billion by 2030, 9 .8 billion in
2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100.
It is estimated that over half of global population
growth between now and 2050 will take place in
the continent of Africa. At the other extreme, it is
expected that the popt1lation of Europe will, in fact,
decline somewhat in the coming decades.
T he UN agency forecasts that from now through
2050 half the world's population growth will be
4:) Article from Bloomberg.com, 22 June 2017
7
and Indonesia.
A quarter of Europe's population is already aged
60 or over, and that share is projected to reach 35 per
cent in 2050.
The rapid population growth in many
Afriican countries poses a real problem for
their governments in how to keep pace
6
with this growth in terms of food, shelter,
schools and hospitals. This growth holds
back development.

Activities
1 What is population? c) Think about what you learnt in the
"'
5 C:
2 Look carefully at Image A. last unit about development to 0
a) What was the world's estimated describe your line graph. ■-

population on 15 December 2017, 5 Watch the Hans Rosling Gapminder ■-

when this page of the book was video at www.gapminder.org/ .c

written? answers/how-did-the-world- ...
b) Visit the Worldometers website:
www.worldometers.info/world­
population-change/
Suggest reasons to explain this
4 C:
0
population/ population explosion. ■-
+-'
c) Record the world's population at 6 a) What is a census? ta
this site. b) Write a paragraph to explain why
d) �;:ilr.1 Jl;:itp how mt Jr.h thP wnrlrl'� governments need to conduct a
c..
�

population has changed for all the

statistics shown in A, since 2017.
census.
7 Read Article D. 3 0
C.
3 Look carefully at Graph B. a) Extend your line graph in
a) Write a paragraph describing how Question 4 a) and add the billion -c
the world's population has statistical estimates to it. I..

changed.
b) Why is the change since 1800
called a population explosion?
4 a) Draw a line graph to show in
detail the population growth
since 1800 using the data in
Table C.
b) In each case calculate how long it
took for the population to grow
by 1 billion.
s0
b) Describe the forecasted
distribution of population growth
around the world. 2
8 Where do you come in a world of 7
billion? Visit: www.bbc.co.uk/news/
world-15391515 and find out how
many people were alive when you
were born!

0
000 2000 AD 1 1000 2000
 8.2 Where does everyone live, and why?

Learning objectives
► To understand what is meant by
population distribution.
► To identify where the world's
biggest populations are found.
► To analyse population patterns.
Population distribution
Population distribution is the pattern of where people live and
how populations are spread out. In Lesson 5.5 (pages 90-91) on
Russia you were introduced to population density. You discovered
that population is not evenly spread across Russia. As you can see,
this is the same at a global scale - some areas of the world are
densely populated and others are sparsely populated.

0 A world population density map

4D Top ten most populated countries
Country Population

China 1,411,582,266
India j 1,344,722,219
USA I 32s,320.364
Indonesia 265,036,327
'---

Brazil I 209,877.612
Pakistan 1198,427,695
Nigeria 192,736,886
Bangladesh 165,302,834
Russia 143,980,388
POPULATION
Mexico 129,757,739 DENSITY

0
Inhabitants per sq km
Positive and negative Over 200

settlement factors 100- 200

50-100
Positive and negative factors 25-50

6-25 20
Cold climate
3-6
- - .. - .
Flat land
-----
1-3

Under1 antiago •
1
A good water supply
- Urban population
■ Over 10,000,000 40
No natural resources for building or fuel • 5,000,000-10,000,000
• 1,000,000-5,000,00,0
Fertile soils for growing crops _C/l
All cities with more than 5,000,000
.r:. inhabitants are named on the map
Remote location

Steep slopes

At a river mouth for a port

'---

Lots of industry and offices for jobs 0 Rice growing in India G) Rainforest in Africa

Q The Sahara Desert

 ••

Why is global population other settlements via roads, railways and rivers are
made. In turn this creates more job opportunities
distribution uneven? and so an expanding population.
Historically, settlements have built up in areas with Areas that are often sparsely populated tend to
natural resources that can support a population, have fewer resources and be harder to live in, such
such as water, soil, the ability to grow food, and job as mountainous areas, deserts or isolated places.
opportunities. When a settlement becomes more
developed industries emerge and connections with
Activities
1 Define the following terms: population
density; sparsely populated; densely
I : 110 000 000 populated.
2 Compare Map A with an atlas map of
the world.
a) Name five densely populated areas
of the world.
b) Name five sparsely populated
areas.
-s--· c) Which continent is the least
��gdu.
o gqr
populated?
n., -· ------- -------------
-- --- ---
ropic of Cancer d) Which continent is the most
um
n ---\----�-...-20
,
populated?
e) Which hemisphere is more
(Bombay
Bang_ •,
..
. ... ·:....,.,..... populated: the northern or
.•. ....
'I. • •• • I

'•
....
. ..
�
southern?
, 1 Equator
f) Write a paragraph to describe the
distribution of world population.
... -•• Include the density figures shown
•
. in the key on the map.
\f••
,....._--t---.:---"20 .
3 Table H shows the top ten most
•
__ Jr_opJl:_of c;:��rtc.ocn
populated countries .
a) Draw a bar graph for this data.
b) Shade your bars according to
which continent each country is
4) Los Angeles, USA
In.
c) Write a paragraph to describe the
numbers of people across these
ten countries.
G) Taiyuan, Shanxi 4 Look carefully at photos B-G.
province, China
a) Group these places into positive
and negative factors. Justify your
9 The Himalayas in Nepal answer in each case.
b) Group the factors shown in Table I
into positive and negative, and
physical and human factors.
5 Using your answers to the earlier
activities, write a paragraph to explain
the distribution of world population.
 8.3 How can we describe the structure
of a population?

Learning objectives Population and development

► To understand how the population of a
country changes as it develops.
► To use a model to investigate
population change.
► To draw and interpret population data
using population pyramids to predict
change.
A demographer is someone who studies population data
collected from the census at local, national and global levels.
Demographers study the birth rate, the number of births per
1,000 of the country's population, each year; and the death
rate, the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year. The
difference between the birth rate and death rate is the
natural increase or decrease in a country's population.
After studying industrialised societies over the last 200 years,
demographers discovered that a country's population growth
rate passes through five different stages as it develops
economically. Demographers have created a Demographic
Transition Model (DTM), shown in Diagram A, to describe
these different stages. This is a generalised picture of
population change in the countries studied. Whether or not it
applies to less developed societies today, that are currently
developing, remains to be seen.

0 The Demographic Transition Model

1 2 3 4 5
Stage High stationary Early expanding Late expanding Low stationary Decline
High fluctuating Low fluctuating

40
Death rate·
Birth
and 30
death
rates
(per Natural
20
1,000 increase
people
Natural
per year)
---
decrease
10
Total population
•-.:------------------
0------------------------------------------
Stage 1: Birth rate and Stage 2: Death rate Stage 3: Birth rate falls Stage 4: Birth rate and Stage 5: Birth rate very
death rate are high but decreases due to rapidly as the country death rate are low but low, falling below the
fluctuate due to disease, improvements in medical develops. Use of fluctuate; steady, small death rate, leading to a
famine and war. care, scientific contraception, due to natural increase. natural decrease. Death
T he total population discoveries, hospitals government incentives, E.g. UK today rate increases slightly
stays low. and improved sanitation the changing role of due to an ageing
E.g. UK before 1780, and water supply, but women in society, or population.
Niger today birth rate stays high. increased desire for E.g. Russia today
The population grows material possessions
as the natural increase rather than large families.
becomes higher. E.g. UK 1880-1940,
E.g. UK 1780-1880, Brazil today
Afghanistan today
 ••

100+ Male 0.0% 0.0% Female 100+ 0.0% 0.0%

Male Female
95-99 0.1% 0.2% 95-99 0.0% 0.0%
90-94 90-94 0.0% 0.0%
85-89 85-89 0.0% 0.0%
80-84 80-84 0.1% 0.1%
75-79 75-79 0.2% 0.2%
70-74 70-74
65-69 65-69
60-64 60-64
55-59 55-59
50-54 3.6% 3.7% 50-54
45-49 3.4% 3.5% 45-49
40-44 40-44
35-39 35-39
30-34 3.4% 3.4% 30-34
25-29 3.4% 25-29
20-24 20-24
15-19 15-19
10-14 10-14
5-9 5-9 8.5% 8.1%
0-4 0-4 10.61% 10.19%

10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12%10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%12%

C) A population pyramid, 2017 (j A population pyramid, 2017

Using population pyramids
Demographers use graphs called population These pyramids are useful for governments to
pyramids (see tables B and C) to analyse the better understand the composition of their
structure of populations. A population pyramid is a population. They can use them to make
graph that shows the age and gender distribution predictions about the types of services that the
of a given population. Gender is shown on the left population will need in the future, for example the
and right sides, age on the y-axis, and the numbers of schools, hospitals and homes.
percentage of population on the x-axis. Each Countries with a large proportion of older people
grouping (e.g. males aged 0-4) is called a cohort. must develop retirement systems and medical
The shape of a pyramid depends both on the facilities to serve them. Therefore, as a population
number of people in each age group and the ages, needs change from childcare and schools to
proportion of males and females. jobs, housing and medical care.

Activities
1 Write a definition of the following terms: birth
rate; death rate; natural increase or decrease;
demographer.
2 a) What is the Demographic Transition Model?
b) Why did demographers create the model?
3 Look carefully at Model A. Compared with
developing countries, why do developed
countries usually have:
a) a lower birth rate
b) a lower death rate
c) a smaller natural increase?
4 a) What is a population pyramid?
b) What data does it show?
5 Study pyramids B and C which show the
populations for two different countries.
a) Pyramid C is very broad at the bottom and
narrow at the top. Pick out the description
from the following that is true for this
country:
i) few children and few older people
ii) many children and few older people
iii) many children and many older people.
b) Which country, B or C, has a high birth
rate?
c) Which country will need to build more
schools and housing in the future?
d) Which country will need more retirement
homes and medical services?
e) From your analysis of these two population
pyramids, which one do you think shows
Niger and which shows the UK?
 8.4 Can we control population size?

C) Newspaper article from 22 June 2014

Learning objectives
► To understand how countries attempt population control. Vladimir Putin vows to reverse
► To consider the success of population control. Russian population decline

Governments in different countries around the world are

developing strategies to control their populations. These
I n 2006,Vladimir Putin described population decline
as the country's 'most urgent problem' . At that time
16 Russians died for every 10.4 babies born, with
strategies differ depending on which stage of the
the population declining by 700,000 people a year.
Demographic Transition Model a country is at. When a
Causes of the problem
country is underpopulated it doesn't have enough peoplle
Women in Russia have careers, and put off having
to make use of the resources and technology available.
children, often marrying later, and therefore having
This can cause economic problems if there are not
fewer children. As well as this, the death rate is high
enough workers to produce goods for sale or to complete in Russia due to high levels of heart disease, accidents,
services. Where a country is overpopulated, it has too violence and suicide. Smoking rates are among the
many people and not enough resources to maintain a highest in the world (twice as high as in the US).
reasonable standard of living, which slows down Environmental conditions, especially in the work
development. In this lesson you will investigate how the place, are often poor.
governments of two countries, Russia and China, have Government incentives
attempted to control their population growth, to In 2007, the government introduced a programme to
overcome problems of over- and under-population. pay $11,000 to mothers who have more than one
0 Population pyramid for Russia, 2017 child.The money can be put toward buying a house or
toward the child's education, or be deposited into the
Population 143,375,006
100+ Male 0.0% 0.0% Female mother's pension account.
95-99 0.0% 0.0% Success?
90-94
85-89 Official figures show that abot1t 1.9 million babies
80-84 were born in Russia in 2015, up from 1.5 million in
75-79
70-74
2005. In 2013, the country saw the number of births
65-69 surpass the number of deaths for the first time in over
60-64 4.0%
55-59
20 years. The mortality rate has dropped rapidly in
50-54 the last few years, mainly due to new legislation
45-49
restricting the sale and advertisement of alcohol in
40-44
35-39 2006, together with government-sponsored sport to
30-34 4.4% encourage more healthy lifestyles. There has been a
25-29
20-24 slight natural increase in population, but not enough
15-19 to make a significance difference. The population of
10-14
5-9
Russia is still ageing.
0-4

10% 8%, 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

Male Female
70+
60-69
a. 50-59
::s
e 40-49
� 30-39
� 20-29
10-19
0-9

10%5% 0 5% 10%
1950
$ A Russian poster: the text reads 'A third Note: Population data are estimates * Forecast, medium fertility variant

child means wealth will be tripled' C) Population pyramids for China - 1950, 2015
and 2050 - from the United Nations Department
of Economic and Social Affairs
China ends one child only
policy after 35 years
I n 1970 China's population exceeded 800 million, the
world's largest population was growing too quickly
and the country was becoming seriously overpopulated,
holding back the cot1ntry's ambitions to develop. The
population growth rate meant the population of China
wottld double in 50 years. In 1979, the government took
a bold step that stunned the world, introducing a one
child only policy. A new marriage law made couples
practise family planning, placing a limit of one child
for each family. Couples were offered incentives - free
education, better pensions, free child care, and family
benefits for one child. Families that had more than one
child lost all benefits, and could be fined or even sent to
jail. The personal rights of families were sacrificed for
the good of the state. A major promotional campaign
was organized, including posters promoting the policy
[such as E], displayed all over the countr y.
Problems of the policy
In 2012, there were 6.7 million forced abortions and
more than 10 million a year in previous years; there
have been millions of forced sterilizations, as well as
voluntary abortions of female foetuses because
pregnant mothers wanted their 'One Child' to be a
boy, to carry on the family name.
Unforeseen consequences
Chinese officials believe the one child policy has
reduced the population by 400 million.
According to many reports there are now over 30
million more marriage-aged young men than women.
China also faces a rapidly ageing population. The policy
has been too st1ccessful and the shape of the popt1lation
pyramid has completely changed [see F].
A change of policy
China has abandoned this one child only policy after 35
years. The change of policy is intended to balance
population development and address the challenge of
an ageing population.
E) Newspaper article from October 2015
Age group as a percentage of the total population
Male Female Male
70+ 70+
60-69 60-69
c. 50-59 c. 50-59
e e
::::, ::::,
40-49 40-49
� 30-39 � 30-39
: 20-29 : 20-29
10-19 10-19
0-9 0-9
10%5% 0 5% 10% 10%5% 0
2015
Activities
1 a) Define overpopulation and
underpopulation.
b) What problems can each cause for a country?
2 Study Pyramid A.
a) Describe the shape of the pyramid.
b) What evidence does it show to suggest that the birth
rate is low?
c) Compare the percentage of males and females.
What do you notice?
3 Study Article Band Poster C.
a) What problems does Russia face with its
population?
b) How is the government trying to overcome these
problems?
c) Explain the message of Poster C.
d) Think back to what you learnt about Russia in Unit
5. How could the geography of Russia explain its
high death rate?
e) How successful has the government been in
improving the population growth?
4 Look back at Model A in Lesson 8.3, page 146. At
which stage in the Demographic Transition Model do
you think Russia is? Justify your answer.
5 Study Article D and Poster E.
a) What was the problem with China's population in
1970?
b) Describe the one child only policy and what the
government wanted it to achieve.
c) Explain the message of Poster E.
d) What problems did this policy cause?
e) Why, in 2015, did the government stop this policy?
6 Look at F.
a) How has the structure of China's population
changed between 1950 and 2015?
b) What stage of the Demographic Transition Model
do they suggest China has moved from in 1950
and moved to by 2015?
c) What stage is predicted for 2050?
Female
5% 10%
2050*
4) A Chinese poster promoting the
one child policy
 8.5 Why do people migrate?
Learning objectives
► To understand what is meant by migration, and the
different forms of migration.
► To be able to explain push and pull factors.
► To consider social, economic, political and
environmental reasons for migration.
+ Positive factors
Why do people migrate?
- Negative factors
o Neutral factors
A migrant is someone who moves from one
place to another, with the intention of living
temporarily or permanently in the new location.
Migration can occur internally, within a country,
or between countries. An immigrant is someone
who moves to live permanently in a different
country. People that choose to move are
voluntary migrants. Those that have no choice,
who move due to war or natural disasters, are
forced migrants. They are called refugees.
Migration is not new. Humans have migrated for
at least 60,000 years. Scientists have traced our
origins to Southern Africa and from there people
have dispersed across the world. In Lesson 1.2
you investigated how explorers discovered new
lands in the seventeenth century - the Americas
and Australia. They were soon followed by people
from Europe seeking a better life in these New
Worlds. In the twenty-first century there are new
patterns of migration. In this lesson you will
investigate why people migrate.
In 1966, E. S. Lee devised a model (see Diagram
A), to help explain the reasons why people
migrate. People make the decision to move based
on positive and negative factors about where they
are living, their origin, and where they decide to
move to, their destination. Lee called these push
and pull factors. The pushes are the things that
make people want to leave, the pulls are the good
things that attract them to a new place. These
factors must be strong enough to overcome the
barriers or intervening obstacles to move.
0 E. S. Lee's migration model
Push Pull
0
+ 0
0
+ 0 +
+ --------11
+ Intervening + + +
0 obstacles
0 +
+
Origin • Physical distance and Destination
cost of making the journey
• Physical barriers:
mountain ranges , oceans
• Political obstacles:
international border,
immigration restrictions
• Cultural barriers: language
and different ways of life
F or Esayas Nisqt1e, home was a small town in
Eritrea, a cot1ntry in Africa, a few hours walk from
the Ethiopian border. Most of the local men leave to
find work in other countries, as there are few jobs for
the rapidly growing young population. Few want to
stay in Eritrea, he said,'As soon as you finish school
and are not learning then they want to make you a
soldier.' From Ethiopia, Nisque walked for four days
before catching a bt1s to Sudan. From there, he took
another bus to Libya. Once here he was unfortunately
kept prisoner, for a year, with hundreds of other men
in a small house guarded by 'Libyan soldiers'. Nisque
said his father sent him the $1,800 he needed to pay
people-smugglers for the trip across the Mediterranean
from Libya to Italy. The boat, carrying around 500
people, left Libya early one evening three weeks ago; it
didn't take long for the unstable craft to start taking on
water. A cargo ship arrived and rescued all of those on
board. Nisque now wants to get to Rome to meet his
brother, who is also an undocumented migrant with no
work or money. The teenager's dream is to eventually
get to Sweden. 'Italy no good. No work, no money,'
he said; but in Sweden, his friends have told him, life is
good.
0 A migrant story from Africa to Europe
 My name is Jenny and I'm
the editor of this book. Five
years ago I was living and
working in London with my
family. Now I am living and
working in Montreal, Canada.
Our decision to come here
was mainly a financial one.
Although we were both
working hard in London our
rent was very high and we knew
we couldn't afford to buy a
home.We knew the situation for ot1r children wot1ld be
even harder when they were grown up.We had thought of
moving ot1t of London, but my husband's job was based in
the city. So when his company suggested a relocation to
their Montreal office we decided to give it a try.We had
both travelled a lot when we were young and I had always
wanted to return to Canada after a trip there as a teenager. It
seemed like such a friendly, safe, modern and beautiful
country.
Travelling to Canada was not that difficult for us as most
of it was organised by my husband's company.The real
challenge began once we reached Montreal.We knew no
one and next to nothing about the area that we had chosen
to live in.There's a ht1ge amount to learn about that yot1
take for granted when you grow up in an area - how
schools work,medical access, transport,cultural differences
and even what brands are good in the supermarket. Even
learning Canadian English - 'sidewalk' not 'pavement' and
'soccer' not 'football' - took some time. In the first couple of
years our children had variot1s illnesses and we had no
relatives around to help us.Times like those are difficult and
we continue to miss our family and friends hugely. I also
e ���=-=============================-----====-:::::::::­
A migrant story from the UK to Canada
Activities
1 Write definitions of the key words highlighted
in the text.
2 Read migration story B.
a) Draw a copy of Lee's model, Diagram A.
b) Identify the decisions made by the family
to move, and label them as push and pull
factors on your copy of the model.
c) What barriers or obstacles did the migrant
have to overcome in order to migrate?
d) The pulls to a new destination are only
perceptions of a new place, and when
migrants actually move the reality may be
different. How was the destination different
to the hopes of this migrant?
miss Indian food and people who really live and breathe the
joy of football!
There are two other complications specific to life in
Montreal. Firstly, it's a bilingual city.That means people
speak two languages - here it's French and English. Every
road sign, menu and food label is in both languages. Once
we knew we wanted to stay here permanently, we had to
apply to be residents.This meant my kids had to attend
French school and my husband had to pass lots of difficult
French tests.A steep learning curve for all of us!
Another challenge is the weather - during winter
temperatures here can go as low as -30 ° and in the summer
it can reach + 30 ° .As a result we have learnt to live
seasonally,doing different activities, bt1ying appropriate
clothing, and learning to drive safely on icy roads! The roads
here are a little crazy in that there are pot-holes everywhere
- a result of the harsh winters!
Almost all our expectations of Canada have been met
- it is indeed a beautiful,safe and welcoming place. It isn't
quite as modern - people don't use the internet as much as
in England and things aren't quite as commercial. In some
ways it feels like England twenty years ago. But we like that!
As soon as we arrived in Montreal we fell in love with
this city. Our boys are now both bilingual. In the five years
that we have been here we have seen a new sports centre,
library and mega-hospital all open up just in our local
neighbourhood.We can afford to live in a family-friendly
area with lots of green spaces,just 15 minutes from
downtown Montreal, and soon we hope to buy a home
here.We have access to amazing cot1ntryside just outside the
city. Five years on, we are now residents here, we have a
close group of friends,are speaking French,and are
thoroughly enjoying life in our adopted home.
3 Read migration story C.
Now repeat activities a-d from question 2.
4 a) Conduct a survey of your class to find out:
i) if any of you have migrated or moved to
the area
ii) where those pupils lived previously
iii) their reasons for moving.
b) Locate on a map where members of your
class have previously lived.
5 Reflect on the different push and pull factors
you have discovered this lesson.
a) Group these factors into social, economic,
environmental and political.
b) Write a paragraph to explain why people
migrate.
 8.6 Where do people migrate to?

Learning objectives
► To know the major destinations and routes for
international migrants.
► To identify the push and pull factors for migration
between Mexico and the USA.

In 2017, the number of international migrants

worldwide - people living in a country other than
their country of birth - was the highest ever
recorded, at 258 million. If all of the world's
international migrants lived in a single country, it
would be the world's fifth largest. As of 2015, the
United Nations estimates that 46.6 million people
living in the United States were not born there.
This means that about one in five international
migrants (19 per cent) live in the USA. The US 0 Why did Enrique Canchola disguise
immigrant population is nearly four times that of
himself as a car seat in 2001?
the world's next largest immigrant destination -
Germany - which has about 12 million
immigrants. In this lesson you will investigate Q International migrant population and
these world patterns of migration. migrant share of total population. Top
10 countries of destination, 2015

1 United States -
-
•
2 Germany

-
3 Russian Federation

- -
4 Saudi Arabia
5 United Kingdom
6 United Arab Emirates -
7 Canada -
8 France -
9 Australia -
10 Spain 1111
Om 1 Om 20m 30m 40m 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
International migrant population Migrant share of the total population

The migration of Mexicans to rich and attractive nation, bordering a much

the USA
The number of Mexican-born immigrants living in
the USA soared from 760,000 in 1970, to a peak
of 12.6 million in 2007, including many entering
the country illegally, see Photo A. Crossing the
border illegally is very dangerous and migrants
risk being captured by US border patrols and
deported back to Mexico. But the reasons for this
migration are easy to understand. The USA is a
poorer country with a rapidly growing population.
Mexico has problems with crime rates, drug use
and corruption, as well as poor education
opportunities. The Mexicans who have migrated
to the USA have filled jobs as farm labourers at
harvest time, in factories or as cleaners and maids
in large cities such as Los Angeles. These dirty,
poorly paid jobs, often with long or unsociable
hours, are often jobs which most Americans do
not want to do.
 ••

The migrants on the other hand, are happy

to do any available work. Problems have
arisen as many Mexicans have stayed in the
USA, even though it was initially assumed
that they would return to Mexico after a
short period. (9 Main international migration routes

NORTH
AMERICA ASIA
Atlantic
Ocean

Pacific
Ocean

AFRICA
Pacific Indian
Ocean Ocean

SOUTH
AMERICA
\
AUSTRALIA

Key
_.. Main migration route

Activities
1 Why do you think Enrique Canchola disguised 5 a) How many Mexicans have migrated to
himself as a car seat (see Image A)? the USA?
2 How many international migrants were there b) Identify the push and pull factors for this
in 2017? migration.
3 Look carefully at Graph B.
a) Plot the top ten destinations countries for
Stretch and challenge
migrants on an outline map of the world. Visit the International Organisation for Migration
b) Add the total numbers of migrants for each www.iom.int/world-migration and investigate
country on your map. migration flows to any of the countries shown in
c) Why do you think the number of migrants Graph B.
represents such a large proportion of the For your chosen country, where do most
population for the United Arab Emirates, migrants originate from?
Saudi Arabia and Australia?
4 Compare Map C with lesson 7.2, map C.
a) Work with a partner to identify patterns
between the maps.
b) Write a paragraph to describe what you
have discovered.
 8.7 What is urbanisation?
0 Top ten most populated C) Top ten most populated
Learning objectives cities, 1900 cities, 1950
► To understand the process of Rank City Population Rank City Population
rural to urban migration. 1900 1950
► To understand how global 1 London 6.48 million 1 New York 12.3 million
patterns of urbanisation are 2 New York 4.24 million 2 Tokyo 11.3 million
changing. 3 Paris 3.33 million 3 London 8.4 million
► To consider the problems of 4 Berlin 2.7 million 4 Osaka 7.0 million
urbanisation.
5 Chicago 1.71 million 5 Paris 6.3 million
>--- .._.. -
6 Vienna 1.7 million 6 Moscow 5.4 million
So far in this unit you have 7 Tokyo 1.5 million 7 Buenos Aires 5.1 million
investigated international 8 St Petersburg 1.439 million 8 Chicago 5.0 million
migration between countries, 9
- Manchester, UK 1.435 million
- 9
,...._....
Kolkata 4.5 million
,-... -
but it also occurs within 10 Philadelphia 1.42 million 10 Shanghai 4.3 million
countries. Rural to urban
migration is the movement of There was a mass movement of that year only one was outside
people from the countryside to people from the countryside to Europe and the USA. Today the
towns and cities within a new, rapidly growing cities, distribution of the world's
country. This process is called attracted to new jobs in the largest cities is very different,
urbanisation. In the UK, Europe emerging factories. In 1900, the with the fastest growing cities in
and the USA this happened world's largest city was London Asia and Africa (see tables A-E).
during the Industrial Revolution. and out of the ten largest cities This latest urbanisation is often
the result of rural poverty, which
forces people to move to cities
& Sustainable Development Goal 11 in the hope of improving their
life chances (see Image F). This
rapid urbanisation is recognised
in the Sustainable Development

�= --
Goals you investigated in
•• Lesson 7.9 (pages 138-9). Key
•• facts the UN are considering are
••
�

shown in G. In this lesson you

•• ••
•• will investigate this changing
•• •• pattern of urbanisation .
+Money +Modern
-I-Jobs facilities ><<:,; 0o.
+Schools _ 0
• In 2018, half of humanity - 3.5 billion people - live +_
+
in cities.
• By 2030, almost 60 per cent of the world's ----\1\itera()'
population will live in urban areas. -Farnity Pressu
. r('(\atl
• 95 per cent of urban expansion in the next decade Intervening
obstacles
Intervening
obstacles .
will take place in the developing world.
• 828 million people currently live in slums and the
number keeps rising.
-Drought
I
op;��k o_f
• Rapid urbanisation puts pressure on fresh water un,ty

supplies, sewage, the living environment, and Key

public health. - Negative factors
+ Positive factors

G Migration push and pull factors

 ••

(9 Top ten most populated 4:) Top ten most populated 4) Top ten most populated
cities, 1990 cities, 2015 cities, 2030

Rank City Population Rank City Population Rank City Population

1990 2015 2030
1 Tokyo 32.5 million 1 Tokyo 38.0 million 1 Tokyo 37.2 million
2 Osaka 18.4 million 2 Delhi 25.7 million 2 Delhi 36.1 million
3 New York I 16.1 million 3 Shanghai 23.7 million 3 Shanghai 30.7 million
4 Mexico City 115.6 million 4 Sao Paulo 21.1 million 4 Mumbai 27.8 million
5 Sao Paulo 14.8 million 5 Mumbai 21.0 million 5 Beijing 27.7 million
- ..._ ..._ .._.. -
6 Mumbai 12.4 million 6 Mexico City 21.0 million 6 Dhaka 27.4 million
7 Kolkata 10.9 million 7 Beijing 20.4 million 7 Karachi 24.8 million
8 Los Angeles 10.9 million 8 Osaka 20.2 million 8 Cairo 24.5 million
9
-
10
Seoul
Buenos Aires
10.5 million
-
10.5 million
- --10
9 Cairo
New York
18.8 million
-
18.6 million
- 9
,...._....
10
Lagos
Mexico City
- --
24.2 million
23.9 million
-

Activities
1 Write definitions for rural to urban migration
and urbanisation.
2 Look carefully at tables A-E, with the index of
an atlas.
a} On a copy of the tables, add the latitude
and longitude of each city and the name
of the country the city is in.
b} On an outline map of the world, mark the
location of each city for each year. Use a
different colour dot to mark the city for
each year. Add the name of each city. Add
a key to your map to show the different
colours you have used for each year.
c} Write a paragraph describing how the
distribution of the world's cities has
changed since 1900.
3 Look carefully at Diagram F. It shows Lee's
migration model from Lesson 8.5, Diagram A,
applied to rural to urban migration.
a} Use the diagram to create a migration
story like those in Lesson 8.5 to explain
why a family might migrate from a rural
area to a city in an African or Asian country
of your choice.
b} In your story identify the push and pull
factors as well as the obstacles the
migrants need to overcome.
4 Study G. It shows some key facts about the
impact of urbanisation.
a} In a small group discuss some of the
problems you think rapid urbanisation
might create in cities in Asia and Africa.
b} Share your ideas with the class and create
a list of the potential problen1s. You will
investigate these problems in Units 10
and 12 when you study urbanisation in
Bangalore and Addis Ababa.
c) Write a paragraph to explain why you
think this is one of the UN's Sustainable
Development Goals.
Stretch and challenge
Look at the GiS map on the following website:
http://luminocity3d.org/WorldCity
Select a European and an Asian city. If you
move your cursor over the cities a graph will
pop up. Compare the data and describe how
the population growth in your chosen cities
compare.
 8.8 How did urbanisation change
Southampton? Part 1
Learning objectives Before the Industrial Revolution, most Europeans - and most of the
world's population - lived on small farms in rural areas. By the
► To understand how urbanisation mid-1800s, half the people in England lived in cities, and by 1900
changed a UK city.
this change had spread throughout much of Europe. The Industrial
► To use a variety of historical data Revolution led to rapid rural to urban migration. The creation of
to analyse change. factories made it necessary for workers to be in one place, as well
► To compare OS maps of different as the need for large quantities of raw materials to manufacture
scales. products. As a result, ports like Southampton grew rapidly (see
► To compare Southampton to a Graph A). In the next two lessons you will use a variety of
land-use model. geographical data to investigate the impact of this change on
Southampton.
0 Southampton's population, 1801-2001
The growth of
Southampton 240,000
Total population of Southampton 1801-2001

A Roman settlement was located 220,000

in AD 43 on the east bank of the 200,000 �

River ltchen. In the Middle Ages, cu 180,000 -,-

Southampton became one of §- 160,000
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a. 140,000 -
England's major ports. In 1840,
the building of a railway line
120,000 - I
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� 100,000
Southampton led to further
growth. New docks were built to
§ 80,000
cater for the increasing size of z 60,000

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ships. Industries including 40,000
shipbuilding and repairing, grain 20,000
milling, and tobacco processing, 0
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using imported raw materials.
The loading and unloading of Year
ships was time consuming and
required many workers, as did
Life in new industrial
the industries that quickly Southampton
developed around the port. New industrial cities such as Southampton couldn't

9 The growth of Southampton
Fact file
• 1840s growth spread to Northam.
• 1850s growth spread to Freemantle.
• 1860s many new houses were built in
Shirley, St Denys and Portswood.
• 1900 growth spread to Swaythling and
Bitterne Park Estate.
cope with the massive influx of rural migrants in
such a short period of time. Cheap houses were
rapidly constructed. None of these homes had a
bathroom, toilet or running water. People washed in
a tin bath in the home or simply did not wash. Out of
230 streets in Southampton in the 1840s, 145 were
without sewers. In one case 77 people shared one
toilet. Cholera epidemics in Southampton in 1849,
and again in 1865, killed 391 people. This was typical
of the new industrial cities. Life improved as local
councils, formed in the nineteenth century, took
responsibility for collecting refuse and administering
water supplies and sanitation.
 ••

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 8.9 How did urbanisation change
Southampton? Part 2
Geographers are interested in geographical models to simplify patterns so that they are easier
patterns. As you discovered last lesson, the to understand. In 1925, Burgess developed the
pattern of land use in UK cities like Southampton concentric ring model, after investigating land­
has developed through time, as a result of use patterns in Chicago, USA. In this model the
urbanisation. Although no two towns have exactly oldest part of the city is in the middle, and as a
the same pattern of land use, most have similar town grows newer areas of housing are built at
patterns. This has led geographers to devise its edge.

(:) Burgess' land-use model applied to Southampton

Outer suburbs ,· -�..; Inner suburbs

Modern estate, Housing estates,
curved roads, cul­ often filling gaps
de-sacs, widely between main
(a
spaced. Often roads, widely I•
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\'• 'I; •
, detached housing. spaced. Often semi­ ' - ... ",. ......_
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���,F,e"" ..i ....

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Inner area, no regular Rectangular
street pattern, high grids of streets.
density buildings. Now
Kin s14
Often high
centre for shops and density, terraced
.. .. lac1 offices.
,�o, ..______________.
housing. Built
near to factories
n,
,·
(, for workers.

Inner city

Activities
1 Look back at lessons 1.8 and
3.7. Write four sentences to
describe what you already
know about Southampton.
2 Where is Southampton? Use an
atlas map of the UK to describe
the location of the city.
3 Write a list of pull factors that
encouraged migration from the
countryside to Southampton.
4 Look carefully at Graph A.
Write five sentences to
describe how the population
of Southampton changed
between 1801 and 2001.
5 Write a list of the problems
that the rapid increase in rural
to urban migration created for
Southampton in the eighteenth
century.
6 Read B and compare it with
Map C.
a) Find each of the places
named in B on Map C.
b) The original site of
Southampton is labelled l on
Map C.
Describe the spread or
growth of Southampton
between the 1840s and
1900.
c) Look carefully at Map C.
What did the city grow
along?
7 Compare Map C with Map-flap
D of Southampton.
a) Ten locations are marked on
Map C with numbers. Find
these locations on OS
map-flap D. For each
location, give the six-figure
grid reference and explain
how the location has
changed since 1890.
••
b) Write a paragraph to
describe how Southampton
has changed.
8 Why do geographers use land
use models?
9 Write four sentences to
describe the four land use
zones shown in the Burgess
model.
10 Look carefully at Diagram
D, which shows the Burgess
model applied to Southampton,
with four 1: 10 000 OS map
extracts to show each zone.
a) Find the location of each of
the maps on D on Map-flap
D of Southampton. They are
located at the following grid
references. Match each zone
to the following grid
references: 3716; 4212; 4211;
3815. Look for clues such as
place names and
geographical features on the
1: 10 000 maps and find
them on the Map-flap.
b) For each land use zone
identify three pieces of map
evidence on the 1: 10 000
map and Map-flap D that
show the characteristic
features of the zone.
11 Think about what you have
learnt about Southampton.
Write a conclusion summarising
how the city has been changed
by urbanisation.
 8.10 One planet, many people: how are
populations changing? Review
In this unit you have learnt:
During this unit you have been introduced to
► about world population distribution and several big ideas and concepts all connected
change to population. The concept map, A, shows
► how countries attempt to control how some of these ideas are linked. A
population change geographer can understand and identify these
connections.
► about types of migration
► to understand urbanisation and how cities
evolve
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood!

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Population

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Natural resources Migration

People use natural resources
to live. These natural resources
can make certain areas very popular
 8 How are populations changing?

In 2018, Hans Rosling, one of the

creators of Gapminder and Dollar
Street, published a book,
Factfulness. The subtitle for the
book is 'Ten Reasons We're
Wrong About the World - and
Why Things Are Better Than You
Think'. It challenges our view of
Level 1 $2 Level2 $8 Level 3 $ 2 Level4
the world. In the book he Income per person in dollars per day adjusted for price differences
explains why he does not like the
term 'developing countries'. Source: Gapminder

Based on a lifelong study of

world statistical data, Rosling
believes it is more useful to divide
the world into four income levels
(see Image B). Each figure in the
chart represents 1 billion people.
The seven figures show how the
current world population is
spread across the four income
levels. Human history started
with everyone at Level 1.
Q The four levels of income identified by Hans Rosling
Just 200 years ago 85 per cent of
the world's population was still at
Level 1. Today the majority are
now spread across Levels 2 and
3, with the same range of
standards of living as people in
the UK and USA had in the 1950s.

Activities Future learning

1 Look carefully at concept map A.
You will be provided with
a) Make your own copy of the map. opportunities to progress your
b) Annotate your own links between the different big understanding of population,
ideas yuu l1ave studied in this unit. migration and urbanisation in
2 Read about the ideas of Factfulness. the following units in Progress
a) Visit the Dollar Street website: www.gapminder.org. in Geography: Unit 10 Diverse
b) Find an example of a family at each of the four and dynamic: how is Asia being
income levels. transformed?; Unit 12 Africa: what
c) Describe what life is like at each of the four levels. are its challenges and opportunities?;
Unit 14 Why is the Middle East an
3 a) Think back to the two migration stories from Lesson 8.5.
important world region?
Which of Rosling's income levels do you think each
family are in?
b) How has this affected their decisions to migrate?
Future learning
4 Think back to the Development Transition Model from
Lesson 8.3, Diagram A. Compare this diagram to the at GCSE
levels of income in Image B. Explain which stage in the An understanding of population,
DTM levels 1, 2, 3 and 4 are likely to be in. migration and urbanisation are
5 Think back to what you learnt in Unit 7: What is important aspects of GCSE
development? geography. You will be required to
a) How has the idea from Factfulness affected your understand the causes and effects
understanding of development? of rapid urbanisation in different
b) Now add development to your concept map in parts of the world. Studying at
question 1. least one city in an economically
c) Identify how it links to your big ideas about population. advanced country, and one in a
poor or recently emerging country.
In this unit, you will learn:
► to understand how erosion, deposition
and transportation create and change
coastal landforms over time
► to consider how the coast is used by
people
► to understand the need for, and impact
of, different coastal management
strategies
► to identify coastal landforms on OS map
and photos.
Coasta I uses
It is estimated that over 3 million people live on the
coast of the UK. In fact, nowhere in the UK is more
than 113 km away from the sea. The sea brings
many positives for people, such as jobs from
fishing, sea transport at ports, and tourism (see
Photo A). Coastlines are also attractive places to
live. But there are also some negatives, such as the
risk of flooding, damage to property or cliffs
collapsing, as shown in Photo B and Article C.
Break it, move it, build it!
The area of land where the sea meets the shore
is known as the coastline. The sea breaks down,
moves around and builds up the coast. This
process has been occurring for millions of years,
and is part of the the interaction between the
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. In this
unit you will find out how coastlines change and
how this affects people. Photo B, and Article C,
show an example of this change at Happisburgh,
located on the Norfolk North Sea coast.
0 Southampton harbour
Coastlines are exciting, dramatic places, as this
barrier faces a constant battle against the sea from
erosion and from weathering.
Coastal engineers have to protect some coastlines,
where people live or earn a living, from the impact
of erosion. The government have to make difficult
decisions about funding engineering projects to
protect our shores. In this unit of work you will
make some decisions about this yourself, once
you understand how coastal processes work.
 Norfolk's
disappearing village

A bungalow is balanced on a
cliff edge. The house next
door is gone already. All that is
left is the back garden where the
displaced owner lives in a caravan.
C) Old stairway at Happisburgh, Norfolk The coastline has retreated
around 50 metres per decade
Activities ... After the 1953 North Sea
1 What is a coastline? floods, which killed 307 people
across four English counties,
2 Have you visited a coastline? If you have, write a paragraph
coastal defences were built up
describing what it was like.
across the Norfolk coast. By
3 Look carefully at Photo B and Article C.
1959, Happisburgh (pronounced
a) Describe the landscape of Photo B using the enquiry 'haze-bro') was protected, but
questions on page 3 (4Ws and 2Hs). sea action eventually broke
b) Discuss with a partner the mystery questions on Photo B. down the defences, and with
c) Read Article C. How much has the coastline here retreated in government money for coastal
the last 100 years? defence tied to land and property
d) Suggest how this area of coast is at risk from coastal erosion. value, Happisburgh was never
e) Why do you think local residents are angry with the going to be a prior ity. It would
government's decision? take £15million to close the
f) Why do you think the government has decided not to rebuild gap in sea defences and protect
sea defences at Happisburgh? Happisburgh ...
4 Compare Photo A with Map-flap D of Southampton. There seems little hope
a) Name rivers 1 and 2 marked on the photo. that more money will be
spent defending Happisburgh
b) Give the six-figure grid reference for location 3.
though, and the RGS (Royal
c) Look at the OS Map-flap and identify, with grid references,
Geographical Society) estimates
two other ways people are using this coastline.
show that the UK will have to
5 Look back at Lesson 1.10 (pages 20-21). Scarborough is a spend £25 billion over the next
popular tourist resort. Identify and locate, using grid references, 20 years on coastal defences to
five features and land uses in the photo and map to protect Britain's coastline from
demonstrate this. climate change.
6 Write a paragraph to explain why coastlines are important to
people, particularly in the UK.
7 Friend or foe? Create a table to compare the positives and (9 An article from the Royal
negatives of living by the sea. Discuss your ideas with a partner. Geographical Society,
Geographical magazine,
12 February 2015
 9.2 What shapes our coastal landscape?

Learning objectives Shaping our coast!

► To understand how cliffs are
weathered.
► To understand the importance of
geology in shaping coasts.
Our coastline changes over time, and geomorphology is the study
of how it changes. Geomorphic processes change how the world
looks through actions such as weathering, erosion, transportation,
and deposition. You were introduced to these processes in Unit 6,
for rivers. In this unit you will learn how these processes affect
coasts. You will investigate the stretch of coast from Flamborough
Head, along the Holderness Plain to Spurn Point. You will study all
the processes in action, which shape this coastline.

Weathering Geology
Weathering is a process that changes the How coasts change depends not
structure and appearance of materials like cliffs, only on the geomorphic
by how they are exposed to the atmosphere. You processes, but also on the
studied the three forms of weathering in Lesson geology (or rock-type) of the
2.2 (pages 24-25). area. The map in Figure B shows
that Flamborough Head to the
north juts out to sea as a
headland. It is formed from
chalk, a sedimentary rock, which
is relatively hard. This means it is
stronger than surrounding rocks,
and can resist erosion by the sea
for longer.
Much of Holderness is covered
The top of the cliff has with glacial till, soft material
a covering of glacial till dumped here by glaciers. This
rock is made of clay with a
mixture of boulders. This
material can be eroded and
Glacial till at the top of
the cliff is weathered weathered much more quickly
than the chalk. Look at the
photos of the chalk and glacial
till. Can you see how one is
Glacial till slides down the cliff, harder and the other softer?
staining the chalk cliff Subaerial erosion is the
weathering and movement of
the top of a cliff. This is not
necessarily caused by the sea.

Clumps of glacial till fall from

-
the top of the cliff to the beach,

0 Cliff at Flamborough Head showing

at the cliff base. At high tide the
sea washes these clumps away -
• subaerial erosion, through weathering
and erosion at the top of the cliff
 a) Flamborough Head

Flamborough Head - Boulder clay

"
Bridlington• ,.....,-.., overlaying
chalk cliffs

Great Driffield•
-\
er \

/ ) • Hornsea
orth Sea
• Mappleton
Beverley•

• Withernsea

Key A
□ Alluvium o 10 km
Spurn Point
D Boulder clay (glacial tills)
□ Chalk b) UK geology

C) The geology of the Holderness coast c) Mappleton cliffs

Activities
1 What is geomorphology? two different locations. Describe what the
2 Look back at Lesson 2.2, page 25. rocks are like, and how this might influence
a) What is weathering? the shape of this coastline.
b) How can plants and animals cause c) Draw a sketch map of the Holderness
weathering? coast on a full page in your book. Draw the
c) Create a cartoon strip or diagram to different geology in your sketch. In future
describe each weathering process. lessons you will add other things to your
sketch as your understanding of what is
3 Look carefully at Photo A.
happening along this coastline emerges.
Draw an annotated sketch of the cliff in
5 Look at Map-flap E. It shows OS maps for
Photo A to explain how sub-aerial erosion
three of the locations shown in Map B:
changes the cliffs at Flamborough Head.
Flamborough Head, Mappleton, and Spurn
4 Look at Map B. Point. Compare the maps with Map B.
a) Describe the distribution of rock types that Describe how the shape of the coastline is
form the Holderness coast. different at each location, and how geology
b) The photos show the two rock types at influences this shape.
 9.3 What forms of erosion take place
on the coast?

Learning objectives Erosion

► To understand the different types
of coastal erosion.
► To understand how these erosion
processes change coastlines.
Erosion is the wearing or breaking down of material like rocks. We
have already seen that coastal landforms are affected by sub-aerial
weathering, but the sea is the biggest source of change through
marine or sub-marine processes of erosion. Waves drive erosion
through their own power or by influencing how material on the
beach or in the sea, moves around. There are four erosion types:
hydraulic action, attrition, abrasion, and corrosion or solution. You
investigated these processes before in Unit 6, on rivers.

Hydraulic action: the power of the wave forces Abrasion: the waves pick up rocks from the sea
water and air into cracks in the rock. This pressure and throw them against other rocks or cliff faces.
forces fractures in rock to split apart. Over time Over time this rubs and smooths the rock, like
this creates faults and notches which get bigger. using sandpaper.

Corrosion (solution): salts or chemicals in the Attrition: the sea picks up angular rocks and
water act to dissolve the rocks they touch, for knocks them into each other. This chips away the
example limestone is dissolved by sea salt. corners to make them rounder.
Q Thornwick Nab, Flamborough Head

Activities
1 What is erosion? 8 Study Photo F. Describe which erosion
2 What are the four types of coastal erosion? processes are occurring here, and explain
3 Draw a simple labelled diagram or cartoon for how they have changed the cliff.
each erosion type from Diagrams A-D.
Include keywords.
4 Study Photo E. Describe what is happening at
the cliff face. What might this have looked like
10,000 years ago? How are weathering and
erosion having an impact?
5 What evidence of hydraulic action is visible in
Photo E?
6 Complete this passage:
___________ is a mechanical type of erosion
where the pressure of _______ squeezed into
______ in the rocks forces the rocks to split •
•
apart.
•

-..-. .
7 Make a prediction: what might happen to the
landscape in Photo E in the future? Explain by
linking to specific erosion types.
 9.4 What landforms are created by
forces of erosion?

Learning objectives Headlands and bays

► To identify different erosional coastal
landforms.
► To understand how these landforms are
formed and explain how they change over
time.
► To identify coastal landforms on OS maps and
photos.

As weathering and erosion processes shape

the coast, they create landforms. These
include:
• headlands and bays
• wave-cut platforms
• caves, arches, stacks and stumps.
0 Model showing a headland and bay - the headland is
These landforms evolve constantly. the harder rock that is left sticking out, as it erodes

Caves, arches, stacks and stumps - more slowly, while the bay erodes quickly.

-----------
The chalk contains structural weaknesses, which mean that the sea can erode the
cliff at different rates, creating and enlarging cracks in the rock, which are eventually
enlarged into caves. Two caves either side of a headland can eventually be eroded

e�
through to form an arch, as in Model A. These landforms are explained in Diagram B.

G) A fault opens in the rock

Sub-aerial
1111,11,11,11,, ''"' ' '''"
"""'""""\ Cliff retreats inland q) Due to hydraulic action the
""'""'""' weathering occurs
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ '
11,11,111111,11
fault becomes bigger to
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\Ill\ \ \ \Ill\ \ \
form a notch

1 J
---------, @ Abrasion and hydraulic action
widen the notch into a cave
- Joints or faults - --...
•
that keeps getting bigger
in the rock

@ Due to waves and erosion,

the cave opens through
and forms an arch

@ The arch keeps widening

and the roof becomes
too heavy and collapses
(j)
G) @ This leads to a stack, standing,

'
but still being undercut

(J) The stack will eventually

collapse leaving a stump
Wave-cut platforms
e Weathering weakens
'
'""'""\\\\\
the cliff from above
'""'"" '""
"""\""\\
''''''' \\
@) The process repeats and
the cliff retreats inland
---------' -------"
I

Q) The notch makes the cliff unstable

and gravity collapses it over time

@ Over time the notch is

enlarged by attrition and
hydraulic action
,' Original
cliff position Q) Erosion at the base of the cliff
,,,,'\ at high tide creates a notch

--....,,.1---- Wave cut

platform
Wave cut notch (exposed at
low tide)

Wave-cut platforms are visible when the tide is out: see A and C.
The platform is created by erosion processes over time. Waves hit C:) Selwicks Bay, Flamborough
Head.
the base of the cliff creating a notch.

Activities
1 What is o headland and u bay?
2 Look carefully at Photo A. It shows a plasticine model, made by a student to show
features of a coast. Some features have already been labelled.
a) Use the model to explain why headlands and bays are formed on coastlines.
Lesson 9.2, (pages 164-165) will also help you.
b) Name the features labeled 1-3.
c) Messy learning! Use plasticine to create your own models of coastal landforms.
3 Look carefully at Diagram B. Draw your own step-by-step flow diagram, comic strip
or flipbook to show how a headland can be eroded back to leave a stump.
4 Look carefully at Diagram C.
a) Write definitions of a wave-cut notch and wave-cut platform.
b) Write a paragraph to describe how the cliff is eroded.
5 Study Photo D and compare it with OS Map flap E of Flamborough Head.
a) What is the six-figure grid reference for Selwicks Bay?
b) In what direction do you think the camera was pointing to take Photo D ?
c) Which erosional landforms shown in Photo Dare marked on the OS map ?
e) Draw a fieldsketch of Photo D.
f) Annotate your sketch to describe the coastal landforms it shows.
g) Compare your sketch with Diagram B and label what stage in the erosion
process this area is at.
h) Label on your sketch how this area is likely to be eroded in the future, and what
new landforms might form.
 9.5 How does transportation change
the coastline?

Learning objectives Transportation

► To identify different types of waves. Not only does the sea erode coastlines, but it then moves the
► To understand how transportation eroded material along and away from beaches and cliffs. This is
occurs through the process of called transportation and it is controlled by the waves. But how
longshore drift. do waves work?

Constructive and destructive waves 0 Smaller wave height, Strong forward 'swash'
less energy, waves movement to build
gently spill over up the beach
Waves are caused by the movement of wind (not the same
as tides which are controlled by the Moon). As the wind 01
blows over the surface of the sea, it creates friction on the
('
surface, which pushes water along to build up a wave. Water v

V
within the wave moves in circular patterns, getting bigger as V �

the wave gets taller and then, when the wave meets the l Weak 'backwash' movement
shore, it becomes unstable and is forced to break.
There are two types of waves: constructive and destructive
(see Diagram A). These waves shape beaches by either Constructive waves lead to gently
building them up or eroding them down. sloping beaches

Weak 'swash'
Longshore drift
Larger wave height,
lots of energy, movement
crashing breakers

r
As waves transport material, they can completely change .....

the shape of the beach. A process called 'longshore drift' 0

\.., '""
0 "'
-
\
is the transportation of beach material (such as sand and
(' V \._.,

V V
pebbles) along the beach, according to the direction of the 'I._/

waves. See Diagram C. Strong 'backwash'

movement removes
material from the beach

€) The process of longshore drift at Mappleton Destructive waves lead to

scoured, steep beaches

South - towards
Withernsea and
1 The prevailing wind pushes a wave
Spurn Point
up the beach, picking up beach
material in the swash.
2 The backwash drags this material
back down the beach.
3 Another wave picks up beach
material and moves it up the beach
again.
4 The backwash moves material back
Wave and
prevailing wind off the beach.
�· rection 5 The whole process keeps
repeating, moving material back
up and down the beach over and
over, eventually moving it along the
beach until it meets a barrier. This
is longshore drift. It can even move
material around headlands.
 Wave action has a major impact
on the Holderness coast. The
Flamborough
Head
dominant wave direction is
north-easterly (see Diagram C).
Longshore drift transports beach
Dominant material southwards towards Spurn
wave direction
Point. This means beaches change
\ shape, and the wave action can
cause them to become smaller
\
Mappleton •
Longshore drift
in some places and bigger in
others. You can see this process
happening in Photo B.
North
Sea

Withernsea �

Spurn
Point

e Longshore drift along the Holderness coast

Activities
1 What causes waves to move?
2 What is a 'swash' and 'backwash'?
3 Use Diagram A to explain the difference
between a destructive and a constructive
wave.
4 Why does a strong backwash lead to eroded
beaches?
5 What type of wave can you see in Photo B?
What proof do you have?
6 What is transportation and longshore drift?
7 Make your own annotated step-by-step
diagram from Photo B to explain how
longshore drift occurs.
8 Look carefully at Photo B, and Diagram C and
OS Map-flap E of Mappleton.
a) Photo B was taken from the car park on the
cliff edge at Mappleton. What is the six­ 9 What problems do you think longshore drift
figure grid reference?
b) In which direction was the camera
pointing?
c) What is the dominant wave direction at
Holderness?
d) What is the direction of longshore drift?
e) Where is the sea transporting beach
material to?
f) Go back to the sketch map of the
Holderness coast you drew in Lesson 9.2,
page 165. Now label your answers to 8 c)-e).
Add small arrows to your sketch map to
show the process of longshore drift as in
Photo B and Diagram C.
g) Draw a sketch map of Mappleton from the
OS map and label the same things on this
sketch map.
might cause for beaches and for people?
 9.6 How does deposition change
the coastline?

Learning objectives Deposition

► To define what is meant by
deposition.
► To understand how landforms
are created by deposition.
() The formation of spits, bars
and tombolos
When the waves no longer have the energy to carry the material
that has been eroded and transported along the coast, it is
deposited. Small material, such as sand, can float in the water for
longer, but larger material is deposited sooner. These deposits
build up and, over time, beaches are formed.
Beaches continue to evolve as erosion and transportation
continues, and the cycle of 'break it -+move it -+make it' carries
on. This can lead to other landforms being created such as spits
(Photo B), bars and tombolos (see Diagram A).
These landforms are all created due to deposition. They are also
vulnerable to change (and to erosion and destruction) by waves
and longshore drift, unless they are protected.

A bar forms when

Bay and lagoon longshore drift pushes
material along, creating

'/ '/ '/ ,/

BAR a spit that joins up
/ two headlands
Longshore drift
RIVER ESTUARY
Headland
Headland Headland
Bay

A tombola is BAR
where a spit SPIT
joins onto an Direction of longshore drift
island
TOMBOLO
Change in
wind and
wave direction

Prevailing SALT A spit forms when

wind Headland
MARSH longshore drift pushes
/ + / +.,,..- + material out from the
/ headland. If the wind
Longshore drift SPIT \
Change
changes direction then
the spit will curve and
/ in wind create a salt marsh behind
Prevailing wind

Activities
1 What is deposition and why does it occur?
2 Study Diagram A and Photo B. How does
longshore drift help to create a spit?
3 Using Diagram A, explain the difference
between a bar and a tombolo.
4 Create a step-by-step diagram to explain how
a spit is formed. Remember to include key
words and refer to longshore drift. Use
Diagram A and Photo B to help you.
5 Think back over the last few pages. Write a
story about a pebble's journey from being
part of a headland to ending on a spit!
6 Compare Photo B and Map-flap E of Spurn
Point.
a) What is the six-figure grid reference of the
end of the spit shown in Photo B?
b) Name and give the six-figure grid
references for the features labelled 1-4 on
the photo.
The use and value of
landforms
Beaches, spits, bars and tombolos
are all used by people for different
reasons. All over the world,
coastlines are used for varied social,
economic and environmental
purposes including fishing, sailing,
tourism, residences, adventure
sports, or just walking the dog! Such
landforms are also popular with
wildlife; birds and seals in particular
flock to these habitats. This also
attracts people to watch them. Look
at Map-flap E for Spurn Point. Is
there any evidence of wildlife
habitats here?
When coastal engineers, planners
and the Environment Agency study
the coast they must look at its value.
This is important when deciding if
an area needs protecting.
C) Spurn Point
c) Describe the shape and size of the spit
using information from the photo and the
Map-flap. What direction does it curve in?
d) Draw a sketch map of Spurn Point by using
Photo B and the Map-flap. Annotate the
sketch to show the direction of longshore
drift.
e) Go back to your sketch map of the
Holderness coast created in earlier lessons.
Now add Spurn Point to your sketch. Add
annotations to explain how longshore drift
and deposition contribute to the creation
of Spurn Point.
7 Draw a table that shows all the different ways
that humans can use landforms created by
deposition. Challenge yourself - can you
categorise these into social, economic and
environmental uses? Discuss your ideas.
 9.7 How has life on the Holderness
coast changed?

Learning objectives Coastal changes

► To understand how the The Holderness coast is the fastest eroding coastline in Europe. A
Holderness coastline has combination of rock type, prevailing wave direction and storms, all
changed over time and the contribute to the issues facing this ever-changing coastline. Erosion
threats it faces. of the cliffs and sea bed here results in 3 million cubic metres of
► To appreciate how people are sediment being transported south by longshore drift to Spurn Point
affected by coastal processes. each year! What is it like for people living in villages along this coast,
such as Skipsea and Mappleton?

O Lost Villages - who is next?

For the residents of Skipsea, on the Holderness
coast, coastal erosion is a fact of life.
As the years pass the village has seen the sea claim
more and more land and its future is far from certain.
Photographer Neil A. White has documented the
Lost Villages of Holderness. 'It is estimated that up to
32 villages dating back to Roman times have already
been lost to the sea,' said White.
'Since Roman times it is estimated that a strip of land
three and a half miles wide (5.6 km) has been washed
into the sea.'
Today the village experiencing the severest threat
is Skipsea. With a population of around 600, many
homes there are set to disappear completely in the

e
next five years.
More than 200 homes are predicted to slip over The end of the road in Skipsea
the cliff edges between Flamborough Head, near
Bridlington, and Spurn Point, 70 km further south, in The Holderness coastal area is mostly rural
the next 100 years. with a population of about 312,000 and a
Environment Agency information uncovered last year low population density. The urban areas at
suggested 7,000 Withernsea, Hornsea and Bridlington have
homes would .... tourism, fishing, residential property and
N
o 1 o km
disappear due to
' business value.
B<idliogt� �c:::::::j

coastal erosion
1·
,. There is rich fertile agricultural land, and
in England and Driffield •
Skipsea e\ i industry at Easington where the gas terminal
Wales over the
next 100 years. \ . North Sea provides 25 per cent of Britain's gas supply
Hornsea •\'•
and yet is just 25 m from the cliff edge!

e
\
Mappleton • •
••
The lost
Beverley• Aldborough• • Spurn Point spit itself is a conservation site,
village and • a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI),
towns of the yet it is constantly threatened by the sea.
East Yorkshire • There is a conflict between the value
coastline Key within this coastal area and the cost
• Location of lost
villages and towns of protecting it from erosion. Coastal
D Roman coastline
engineers, councils, local residents and the
Environment Agency have to decide which
places are worth protecting.
Life in Mappleton D and E. Google Earth satellite imagery south of
Mappleton in 2003 and 2017

At Mappleton an average of 2 m of land is lost

each year. The farm in D was 43 m from the cliff
edge in 1984 yet by 2017 it was just 10 m! Since
the 1900s the council has enforced a hold-the­
line policy to protect the towns, but they do
nothing to the areas inbetween.
There is a conflict: if you protect one place, what
happens elsewhere? And what happens in the
future? Scientists predict a relative sea level rise of
6 cm per year here - what impact will this have?

Activities
1 Think back to what you have learnt so far
in this unit.
What factors have contributed to the
Holderness coast being the fastest eroding
coastline in Europe?
2 Read news story A with B and C.
a) What evidence shows that coastal
erosion has been an issue for a long
time?
b) How much of the coastline has been
lost since Roman times?
c) What has happened in Photo C?
d) How is Skipsea under threat?
e) Find the location of Skipsea and label it
on your Holderness map.
f) How is coastal erosion a threat for other
locations?
3 Describe the Holderness area and how it is
used by people.
4 Which locations along this coast are
valuable enough to be protected by sea
defences?
5 Look carefully at photos D and E.
How has Mappleton changed between
2003 and 2017? Use description and data
1n your answer.
6 Write your own news report to summarise
the issue at Holderness based on the
information on this page, Map-flap E, and
previous pages in this unit.
 9.8 What defences can be used to
protect the coast?

Learning objectives The natural coastal processes change coastlines, affecting

► To understand what is meant
by 'coastal management' and
identify types of sea defences.
► To evaluate different types of
sea defences.
people. Decisions need to be made whether to protect (hold
the line) or leave the coastlines to the forces of the sea (do
nothing) - shown in Photo A. Decision-makers have to weigh
the value and importance of the stretch of coast against the cost
of building the defences. In this lesson you will investigate this
decision-making process.

'Hold the line' 'Do nothing'

Hard (and soft) Allow coastal processes
. . .
engineering 1s and erosion to occur,
used to keep the despite losses,
coastline intact, e.g. south of Mappleton
e.g. at Mappleton

(i) Do nothing or hold the line?

There are two categories of coastal management

to 'hold the line':
Activities
• Hard engineering - which is usually more 1 Look at A.
expensive and involves more dramatic physical a) What is the difference between 'hold the
structures and changes. line' and 'do nothing' ?
• Soft engineering - which usually involves b) Why might local residents in Holderness
trying to work more closely with nature and is support the 'hold the line' policy rather
usually cheaper. than 'do nothing'?
c) Why do we protect certain stretches of
There are many examples of strategies in each
coastline?
category (see B).
2 What is the difference between hard and
Coastal engineers, councils, residents and the soft engineering?
Environment Agency work together to analyse 3 Go back to Lesson 6.9 (pages 118-119) on
a coastline, determine the risk and the costs rivers. Describe the job of the Environment
of not protecting it, and calculate whether the Agency.
benefits outweigh the costs. This is based on the 4 Look carefully at B.
social, economic and environmental value of a
a) Draw up a table of your own to
location. They need to consider which approach
compare the advantages and
is sustainable. However, defence decisions at one
disadvantages of each coastal
location will have an impact further down the
management strategy.
coast, either for better or worse, which also needs
to be considered.
b) Discuss each strategy with a partner.
 Type Advantages Disadvantages
.. Help reduce longshore drift Wood groynes have a short
by trapping material. Wood lifespan and need replacing
groynes cost £100,000 each; every 10-15 years and
rock groynes cost constant maintenance costing
£125,000 each. about fl,000 per groyne per
year.

Sea wa117 Straight and curved Can be considered

concrete walls built to unattractive. Are expensive.
reflect wave energy and Usually fS,000-fl0,000/m
-(1)a.
Cl)

protect land behind. Fact: Robin Hood Bay sea

E walls cost £3 million.
C'O
X
(1)
en
·-C
I..
(1)

·-en
(1)
C Rock Often considered natural Can be expensive if large
C armour looking. These break up scale. The Happisburgh rock
(1) (rip-rap) wave power and trap armour cost f 1 million. Rocks
I.. sediment to keep beaches have to be transported long
and cliffs intact. distances.
C'O
J:
Cost fl,000-£3,000/m

Gabions Small rocks are encased in Considered unattractive. Wire

wire cages and absorb wave mesh can be dangerous as
energy against cliffs and breaks easily and rusts so risk
beaches. Cost about of injury.
fl,000/m

Beach Maintains the size of the Has to be frequently replaced

recharge beach which is good at as material washes away and
absorbing wave energy. Is storms destroy the beach, so
considered more attractive costs more in the long term.
-(1)a.
Cl)

and natural . Costs about Material has to be dredged

EC'O £2,000/m from elsewhere.
X Fact: Happisburgh beach
(1) recharge cost £8 million
en (£2,067/m)
·-C
I..
(1)
Managed Nature is allowed to take its Often loses farmland, and
·-en
(1)
C retreat course and less valuable requires compensation to be
C land is allowed to flood to paid to the land owner.
(1) save other areas. This
creates salt marshes.
V)

Often, the best solution is a combination of hard and soft C) Different coastal
engineering. It is a delicate balance, and should consider how management strategies, from
sustainable the strategy is long term and take into account the true the Environment Agency
cost of taking, or not taking, action.
 9.9 Weighing it up: are the benefits worth
the cost?

Learning objectives As you have seen, the Holderness coast is an area that suffers the
effects of the sea and is one of the fastest eroding coastlines in
► To apply knowledge of coastal Europe! Mappleton is a village on the Holderness coast (see photos
management to a real location. A and B). It is losing 2 m of land every year, and the main road is just
► To evaluate the best course of 50 m from the cliff edge!
action for Mappleton.
► To consider views and justify The context
a decision about coastal
management. Mappleton is built on soft glacial till cliffs. The area faces strong
prevailing winds that lead to longshore drift moving material from
north to south (towards Spurn Point). There are 50 properties in the
village, and approximately 360 people live there. It is also popular
Rock armour for tourism, and there is much rich fertile agricultural land.
as sea wall
The problem
Double
rock In the past, around 30 properties were at risk of being flooded or
armour collapsing into the sea if cliffs failed. The area was eroding at a rate
groynes of 7-10 m per year and the important B1242 road was falling into
the sea.

The solution
In 1991, hard and soft engineering solutions were introduced
costing £2 million with rock groynes, granite rock armour for the
cliff base, and cliff stabilisation. You can see these defences on the
1:250 000 OS map in Lesson 1.5. Compare the map with Photo B.
The defences are maintained and reviewed each year, and further
'Do nothing'
down coast
groynes have been added over time. The groyne traps sand and
builds up the beach at Mappleton. A wider beach means that waves
use up energy as they break on the beach, and therefore reach the
cliff less frequently. This protects the cliff from erosional processes.
0 Google Earth satellite view of Mappleton
The impact
The properties are now protected. The cliffs at
Mappleton are stabilised and erosion has decreased
here. Longshore drift has been reduced, trapping
sediment at Mappleton to build up the beaches.
However, the coast to the south (Figure C) is
suffering. Beach material, which is now trapped at
Mappleton used to travel south. This has reduced
the size of the beach to the south so that now, at
high tide, the full impact of the waves hits the cliffs.
Here erosion has increased from 1.7 metres to 3.3
m per year (with some areas losing 10 m a year!).
Farmers have lost a lot of their land, and some
farms have disappeared. Some people believe the
sea defences at Mappleton have made the situation
worse. e) The rock armour groynes at Mappleton
 C) a)

The cliffs are made from glacial till deposited 18,000 years ago by glaciers. These
erode rapidly, and slump when saturated, due to sub-aerial weathering. The clay
becomes soggy with water and weakens (Figure Cb). The cliffs fail and collapse as
landslides. This protects the cliff behind for a while but tongshore drift rapidly removes
the material to expose the cliffs to the waves again, and the process continues.

Activities
1 What problems did the village of Mappleton face 4 Look carefully at Photo C.
before 1991? a) Explain the reasons for an increase in erosion
2 Write five sentences to explain the reasons why south of Mappleton.
Mappleton was so vulnerable. b) Imagine you are a farmer at the clifftop south
3 Look carefully at the satellite image, A, and of Mappleton. Write a letter to the
Photo B. Compare them with Map-flap E and Environment Agency explaining your
the 1: 2 500 OS map, C, in Lesson 1.5 (page 11). concerns about the impact of the groyne at
a) Give the six-figure grid reference for the Mappleton on your disappearing farmland.
groyne at Mappleton. 5 Decision-making:
b) Draw an annotated fieldsketch of the groyne Consider what you have learnt so far in this unit.
to show how it protects Mappleton. Decide which option, from those shown below,
c) Identify and name features and land uses that is the best for the future of this coastline. Justify
the groyne is protecting. your decision in a written statement.
d) Measure the beach to the north and south of
Mappleton on the maps. Does the groyne
work?
A) Do nothing: leave Mappleton as it is, B) Invest in new hard engineering south C) Invest in a combination of soft and
do not spend any more money on the of Mappleton: build a rock armour hard engineering between Mappleton
coastal defences and allow nature to barrier along the cliff and new rock and Spurn Point beach replenishment
take its course groynes of the spit, a sea wall at Mappleton and
I extending the rock groynes
 9.10 What happens where the land meets
the sea? Review

In this unit, you have learnt:
► to understand how erosion, deposition and
transportation create and change landforms
over time
► to consider how the coast is used by people
► to understand the need for, and impact of,
different coastal management strategies
► to identify coastal landforms on OS maps and
photos.
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood!
In this unit you have investigated what
happens where the land meets the sea. You
learnt that there are many interconnected
physical processes that shape and change
the coast, often affecting people. People try
to reduce the impact of these processes. You
now need to reflect on this new learning, as
a good geographer stands back and thinks
through the big picture of what is happening.
A good way to do this is to organise your ideas
and thoughts in a mind map, like the one
shown in A.

0 Mind map

Geology
Hydraulic action

Abrasion
Erosion
Erosion process
Corrosion landforms

Attrition

----------1 Weathering

What happens where the land

Wave types
meets the sea?

Coastal management

Hold the line Do nothing

Deposition landforms Transportation

Hard engineering Soft engineering


�t,tf:1::el::el:::' tIr JI} It I! I-I-
-===
Activities
1 In Lesson 9.1, page 163, you were presented
with a photograph of a stairway at Happisburgh.
Re-read your answer to Question 3b). Now
that you have learnt about coastal processes
and their effect on landforms and people,
reconsider your answer. Identify three new
key points you want to make that answer the
question.
2 A mind map has been started in A to help
you reflect on your learning for this unit.
Redraw the map for yourself on a sheet of
A4 paper. Complete the mind map. You can
add additional strands, simple drawings and
different colours to make your mind map
clear and memorable for you.
3 Throughout this unit you have been compiling
a sketch map of the Holderness coastline,
plotting things you learnt each lesson.
a) Add to your sketch map the decisions you
made about sea defences at Mappleton.
b) Identify the key factors that determine the
changing shape of the Holderness coast.
You will have the opportunity to further develop your
understanding of erosion, transportation and deposition again
for glaciers in Unit 13. In Unit 15 you will investigate how
scientists think coastlines will change in the future.
9 What happens where the land meets the sea?
4 Photograph 8 shows the base of a cliff at
Flamborough Head.
a) Draw a fieldsketch from the photograph.
b) Annotate your sketch to show how the
four erosional processes are shaping the
base of the cliff.
5 Photograph C shows the sea front at
Withernseu, on the Holderness const.
a) Name the types of hard engineering
coastal defences shown at points 1-3 on
the photograph and explain how they
work.
b) Explain why the government might have
been prepared to spend money on such
defences at Withernsea.
6 Look at the vision statement for Progress in
Geography on the book flap. Which aspects
of the vision do you think you have made
progress with in this unit?
Future learning
at GCSE
At GCSE you will study
coastlines across the UK.
 Although Asia is joined to the continent of Europe, it
has been called a separate continent for over 2,500
In this unit you will learn: years. The land mass was called Asia, meaning 'east'. It
is the world's largest continent by both area and
► Asia's diverse physical and human population. It is made up of 49 countries and is a
geography diverse area; this means it has a great variety, both of
► how Asia is a continent of dynamic physical landscapes and of people from different
change cultures and religions. In Unit 5 you studied Russia, the
► the changing relationship between Asia largest country in Asia, so you already know a lot
and the rest of the world. about this continent. Map B shows some of the
world's most important physical regions found in Asia.

Q Physical map of Asia West

s
Siberia
n
0� Plain Plateau

'('c\lO
.,.i

se&
':ID E•st
&
4 ,. ii Cl'io
QI

1�
0. lareau
6 f Tibet
'11
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(I)
Cl
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• MU

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ur
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Guff of Adell

Bay <> f
...l!l
Bengal
'
Andltm,1n
lsfand:t Andamot,
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N/Ct)t,ar
&land$
...
0 11' Famihes • n Asia • by ncome

() Asian families from the

Dollar Street website

Suresh. a fruit collector The Leo family The Kumar family is The Bi family is
hopes one day to hope that one day saving money and the saving money for
purchase a plot of land. they will be able to next thing they plan on their future. Their
and dreams of having fulfill their dream of buying is a motorcycle favorite items in
a home with a well or buying a cow. and an emergency the house are their
water pump. power supply unit musical instruments.
(UPS). Their dream is
to be able to buy some
jewelry.
Dynamic changes have taken
place in Asia in the past 50 years.
e Political map of Asia

The population has grown to � i---�

RUSSIA
over 4.3 billion people - over
half of the world's population!
MONGOLIA
More than half of this population
are found in just two countries:
China and India, which are CHINA

becoming important to the

I
AFGHANISTAN BHUTAN
IRAN NEPAL
global economy. Cities are also .r
STAN SOUTH
growing rapidly in many Asian Ar-NAN
I
KOREA
INDIA
countries. In this unit you will AOS
investigate Asia's transformation
VIETNAM
and its changing relationship MYANMA
THAil.A;
with the rest of the world. .. . .
MALDIVES! SRI LANKA

"··.
�
q
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Indian 0�
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'··. .
1000 km Ocean NESIA
,-E---3----.----rE---3=r---,1

��-

Activities
1 Think back to what you have already learnt
about people and places in the continent of
Asia from the following units: 3 Economic
activities: 5 Russia; 7 Development; 8
Population and urbanisation.
Identify five key facts you already know from
your work across these units.
2 In this unit you will investigate the diversity of
the continent.
a} What does diversity mean?
b} Find and name three pieces of evidence
from this lesson that show the diversity of
Asia.
3 Look carefully at the screenshot from the
Dollar Street website. It shows the results
from a search of all the families in Asia by
income.
a} What is the monthly income of each
family?
b} How do the dreams of these four families
vary?
c} In groups of four, go online to the Dollar
Street website. Individually, research a
different family in Asia.
d) Record information about each family.
e} Compare your findings across the group,
and then write a paragraph to summarise
the differences you have discovered.
4 Look carefully at Maps B and C.
a} Name the largest mountain range on the
continent.
b) Name the two major rivers that flow from
these mountains south into the Bay of
Bengal.
c) Which countries do these two rivers flow
through?
d) Which major countries of the continent are
chains of islands?
e) Which are the largest three countries by
area in Asia?
5 In Unit 7 you learnt about the Development
Compass Rose (see page 123). Draw a DCR
using the resources on this spread to write
down questions you have about Asia.
 10.2 How does India rely on the
monsoon climate?

Learning objectives e Average temperatures in Asia in July

► To understand the diversity of

climate in Asia.
► To understand the formation of a

---
monsoon climate.

Life all over Asia is influenced by

the climate. Maps A-C illustrate
the diversity of the climate found
across the continent. In many
countries the climate is vital to a
country's economy and wealth
and at other times it can endanger
lives and livelihoods. In India
-�0..
.S: 1i,

people rely on the monsoon

climate, as Article F and Photo G \
/�.'?I
suggest. However, the monsoon JULY TEMPERATURE
•
Average Cold
also brings the threat of river 21 temperature current
_.. Prwalllng Warm
flooding, which you will learn
CJ)
winds current ·a.

more about in the next lesson.

•c 30 25 20 _____________
1& 10 & ,
.c
a..
@

0 Average temperatures in Asia in January e Annual precipitation in Asia

�ft,
Cr_,.
- •o,kson
Amnlyr•
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4

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241 Tehran •
shanghai

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1t Kolkata
a
• •Sana
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Mumbai••11
(calcutllt
1111

Driat reco,ded

(
JANUARY year in Asia
TEMPERATURE Aden46am •

-
•••
Watm
current
Cold
current
\ ANNUAL PRECIPITATION Colombo
234'
•
.,
belll
..
•z • '65 Average 8nnual preclpii.tlon
Average Prevailing
temperature winds SOOO 3000 1000 250 �9-
•c :c
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 .5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 .35 -40
mm 4000 2000 500 0 a..
0 @
0 A diagram showing the monsoon season 0-----­
5. As the Sun loses strength during
Monsoon fact file
1 . From March to May the September and the land cools, the winds • Monsoon months: June to
strong sun heats up the change and the next dry season begins. September
land quicker than the sea.
• It brings three-quarters of India's
4. The moist air is forced to rise
yearly rain, which is vital for life
over the Himalayan mountains. The and food production
air cools and condenses forming
heavy rain. The heaviest rain is in 3. The cooler • Over 50 per cent of people are
the foothills of the Himalayas which moist air from employed in agriculture
can be up to 12 m per year! the Indian Ocean
2. By the end of is drawn up over • 1.4 billion people rely directly on
May temperatures
on land are very hot
the land to fill agriculture
the low pressure

whereas the seas
remain 20°c colder.
The warm air is less
dense and so rises.
A low pressure
zone is created
Plateau
which acts as a
of Tibet
vacuum.
j
zone. • India grows 100 million tons of
1/ rice and grain each year
)
7 Himalaya
• India has more land for growing
rice than any other country
.
\45°C land __•__--2.:___.:::::: • Agriculture produces 15 per
cent of India's $1.83 trillion GDP.

C) An Indian rice farmer

We depend on the wet summer months of the monsoon to grow

our rice crops. They need lots of water. If we don't get enough
rain during the summer we can't grow enough crops - it's a
disaster. If there is too much rain, big storms and strong winds,
our crops are -Aooded and lost - another disaster.

Activities
1 Look closely at maps A and B, using compass directions and evidence from the
maps to support you.
a) Where in Asia do the coldest temperatures occur?
b) In which areas is there a high temperature all year?
c) Explain how lines of latitude impact the temp,erature range in Asia in summer
and winter.
d) Why are the Himalayas colder than much of the rest of Asia in summer and
winter?
2 Look at Map C. Write a paragraph to describe the distribution of rainfall across
Asia.
3 Study Diagram E, which explains how the monsoon occurs.
a) Explain why a change in temperature from January to July is a key feature
that leads to a monsoon climate.
b) How do Maps A-C show evidence that Southern Asia has a monsoon
climate?
4 Study Article F and Photo G. Write a paragraph to explain why the monsoon
each year is so important to the population of countries such as India.
 10.3 How do floods threaten lives in Asia?

Learning objectives In Southern Asia, as you have discovered, millions of people rely on
the annual monsoons and flooding for agriculture. However, when
► To understand the impacts of flooding is greater than expected millions of people are put at risk.
flooding in Southern Asia.
Article A shows the impacts of the 2017 floods in Southern Asia. Many
► To understand the causes
and responses of flooding in rivers are transboundary (they are shared by countries) and so
Bangladesh. flooding impacts more than one country. This also means the actions
of countries can increase the risk of flooding across the region.

Q The human and physical causes of flooding in Southern Asia

Trees are chopped down in the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal, leading to a
decrease in levels of interception. Without the roots of trees to hold the soil together,
soil erosion increases, placing material into rivers, and causing an increase in landslides.

�--------i Monsoon climate brings heavy rain. Without

tree cover on the mountain slopes, there is
an increase in soil erosion.

Rivers silt up due to the soil erosion in the Himalayas,

carrying river bedload which is deposited as the river slows
down. This raises the river bed and leads to flooding.

Meeting of two huge rivers increases

likelihood of flooding.
•
•
•• •
••
•
••

I I •

•
•

---------
• • •
• •
t
•
I
. •
, . ..
•
•
• • • ••
. •
• • • •
• •
•

•
80% of Bangladesh lies on a huge flood plain, most
of which is only 1 m above sea level. These areas are
farmed intensely, with poor people moving onto Cyclones (violent storms) frequently move
these vulnerable areas to grow rice crops for the up the Bay of Bengal, flooding the coastal
family. regions which are low lying.
 South Asia floods: Estimated 40 million across India, Bangladesh,
Nepal affected

E ntire villages across Bangladesh, India and Nepal

re1nained sub1nerged under water since the floods
began in mid-August. Authorities have described it as
the region's worst flood in 40 years, with a n1.etre of rain
falling in so111e areas in the space of days.
In India alone, UNICEF estin1.ated 31 ni.illion people
were affected by the floods, losing their hon1.es, livelihoods,
cattle or property. In Bangladesh, n1.ore than 8 million
people were affected, including abot1t 3 million children.
And in Nepal, the nt1mber affected was about 1. 7 million
people.
At least 1.5 n1.illion ho111es are believed to have been
destroyed or da1naged, along with thousands of schools,
hospitals, roads and bridges. Of the 1,300 people killed, houses, and in son1.e places the water can1.e so qt1ickly,
aid agencies said 30 to 40 per cent were children. with such force, that one village I saw looked like [it
'The people are very poor here and houses are n1.ade was] hit by a tornado or cyclone,' Rowkan l{han fro1n
of mud. So when floods can1.e it washed away their UNICEF's office in l{ath1nandu (Nepal) said.

O An article on the impact of the 2017 floods from

ABC News Online 9 September 2017

Activities
1 Read Article A about the 2017 flooding. Make a list of the effects of the floods.
2 Look closely at B, which show the causes and effects of flooding in the region.
a) Which rivers meet in Bangladesh?
b) These rivers are transboundary. Using Map B from Lesson 10.1 (page 182) describe the course of
these two rivers.
c) Make your own copy of the table below and outline the major causes of flooding in Bangladesh.
Human causes Physical causes

d) Rank the causes in order from most to least important. Write a paragraph to justify your
decisions.
e) Write a paragraph to explain why the actions of other countries contribute to the flooding of
Bangladesh.
3 Go back to Lesson 6.8 where you investigated the York floods in the UK that occurred in 2015
(pages 116-117). Compare this to the floods in South Asia. --........_.--- southern Asia
Draw a Venn diagram, like the one shown above, to identify
the similarities and differences between the two floods.
a) Write the causes of the flood in the area for each
country on the Venn diagram in one colour.
b) Write the effects of the flood in the same area of the
diagram in another colour.
c) Any effects or causes shared by both countries should be written in the overlapping section,
still in the appropriate colour.
d) Use the information in your diagram to write a report comparing the two floods. Identify which
flood had the greater effect, and explain why.
 10.4 How does life adapt to the mountain
biome?
m -----,,..,
Learning objectives 4('�� �����::;::��6..z� ""TT��0���-----=-��{_-=-7 ., ,�
C.,."
4, ARCTIC OC . �•
► To understand the distribution _,,...._

of biomes in Asia. -
► To understand the adaptations
of vegetation, animals and
people in the mountain biome.
► To understand how people can
change a biome.

In Unit 5 you explained the

distribution of biomes in Russia
and focused on the taiga and
tundra, near the Arctic Circle.
Asia, however, stretches from
here to south of the Equator. As
a result, there are a wide variety
of biomes across the continent,
see Map A. In this lesson you will
focus on the mountain biome, BIOMES ,
-Tropical rainforest
to further progress your Monsoon woodland IND/AN
• and jungle OCEAN
understanding of biomes across
the world. Asia includes the
• Subtropical l\nd
temperate rainforest
D Evergreen trees and shrubs □Grassland
�
-
most significant mountain D and
Broad-leaved rorest
meadow
0Steppe and semi-desert '\� ·
.Desert °"-\:4-
1 -�
P"""III AJpine, tundra and
biome: the Himalayas. • Coniferous forest high plateau
.c
a..
@

The mountain 0 Ecosystem distribution across Asia

biome
Mountain, or alpine, biomes
How is deforestation in Nepal changing
are found in mountain regions the mountain biome in Asia?
worldwide, including the Andes, You discovered in Lesson 10.3 (page 186-187) that deforestation
Alps, and Rocky Mountains. in Nepal is one or the causes of ongoing flooding in the region.
The alpine biome usually lies This deforestation also significantly damages the mountain biome.
between an altitude of about Article C will help you better understand why people in Nepal are
10,000 feet (3,000 metres), and cutting down trees that play a vital role in maintaining this biome.
the place where the snowline
of a mountain begins. These
are cold environments, with We have to walk further up the valley
lots of steep slopes and thin now to -And -Arewood. It's a vital source
soils, making it a tough place of fuel. In local markets a backload
for plants to live. There are only of wood may sell for the equivalent of
about 200 species of alpine two days' wages.
plants. Most plants are small
ground-cover plants, which
grow and reproduce slowly.
Pine forests grow on the lower
slopes. In the mountain biome,
vegetation and animals have
adapted to extreme conditions.
The impact of deforestation on life in Nepal (j Article on deforestation in
Nepal from Cultural

T he rural people in the hills of Nepal are very poor. Their only resot1rce is the Survival, September 1986
land, which is 1nainly steep slopes. This land is in the foothills of the Hi1nalayas.
The fertile valley bottoms and the steep hill slopes are intensively cultivated by
constructing terraces. Above the arable land the natt1ral forest has always provided
a wealth of products and benefits. As well as ft1elwood and constrt1ction tin1.ber,
villagers collect leaves for dry season anin1.al feed, litter for ani1nal bedding and
subsequently (ni.ixed with 111ant1re) for compost, and 111any other i111portant products
inclt1ding fruit, 111ushrooms and
Undisturbed forest Degraded 'deforested' slope
medicinal herbs. The forest also
Evaporat i on (and Ra i nfall strikes so i l Soil i s
provides grazing land for livestock. Leaf litter transp i ration from directly or vegetation compacted
Tree roots bind the soil of the leaves of water near so i l surface, by graz i ng
steep upper slopes and at the sa1ne absorbed by roots) causi ng soil Reduced animals.
compaction evaporati on and
ti1ne reduce run-off from heavy Rai nfall i ntercepted by
trees, undergrowth transp irati on
monsoon downpours; this stabilises
or leaf l i tter , Rai nwater stays at the surface A
the slopes.
Yet over the last decade the
rather than soak i ng i nto the
gro�nd, causi ng run-off and ,,. j.:r- ·s� i l layer is
+fef-
forest area has been cut down. This Dr i ps to erosion. __.. reduced by
Rainwater ground erosi on and
Flo od ng s cau sed by :
+
is dt1e to increasing pressure on the soaks into slowly 1
_ _ I stores less
i i

land. The population of Nepal is deep forest soils rainwater moving -

quickly over _�
J ra i nwater.
increasing rapidly. It has doubled
Some rainwater
t surface to Only small amounts of ra i nwater
in 30 years. More and more people rivers. soak into the ground. The level
seeps into rock below � of the groundwater i s reduced
use the trees to bur n as firewood
.. and li ttle reaches the streams.
and clear areas to grow crops, and Gr0 i
Help s preserve a Und'1'1/at, The river dries up qu i ckly after
so re111ove the forest further up the "'""'·-"··
high water table er tabl • • rain stops.
valley. The heavy monsoon rains e I t;00 ��•�(' :,..e
\_ 0'0 ediment accumulates on
fron1. Jt1ne to Septe1nber erode the
'• 0e0r A,
,.tltr•�
o., o a Jr
I e� ,I'

the floor of the nver channel

Slow seepage from son water � D ;�000'1'10\;
land more quickly without the and groundwater feeds perennial nver G the stream becomes wader
protective cover of trees (as shown and shallower. and the f11ow11
SAlURATED ROCK SAlURATED ROCK through the bed increases
in Diagran1. D).
G) The effect of deforestation

Activities
1 Study Map A, and compare it with Map B in traditionally worked in balance with the
Lesson 10.1 (page 182). environment?
a) What are the largest biome areas in Asia? b) Why are people now chopping down
b) Think about what you have already more of the trees on the mountain slopes?
learnt about Asia. Identify two reasons to 3 Look carefully at Diagram D. Explain how
explain the distribution of biomes. farmers deforesting the slopes is changing
c) What is the mountain biome like? this fragile balance.
d) Using the climate graphs from Lesson 10.2, 4 Think about what you understand about
suggest what temperature and rainfall development, and what you know about
patterns you would expect in the desert Nepal. Identify five key points to explain how
and tundra biomes. Nepal's stage of development has an impact
2 Read Article C. on the mountain biome of the Himalayas as
well as flooding in India and Bangladesh.
a) How have farmers in this biome
 10.5 Why is the population of Asia diverse
and dynamic?

Learning objectives O World population increase, by continent

► To understand the population distribution of Asia. 4 500 000
► To understand the reasons for the population changes 4 000 000
across Asia. 3 500 000
3 000 000
► To compare the population structure of two countries
in Asia. 2 500 000
2 000 000
1 500 000
Sixty per cent of the world's population lives in Asia 1 000 000
- - --- - -
1 - ---:==����;
(4.4 billion). Over half of this population is in two 500 00 1-������ �-�==
- - - � - -�=-=- - =;=::::��==
-
�
countries in Asia: China (1.4 billion) and India (1.3 -,-iii ;=======
billion). Not only is the population diverse, but it is 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

dynamic and changing! Asia has seen the largest -Asia Europe Africa
increase in population of all seven continents as - Latin America - Northern America - Oceania

eJapan's shrinking population

Graph A shows. However, the distribution of
population across Asia is unevenly spread, as shown
in Map A in Lesson 8.2 (pages 144-145).

17 May 2017
23 August 2011 Bloomberg
Afghanistan fights population
growth with birth control
I n Japan, decades of in1.proving life e�pecta�cy and
falling birth rates have produced a rapidly aging and
shrinking population.
It's popt1lation of 127 n1.illion is forecast to shrink by
Amie Ferris-Rotinan
abot1t one-third in the next 50 years. The proportion
TT ABUL (Reuters) - The Afghan governn1.ent of over-64-year-olds - currently abot1t a quarter -
�s trying to curb a booiTring population by
is expected to reach 38 per cent. The den1.ographic
proinoting birth control. The Ministry of Health warns
shift is starving the econon1.y of labour. In Tokyo, there
that Afghanistan's population of 30 iT1illion will double
are twice as inany job vacancies as applicants. The
in as i11any years, hindering opportunities for econoi1iic
governinent is scran1.bling to cope, with policies aiined
growth in one of the world's poorest countries.
at boosting fertility and support for working n1.others,
According to the United Nations, Afghan women
a pt1sh for greater job automation and a softening
i11anage to have 6.3 children on average over their
of the nation's traditional resistance to iim1iigration.
lifetii11e.
This places a i11assive financial and care burden on the
'In countries like Afghanistan, where woi11en are
working-age popt1lation. Prii11e Minister Shinzo Abe
illiterate and repressed, (fan1.ily planning) could be
has introduced 'robot revolution' , a plan to quadruple
difficult,' an aid worker said.
the size of the robotics industry by encouraging
Using contraceptives wot1ld be extren1.ely difficult
autoi11ation [therefore reducing the need for workers].
in Afghanistan, which is a conservative Mt1slim society.
The government has also allowed ,.....____,
'It is not up to us to control the reproduction of
an increase in the nt1i11ber of
children,' said I{halilullah Mohai11111ad, a lecturer in
overseas workers to i11ore than a
Islan1.ic law at l{abul University. 'If anyone asks ine
i1iillion, double that in 2008. A
advice on this new plan, I will strictly oppose it,' he said.
so-called internship prograi11me
attracted cheap labour froin
Asia to farms and factories, and
foreigners can now become
housekeepers.
The populations of Afghanistan and Japan compared

e 2017
100+
Population 126 045 211
Male 0.0% 0.0% Female
()
100+
2017
Male
Population 34 169 168
0.0% 0.0% Female
95-99 I • • 0.3% 95-99 0.0% 0.0%
90-94 I •• I •• • 90-94 0.0% 0.0%
85-89 I •• • •• 85-89 0.0% 0.0%
80-84 •• • 2.4% 80-84 0.1% 0.1%
75-79 •• 2.9% 75-79 0.2% 0.2%
70-74 •• 3.5% 70-74 0.3%
65-69 3.5% 3.8% 65-69
60-64 •• •• 60-64
55-59 •• • I• • 55-59
50-54 •• •• 50-54
45-49 3.7% 3.6% 45-49 1.7%
40-44 3.7% 3.7% 40-44 2.2%
35-39 3.2% •• 35-39
30-34 •• • •• •
• 30-34
25-29 •• •• 25-29
20-24 � •• •• 20-24 5.0%
15-19 � • • •• 15-19 6.2%
10-14 •• •• 10-14
5-9 2.2% •• 5-9 7.4% 7.1%
0-4 •• I• 0-4 7.4% 7.0%
10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

Activities
1 Look at Graph A.
What was the population of Asia in 1750,
a)
1900, 1950 and 2000?
b) Write a paragraph to describe the
population increase in Asia between each
of these dates, quoting the figures you have
identified in a).
c) Look back at the Demographic Transition
Model in Lesson 8.3 (page 146) to help you
suggest why this increase in population may
have taken place.
2 Look back at Map A in Lesson 8.2 (page 145).
Look carefully at the continent of Asia on this
map.
a) Describe the distribution shown on the
map. Which parts of Asia are densely
populated and which parts are sparsely
populated?
b) Compare Map A with the physical map of
Asia, Map B in Lesson 10.1 (page 182).
Identify reasons for the sparsely populated
and densely populated areas of Asia.
3 Look at the population pyramids D and E and
then read Articles B and C.
a) Which population pyramid is for Japan and
which for Afghanistan? In each case justify
your choice with evidence from the articles.
b) Compare the two pyramids with the
Demographic Transition Model in Lesson
8.3 (page 146). Which stages of the model
do you think Japan and Afghanistan are in?
Justify your choice in each case.
c) How are the governments in the two
countries trying to control population
change?
d) What are the different challenges and
opportunities faced by their populations?
e) How are the governments of Japan and
Afghanistan trying to deal with these
challenges?
f) Look back at Lesson 8.4 (pages 148-149)
to help you decide which policy is being
adopted by Japan and Afghanistan:
overpopulation or underpopulation?
Stretch and challenge
Visit www.populationpyramid.net and explore
the populations of other countries in Asia. Can
you find a country in each stage of the DTM?
Download the pyramid for each stage of the
model and justify your choice.
 10.6 How is urbanisation changing lives
in Karnataka, India? Part 1

Learning objectives In Unit 8 you investigated the process of urbanisation and the
development of megacities. You also discovered that most of the
► To understand why people move world's top ten megacities are in Asia. In the next two lessons you
from rural areas to Bangalore.
will further investigate this process in Karnataka, a state in south­
► To understand the opportunities west India. It has one of the highest urban growth rates in the
and challenges of life in Bangalore. country, and a major megacity, Bangalore. In this double lesson, you
will read stories from a range of different people to understand why
people are migrating from rural areas to Bangalore and the
0 Map of Karnataka, India challenges this creates for the city and its population.

□
0\
�
100 km
�� � .._-1 I queued up for hours to help my parents
I I L
collect water and sometimes missed school.
'lvlAHARASHTRA INDIA

Bayof
Arabian \ Bengal
sea 1

�
Vr\ Indian
SRI L,eJKA ocean At this time of year these -Aelds should
Key be green with paddy shoots, but no one
• In metres I spend hours collecting seems to be farming. We haven't had
1800 enough water for many years. It has
1350 -Arewood for cooking. I see
900 posters in our village about become impossible to make a living from
600
300 Bangalore. It seems a much farming, and a lot of people have moved
150 to cities to do other jobs.
0 sea level better place to live.
Mangalore
)"' "�
Arabian
�
rl l _./

,,,,) \ �
Sea '-­
KERALA-£ TAMIL NADU
)
,

e) Karnataka factfile

Karnataka fact file

• Number of people below poverty
line: 23.6 per cent - ranking 20th
out of 32 states in India.
• Infant mortality rate (number of
deaths for children under 1, per
1,000 live births) in 2011: 35 - We don't have a toilet, we go out
ranking 19th out of 35 states in in the -Aelds. I am always scared
India. of stepping on snakes at night or
• Percentage of children aged being attacked by stray dogs when
three and under, who are I use the open -Aelds.
underweight or have stunted
growth: 40 per cent.
• Number of cities with
populations of 1 million or more:
one - Bangalore.
 Year Population (millions) Q Article from India lnfoline News Service, 20 January 2013
1970 1.6
1980 2.8 Karnataka population growth slows,
1990 4.0
Bangalore gets more crowded
2000 5.6
2010
2016
7.2
11.5 T he population density in Bangalore has risen 47 per cent in
the past decade as job opportt1nities and econon1ic growth
C, Population figures for Bangalore, have lured people from across the nation to India's Silicon Valley,
1970-2016 the latest censt1s data shows.
'Bangalore towers above every city in the state thanks to
There is so much more for young econo1nic growth, which is attracting people fro111 across the state
people to do here in Bangalore. It's and India,' said the director of census operations of Karnataka,
an exciting place to be, there's lots T. I{. Anil I{umar. 'One in every six persons in Karnataka lives
to see. Back home in my village, life in Bangalore. The population of Bangalore has increased to 9.5
was full of problems: no jobs, no 1nillion in 2011 from 6.5 million in 2001. This accot1nts for 15.7
toilets, no water, no power. It's a per cent of I{ar nataka's 61.1 million people.'
modern, new life here.

There are lots of high-tech jobs in Bangalore. Bangalore is

called the 'Silicon Valley of India' as it's the country's main
focus for IT industries. It's known all over the world. We have
major universities and engineering colleges here. Nearly half
of the migrants to the city are university graduates.

I get 500 Rupees (£5) a day in Bangalore

compared to 150 Rupees in my home village. There's
plenty of work in construction as Bangalore is
growing - new businesses and more people need
buildings and roads.
Life is much better here. My
parents are happy that I can get an
0:I'\i'· !#, -��
,.. . ..,._,,�
education here. In our village I didn't
,:

'
f'! ...,..\":.
J

• � �fl:l
.;',
! ·---
if
,...
4
,.�
. • """ · �'T.t.1�· go to school. Here I'm learning to
"1J
...
•3� read and write. I think I want to be a
, �

l\ , �_,;.; ••-_
,'F.-J .....
...,,
'
'
#
. y . "..
.....
� ,-:,�

'
,,
,�
IA
doctor, when I grow up.

•
•

-- .
.. J. ,,;
�� • .J.# ;
 10.7 How is urbanisation changing lives
in Karnataka, India? Part 2
In Lesson 10.6 (pages 192-192) you investigated
how Bangalore is changing, identifying the
push and pull factors that have led to people
moving to the city. But the reality of city life can
be very different. Although many migrants are
able to work in well-paid jobs, live in wealthy
neighbourhoods and enjoy the dynamic nature of
the city, for others the challenges of city life are
many.
As Bangalore has grown, land there has become
more expensive. Many of the migrants from villages
� Life in Bangalore slums
Life in a slum: ugly face of India
S lum can be defined as 'A residential area where
dwellings are unfit for hu111an habitation by reasons of
dilapidation [disrepair], overcrowding, lack of ventilation
or sanitation facility and having drinking water facilities in
unhygienic conditions' .
Following problems are plaguing our slu1ns:
1 Garbage a11d filth: We could see dumps of garbage
everywhere. The dumped waste emanate [produce]
foul odot1r and at the san1e tin1e becon1es breeding
ground for flies and mosquitoes which carry several
diseases with them.
2 Miserable toilets: The conm1unity toilets were in
pathetic conditions. Plenty of them had no doors and
the ones that had doors had no latches. Toilets were
full of filth and human excreta as water supply
through pipes was not working.
3 Deplorable condition of school: As there was no water
and electricity in school, toilet was not working.
G) Article from The Times of India, 17 August 2016
don't have a good education and rely on manual
labour. Although they can get more regular and
better paid work than in their villages, they can't
afford to rent a home. They are forced to make
their own homes on the streets. As more and more
people have arrived in Bangalore, new slum
settlements have quickly formed on any available
waste land. Often they form on land used illegally,
where they can remain for decades. Although there
is often a strong community within the slums, life is
also difficult and uncertain, as inhabitants can often
be evicted without warning.
� View of the Bangalore slums
4 Cramped houses: It's difficult to even i111agine the
living conditions of the houses there unless and until
you actually experience this nightn1are. Six to eight
people share a cran1ped room and only they know as
to how so many people fit in such a s111all room. The
streets are narrow and the sewage water stagnates in
ope11 surface drains, which emit bad sn1ell.
Jt1st a few hours in those slums 1nade us feel st1ffocated
and nauseated [sick]. We were in1agining how anyone
could spend their whole life there, which was the case with
majority of then1. As a Nation we talk about Clean India
Mission (Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan) bt1t how it could be
achieved when a ht1ge proportion of our country contint1es
to live in such inhu111an conditions, or are we just trying to
cover the reality that the worst side does exist?
f Improving life in the slums -
a bottom-up approach
Activities
1 Look carefully at Map A.
a) Describe the location of the state of
One way lives can be improved for people living in slums is Karnataka.
by small-scale projects which work with the community.
The Urban Ultra Poor Program (UUPP) was set up by Elaine b) Compare Map A with Map B in Lesson
Ghosh, a mother in Bangalore. So far, 1,500 families have 10.1 (page 182), and name the
been supported through this programme. These strategies dominant physical feature where the
are often described as bottom-up approaches as they work state is located.
to achieve the needs of the slum dwellers. c) Go to the confluence.org website and
select 'India' and then 'Karnataka'.
0 Select one of the listed confluence
sites, download a photo and carry out
Integrated Housing and Slum the following:
Development Programme i) Record the latitude and longitude.
• The Government of India, New Delhi has approved 25 ii) Describe what it is like using the
projects for Karnataka constructing 13,000 houses with enquiry questions.
a cost of £324 million. The scheme will include d) Identify five key points about Karnataka.
redeveloping slum housing to create cheap affordable 2 In Unit 8 you were introduced to push
housing.
and pull factors that people consider
• The basic objective of the scheme is to strive when they migrate.
for slumless cities with healthy living and a good
environment, by providing adequate shelter and basic Read the migrant stories C-K, and
infrastructure facilities to the slum dwellers of the decide which are push and which are
identified urban areas. pull factors.
3 Draw a line graph to show how the
Ci} Article from The Hindu Times, 15 October 2013
population of Bangalore has changed,
using the data in Table H.
4 Look carefully at your graph, alongside
The 15 must-have basic amenities article L.
in villages Write a paragraph to explain how and
why Bangalore has changed.

T he government has identified 15 basic an1.enities to

enhance quality of life in villages.
The 111ove is ain1.ed at arresting the migration of rural
5 Look carefully at M-O, which show what
the slum areas of Bangalore are like.
a) Why have these slums developed?
people towards urban areas. The foren1.ost priority with the b) Write a paragraph to describe what
govermnent is to enhance quality of life in villages so that it is they are like.
on a par with urban areas.
6 Look carefully at P-R, which show three
To-do list for gram panchayats (villages)
projects that have been developed to
• Drinking water • Skill develop111ent
improve the quality of life of people in
• lndividt1al toilets centres
Karnataka.
• Rt1ral roads • Water harvesting
a) Work with a partner and discuss each
• Playgrounds • Roads to far n1.s
project.
• Bur ial grounds • Self-e111ployment
facilities b) Decide which project will best help
• Anin1.al shelters
• Public libraries poor people in Karnataka.
• Con1.munity harvesti11.g
grounds • Village tank/lake c) Use evidence from these two lessons
• Open-air theatres to explain your decision.
• Citizen service centres
 10.8 Is China helping to create an
interdependent world?

Learning objectives
► To identify the reasons for China's
economic growth.
► To consider the purpose of China's
new Belt and Road project.
In Lesson 7.4 you discovered that China is a BRICS country. The
economy of China is growing rapidly. In this lesson you will discover
some of the main reasons for this growth, see A, and strategies
China is developing to continue this growth in the future. China has
a new big idea called, 'Belt and Road' (see C and D). It is a global
plan to fund infrastructure projects, making the world even more
interconnected and interdependent.

What are the reasons for China's

economic growth?
In the last 20 years China has grown into the second largest
0 Reasons for China's economy in the world after the USA. There are a number of reasons
for this, outlined in A.
economic growth

Labour supply Poverty reduction

China has a plentiful supply of people available for work, Since 1990, 439 million people have been lifted out of
as you would expect from the world's largest poverty, creating a growing market for consumer
population. goods, leading to further industrial growth.

Large percentage of female workers Investment in infrastructure

This, together with the one-child policy (see Lesson 8.4, The government has built many new roads, rail systems
page 149), has meant that women have been involved and made rivers navigable. China has five of the ten
in child-raising for a much shorter period than most largest container ports in the world.
countries, adding to an already large labour supply.

Low wages Energy supply

Low wages increase the amount of profit industries can
make.
Natural resources
China has about 12 per cent of the world's mineral
resources, with only the USA and Russia possessing
larger proportions.
Location
China is located close to the strong economy and market
of Japan and also the newly emerging economies of
other Asian countries, such as India and South Korea, as
well as Russia and the Middle East.
China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in
the world, and is the world's largest user of coal-fired
power stations. As the economy of China has grown, so
has the consumption of coal-generated electricity, see
Table B.
Political system and strong leadership
In China the government controls the economy rather
than private businesses. The government makes all the
decisions and can plan for the long term. This provides
clear direction and stability in which the economy has
thrived.

Energy 1978 1978 2013 2013

source Million tons % Million tons %
Coal 405 71 2475 66
Crude oil 132 23 675 18
Natural gas 17 3 225 6
Other 17 23 375 10
e) Table showing increase in energy Total 571 100 3750 100
consumption in China, 1978 to 2013
 Never have we seen such close interdependence Activities
among countries as today. In 2013, I proposed
the building of a Silk Road Economic Belt and the 1 Look carefully
twenty-first century Maritime Silk Road, which I at A. Sometimes
called the Belt and Road Initiative. It is rooted in it is difficult to
the ancient Silk Road ... It focuses on the Asian, try to rank or
European and African continents ... Four years on, prioritise your
over 100 countries and international organisations ideas about a
have supported and got involved in this initiative. topic. Diamond
ranking is a I ]
useful technique
to use when you
are asked to make a decision.
The Silk Road
An ancient trade route between a) In a small group, use this technique
China and Europe. As well as to group the reasons for the growth
silk, goods such as teas, sugar, of China's economy in order of
spices, cotton, gold and silver importance. Put the most important
were transported across these near the top, and the least important
roads linking the east and west. near the bottom.
b) Write a paragraph to justify your

e Chinese President, Xi Jinping, at the opening

ceremony of the Belt and Road Forum for
choices.
2 Look at Table B.
International Cooperation, 14 May 2017 a) Draw a bar graph to show the
increase in China's consumption of
the different types of energy between
The $900bn question: What is the 1978 and 2013.
Belt and Road initiative? b) Write a paragraph to explain why this
increase took place.

T he Belt and Road initiative is an immensely an1.bitious

development cai11paign throt1gh which China wants
to boost trade and sti1nulate econo1nic growth across Asia
3 Read C and D.
a) How does President Xi Jinping
present the vision of the Belt and
and beyond. It hopes to do so by bt1ilding n1.assive amounts Road Initiative?
of infrastructure connecting it to countries arot1nd the b) What is the Belt and Road initiative?
globe. There are plans for pipelines and a port in Pakistan,
c) What are the advantages of the
bridges in Bangladesh and railways to Russia - all with
scheme for China?
the ain1. of creating what China calls a 'i11odern Silk Road'
d) Why are some countries concerned?
trading route that Beijing believes will kick start 'a new era
of globalisation'. It will connect about 65 per cent of the 4 Do you think China is helping to create
world's population, directly to China. an interdependent world, or stimulate its
But why Belt and Road? Bewilderingly, the 'road' is own economy? Justify your view.
not actually a road but rather a sea route linking China's
southern coast to east Africa and the Mediterranean. The
'belt' is a series of overland corridors connecting China with
Et1rope, via Central Asia and the Middle East.
Why is the Belt and Road initiative so important
to China? In 111any ways it is an econo1nic plan designed
to open up and create new markets for Chinese goods and
technology. Some countries, such as India, suspect the project
is simply a smokescreen [so111ething used to hide behind] that
China is t1sing to seize strategic control of the Indian Ocean. G) Article from The Guardian
online, 12 May 2017
 10.9 How is Asia developing into the most
important global economic region?

Learning objectives No other continent has seen greater levels of economic

► To understand the growing world
importance of Asia.
► To appreciate the shift in world trade.
O Article from The Economist, 12 May 2015
The future of Factory Asia
A sia first e111erged as a 1nanufacturing power in the
1960s, when Japan began exporting electronics
and consu1ner goods. Taiwan and Sot1th Korea
followed. China opening up was the ga111e-changer.
In 1990,Asia accounted for 26 per cent of global
manufactt1ring output. By 2013, this had reached 46
per cent. China accot1nts for half of Asia's output today.
Wages have begun to increase in China; the average
factory worker in China earns $27. 50 per day,
con1.pared with $8.60 in Indonesia, and $6. 70 in
Vietna1n. As a result, so1ne n1.anufacturing is 1noving,
to other countries in Asia. The region's biggest
advantage over the rest of the world as production
leaves China is simple: it's nearby. The clothing
industry is the first step of production out of China,
they are low skilled, low cost and easily transported
products. Myan1nar's clothing exports jumped fro111
$700 11iillion to $1.7 billion between 2011 and 2014.
Blessed with plenty of cheap labour and China's
money to invest,Asia only stands to grow further.
growth in the last twenty years than Asia. China and India
now rank in the top ten countries for global wealth. This
growth has been called the 'Asian Miracle'. Last lesson you
investigated the reasons for the growth of China, the
country tlhat has developed the most economically, in the
continent. In this lesson you will consider the impact of
growth in Asia on world trade.
How is the balance of world
trade moving?
The balance of world trade describes the movement
of imports and exports across the world. This balance
is now moving eastwards. For example, in 1995, the
USA had captured nearly 25 per cent of global trade
in hi-tech goods, while China had only 3 per cent. By
2005, the US share had fallen to 15 per cent, while
China's share had risen to 15 per cent.
The emergence of China as a major global trading hub
has begun to change not only the size of its trade, but
also the number of its significant trading partners. If
China's growth continues, the size of its economy will
overtake that of the USA by the late 2020s. By 2050,
the Chinese economy could be almost 50 per cent
bigger than the USA's, while the Indian economy may
follow suit and surpass the USA a few years after 2050.
Maps B and C illustrate this trading shift.
4) International trade in the 19th Century

100
Rest of the world

� 80 Europe
�

-0 60
North America
-en
0
40
Rest of Asia
0
?fl. 20
- China
0
1990 2013
Manufacturing output
e International trade today
Activities
1 Read Article A.
a) Why is economic qrowth now spreadinq beyond China
into other Asian countries?
b) Compare the graphs showing the world distribution of
manufacturing output in 1990 and 2013. Describe how
world output has changed.
c) How has the percentage share of manufacturing output
changed between Asia and the developed continents of
North America and Europe?
2 Look carefuHy at Map B.
a) What does this map show?
b) Which parts of the world were the most important trading
routes at this time?
3 Look at Map C.
a) What does this map show?
b) How has world trade and transportation of goods
changed?
c) How is the size of ports measured on this map?
d) Which part of the world has the largest ports?
e) What does the distribution of ports suggest?
f) Which two parts of the world seem to be the most
important trading areas?
 10.10 Diverse and dynamic: how is Asia
being transformed? Review
In this unit you have learnt:
► that Asia has a diverse physical and In this unit you have investigated the economic growth of
countries in Asia, in particular China and India. China has
human geography
developed into the world's second largest economy. This is
► how Asia is a continent of dynamic one aspect of the dynamic changes taking place in Asia
change - concept Map A shows the elements that are
► the changing relationship between interconnected and changing.
Asia and the rest of the world. The relationship between Asia and the rest of the world is
Let's see what you have also changing. As you discovered last lesson, the balance
remembered and understood� of world trade is shifting. In this lesson you will consider
different viewpoints about this change.

0 Concept map of Asia

- --
Climate Physical geography ' Economic activities

Diverse and dynamic: how

is Asia being transformed?

Trade and development Population

Will the former rich countries

really accept a completely
changed world economy, and
a shift of power away from
where it has been the last
100 years, to Asia?

€) Hans Rosling

Because [China is] an economic
enemy, because they have taken
advantage of us like nobody
in history. They have; it's the
greatest theft in the history
of the world what they've done
to the United States. They've
taken our jobs.
e President Donald Trump speaking in an
interview on 3 November 2015
Activities
1 Plot the different places in Asia you have
studied on an outline map of the continent.
2 You have now studied much of the continent
of Asia, including Russia in Unit 5. Identify
five key things you have learnt that show the
diversity of the continent.
3 Diagram A shows a concept map for Asia.
It shows the elements of geography and
the concepts you have investigated in each
lesson in this unit. It's similar to the concept
map you created in the review lesson for
l_lnit 8.10. This activity will progress your
understanding of how these ideas, processes
and events are interconnected.
a) Make your own copy of the concept map.
b) Add your own links between each concept.
c) Using your concept map, write 300 words
to explain how Asia is changing.
4 Read Quote B from Hans Rosling.
a) What does he think is happening to the
world's economy?
b) Think about what you have learnt in this
unit. Do you agree with him? Justify your
answer with evidence.
10 How is Asia being transformed?
We Chinese know only too
well what it takes to achieve
prosperity so we applaud the
achievements of others and
we wish them a better future.
We are not jealous of others'
success and we will not complain
about the others who have
beneftted. We will welcome them
aboard the express train of
Chinese development.
CS) President Xi Jinping speaking about world
trade in 2017
5 Read Quote C from US President Trump,
about China.
a) Why does he refer to China as an
economic enemy?
b) Why does he believe China has taken US
jobs?
6 Read Quote D from China's President Jinping.
a) What view is he presenting about world
trade?
b) How is he actually indirectly criticising the
views expressed by President Trump?
7 a) Look at the contents page of this
textbook, and identify how many of the
units have linked to this unit on Asia.
b) How do you think you have made progress
in your understanding of the world in this
unit?
c) Look at the vision statement and write a list
of the elements of the course where you
think you have made progress.
You will have the opportunities to further
progress your locational knowledge of the
world and see how different regions are
interconnected to Asia in Unit 12 Africa and
Unit 14 The Middle East. The Middle East is
also part of the continent of Asia.
In this unit you will learn:
► the theory of plate tectonics
► how volcanoes and earthquakes are linked
to plate tectonics
► the hazards for people associated with
these events
► how scientists attempt to predict, manage
and prevent these hazards.
Fact file
Location: Volcan de Fuego, Guatemala
Date of eruption: Has been erupting continuously
since 2002. In October and November 2017,
explosive lava flows poured down the volcano
and ash rose 5 km into the sky.
Impact: Luckily, no one was injured; however,
volcanic ash fall was reported in villages as far as
90 km away.
O Eye witness descriptions of a 2017 eruption
of Volcan de Fuego
I was awoken by the ground under
my tent shaking and a series
of low rumbles, punctuated by
occasional louder explosions.
I couldn't believe what I saw when I
got out of the tent. You can hear
all the rocks falling and feel every
explosion in your chest because of
the vibration in the air.
Every day potentially destructive events, such as an
earthquake or volcanic eruption, occur somewhere
in the world. On just one day - 21 October 2017,
when this page was written - there were 25 major
earthquakes. The United States Geological Survey
(USGS) surveys and measures every earthquake that
occurs globally. Its scientists state that every year
there are 500,000 earthquakes in the world. Only
100,000 of these are strong enough to be felt on
the Earth's surface. Only 100 of these cause major
damage.
Such natural events will always happen. But when
a natural event threatens to cause great damage
or loss of life it becomes a natural hazard and if
many lives are lost it becomes a natural disaster.
For this reason, people need to understand the
causes of these hazards, as well as how to predict
and manage future events to prevent loss of life.
To do this scientists have been investigating the
physical processes occurring in the lithosphere.
But to try to predict and manage these events, we
have to understand how the Earth is made up and
how the continents move - that's exactly what
you will look at in the next lesson.
The lava was shooting up to
300 metres (about 980 feet)
into the air, and was spilling down
the side of the volcano.
The volcano would also throw
hot boulders, that were
probably about the size of
a car, through the air, which
was pretty incredible to see.
 escriptions of the 2011 earthquake i We are not prepared for a major disaster
in Turkey. Even in Istanbul, our most
modern and developed city, only 25 per
All of a sudden, a quake tore down the
cent of buildings have been built in line with
building in front of me. We all ran to the
earthquake safety standards. Many houses
building and rescued two injured people
are constructed without supervision and
from the ruins.
with poor quality building materials.

Fact file
Location: Van, Turkey
Date: October 2011
Impact: Killed more than
570 people. Thousands of
buildings in Van and other
We spent the night in our car; I was having lunch nearby towns, were
in a restaurant when the quake hit without destroyed. The earthquake
warning. I hid under a table, terri-Aed. I was unhurt, was felt hundreds of miles
but I am too afraid to return to my house. There from the point where the
are aftershocks every 20 minutes or so. earthquake struck and it
was followed by another
earthquake 24 hours later.

1 Study Images A and B. • Can we predict when they are going to

a} Use geography enquiry questions 5Ws and
2Hs to describe what you can see.
b) Read the eyewitness accounts for both
events. Imagine you were at one of the
locations and describe how you would feel
witnessing the volcano or earthquake.
2 a) Copy the fact files for Images A and B.
b) Using an atlas find the latitude and
longitude for these two locations and add
them to your fact file.
You will add more information to these as
you work through the unit.
3 a) In pairs discuss the following questions, first
about earthquakes, then about volcanoes:
• What do you already know about
earthquakes?
• What causes them?
• Where do they occur?
• Are they dangerous?
• Are there any near where you live?
• Can you name any places where they
occur?
• How many earthquakes do you think
occur each year?
happen?
• Can we make places where they occur
safe for people?
b) Write two paragraphs summarising your
discussion under two headings:
i) Earthquakes ii) Volcanoes
4 Why do you think it is important that we study
these events and understand where and why
they occur?
5 Reread the vision statement for Progress in
Geography. Which of the statements do you
think you will focus on in this unit?
Stretch and challenge
While you are studying this unit keep a log of
volcanoes and earthquakes that occur around
the world. Draw your own table to record the
events, using the following headings:
• Type of event• Location (latitude and longitude)
• Date• Impact (during and immediately after)
• Further questions
You will find the following websites useful for this:
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
http://volcano.si.edu/reports_weekly.cfm
 11.2 Do continents fit together like
jigsaw pieces?
Learning objectives
► To understand how maps helped
us see the world differently.
► To understand the theory of
continental drift.
► To observe and analyse evidence
of a scientific theory.
0 The moving continents
200 million years ago
65 million years ago
In Lesson 1.2 you discovered how, as explorers set out to discover
more about the world, map makers began to draw maps showing the
newly-discovered lands. Since the sixteenth century scientists,
explorers and mapmakers have developed theories about how the
lithosphere forms and changes, about the world's distribution of
earthquakes and volcanoes, and how the continents and oceans may
have changed through time. The latest ideas, like every scientific
theory, result from centuries of observations and scientific research.
As technology develops and becomes more sophisticated, we can
investigate places that could not be explored before, providing new
evidence and allowing theories to evolve.
Wegener's, theory
In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, put forward a
theory known as continental drift. Other scientists had mentioned
the possibility of this idea as early as the sixteenth century. In 1915,
Wegener published his ideas in a book, Origins of the Continents
and Oceans. He argued that, millions of years ago the continents that
we know today were joined together into one supercontinent called
Pangea. Wegener proposed that Pangea formed about 299 million
years ago and over time it split into smaller land masses (see A).
These continents have been drifting apart and together ever since.
135 million years ago
Today
 Wegener's evidence
Wegener argued that the following evidence
supported his theory that the continents were
once joined:
• similar animal fossils and rock types were found
on different continents - he believed it would
have been impossible for these animals to swim
across oceans
• evidence that there had been an Ice Age at
the same time in the past across parts of the
continents, even the hottest ones
• a pattern in the formation of some of the old
mountain ranges and matching fossil remains
on different continents.
Q Evidence of continental drift
Key
ASIA
...
AFRICA
SOUTH AMERICA
ANTARCTICA
9 Evidence of continental drift from glaciation
Reactions to Wegener's theory
Wegener's belief that the continents had been
connected in the past was a good idea. It was a
scientific hypothesis based on observations.
Continental drift helped explain issues in geology -
like why South America and Africa appear to fit
together. However, Wegener's theory could not be
accepted by scientists. At the time the scientific
community firmly believed that the continents and
oceans were permanently fixed features on the
Earth's surface. Another major weakness in Wegener's
theory was that he could not explain what great force
could be strong enough to move massive continents.
Activities
1 Describe who Alfred Wegener was and
outline the theory he proposed.
2 Scientific theories, just like geographical
enquiry, are based on hard evidence. What
evidence did Wegener use to prove his
theory of continental drift?
3 Look carefully at A, B and C.
a) On an outline map of the world name
the continents.
'·\·
b) Mark the areas of each continent where
fossils, rocl< type, mountoin rongcs ond
glaciated areas were discovered. Devise
a key and use different colours to show
these on your map.
c) Now cut out the outlines of the
continents from your map.
d) Work with a partner. Arrange your
cut-out continents using Wegener's
evidence to make an arrangement that
fits the theory.
e) Stick the pieces of continent in the final
agreed arrangement in your book.
f) Label Pangea on your map using A.
g) Write a paragraph next to your map to
explain how Wegener used evidence to
support his theory of continental drift.
4 Why did Wegener think that fossil evidence
showed that the continents must once
have been joined?
5 Why did most scientists at the time
disagree with Wegener's theory?
 11.3 Where are the world's earthquakes,
volcanoes and mountain belts?

Learning objective Scientists began to wonder if it was possible that

► To recognise and describe the pattern of
earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain belts.
Exploring the ocean floor
Before the nineteenth century the depths of the
ocean floor were unexplored and most people
believed it was flat and featureless. But during the
Second World War, the United States Navy
mapped the ocean floor for the first time in order
to find enemy submarines. This mapping
discovered huge mountain ranges that formed a
continuous chain down the centre of the ocean
floors. These mountain ranges are called mid­
ocean ridges. They also discovered ocean
trenches - long, narrow and very deep
depressions near the edges of some continents.
a new ocean floor was being created at the
ridges, pushing apart the continents on either
side.
In 1960, US scientist Harry Hess used his studies
of the ocean floor to propose a new theory of
sea-floor spreading. He believed Wegener was
partly right and that the continents had spread
due to the growing sea floor. The key discovery
came through studying the magnetic patterns in
rocks either side of mid-ocean ridges. Scientists
determined that the oldest rocks were furthest
from the ridge. This proved that new ocean floor
forms at the ridges and slowly moves away.
Geographers and scientists began to consider the
global distribution patterns of these mid-ocean
ridges, with those of earthquakes, volcanoes and
mountain belts (see maps A-C).

0 Global distribution of
major earthquakes

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•
••
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• •• . •
. . • .• • •..• ..,• .•
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,
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, •• North
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. ·!Ill.,�I'
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Pacific Ocean •
South
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Ocean
C!, Global distribution •
of volcanoes lo

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,
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e
1977 world ocean floor map, created by oceanographers Bruce
Heezen and Marie Tharp
Activities
1 What are the mid-ocean ridges and ocean
trenches?
2 How were they discovered?
3 What was Harry Hess' hypothesis?
4 I low did this hypothesis develop Wegener's
theory of continental drift?
5 Use the following questions to help you write
a paragraph to describe the distribution of
earthquakes shown in Map A:
• Are the dots spread out all over the place or
do you think there is pattern that you can
see and then describe?
• Is there an area that has more earthquakes
than others?
• Is there an area that has fewer earthquakes
than others or no earthquakes?
• Are there clusters of earthquakes? Are they
random or not? Are they in areas or lines or
both?
• What geographical terms and features can
you use to help geo-locate your pattern? For
example, names of continents and oceans,
or geographical locations, e.g. east, west or
the scale or length of the feature and the
distance from the relevant coast/continent.
Mountain belts
Map C provides very important
evidence to better understand
what is happening to the
lithosphere. This version of the
map has had the world's
mountain belts added to it.
Mountain belts are found in
many parts of the world; they
are often made of sedimentary
rocks that have been folded
upwards and fractured by
forces in the lithosphere. The
world's main mountain belts,
shown on C, are the most
recently created. Some are still
rising, folding and fracturing.
6 Now describe the distribution of volcanoes
shown in Map B using the same guidelines as
above.
7 Look carefully at Map C.
a) Using an atlas name the fold mountain
ranges, A-D.
b) Write a definition of mountain belts.
c) Name the ocean floor features E and F.
d) Now describe the distribution of mountain
belts and ocean floor features using the
guidelines from Question 5.
e) Why do you think this map was so important
in improving our understanding of what is
happening in the lithosphere?
8 Look closely and compare the distribution
patterns for volcanoes, earthquakes, mountain
belts and ocean floor features.
a) Identify and describe any patterns you can
see.
b) Explain how these patterns might be linked.
9 Identify a link between Wegener's theory of
continental drift and the distribution patterns
you have described.
 11.4 What is happening beneath our feet?

Learning objectives The Earth's structure

► To identify the structure of the Earth.
► To understand the composition of the lithosphere.
► To understand the theory of plate tectonics.
0 The oceanic and continental crusts
Oceanic
You have learnt in the last lesson that there is a
link between the movement of continents and the
location of earthquakes and volcanoes. In this
lesson you will look at how the two are
connected. To do this, you will look at what's
happening beneath the Earth's surface.
The Earth is made up of several layers, (see
Continental Diagram A). The outer layer is called the
crust
lithosphere. It is between 50 km and 200 km in
thickness. This has a thin, upper layer of rock on
top, sometimes called 'the crust', which is
Lithosphere between 5 km and 30 km thick. This is the layer
immediately beneath our feet. Like the shell of an
egg, the lithosphere is brittle and can break.
Underneath this is the mantle, which is a much
thicker mass of rock called magma. The rocks
here are hot enough to flow and deform like
plastic. Below that is the outer core, which is
liquid. The inner core, at the centre of the Earth, is
the hottest part. It is mostly solid and made of iron
and nickel.

5-30 km
The theory of plate tectonics
2000 km In 1965 the term 'plate tectonics' was first used to
explain how the continents and oceans are
moving. The Earth's brittle outer layer is a
2883 km 3700°(
patchwork of slabs that sit on top of the mantle.
4000 km
The surface of the Earth is believed to be divided
into seven major and eight minor lithospheric
5140 km
6000 km plates (Map C). Plates are, on average, 125 km
6371 km thick, reaching maximum thickness below
Continental mountain belts.
There are two types of lithospheric plates: oceanic
plates (50-100 km) are thinner than continental
Liquid Mantle plates (up to 200 km). Some plates are large
Solid outer Lithosphere
enough to consist of both continental lithosphere
inner core
core and oceanic lithosphere, for example, the African
or South American plates, while the Pacific plate is
almost entirely oceanic. These plates are
crust constantly moving and meet in various ways along
their edges - these are the 'plate boundaries',
where most volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain
belts occur. Explaining how plates move is still a
highly controversial subject among Earth scientists.
0 The layers of the Earth
 North American Eurasian plate
plate

African plate
Pacific plate ....•

V
·. South American
' plate Inda-Australian
.
.. Nazca •• plate

I
plate

t
..

Key . .. - ..
-- Plate margins .• .
- Direction of plate movement 1..�

e ��

Earth's tectonic plates

Activities
1 What is the outermost layer of the Earth called?
2 The crust is only part of this layer.
How thick is the crust under:
a) continents b) oceans?
3 Write a definition for a tectonic plate.
4 Use Diagram B to draw your own illustration
of the lithosphere. Include labels for the
continental crust, oceanic crust and mantle.
5 Refer back to Maps A-C in Lesson 11.3,
pages 206-207, showing the distribution of
volcanoes, earthquakes, and fold mountains.
a) Compare these maps with Map C.
b) Write a paragraph describing your findings.
6 Study Map C.
a) Write down the names of the seven main
plates.
b) Name the plate that the UK lies on.
c) Why do you think there are very few
earthquakes and no volcanoes in the UK?
d) Use an atlas to find the Atlantic Ocean.
There is a plate boundary that runs north to
south in the middle of the ocean. Name
the feature of the ocean floor that forms
this boundary. Use Map C to name the four
plates found either side of this boundary.
e) Is Africa moving towards or away from
South America?
7 Return to your fact files from Lesson 11.1,
pages 202-203. For each event, add a
heading 'Plate location' and write down on
which plate or between which plates these
events are located. Use Map C and an atlas
map to help you.
8 Summarise in two paragraphs how the Earth
is structured and what processes are taking
place beneath your feet.
 11.5 What happens at plate boundaries?

Types of plate boundary

Learning objectives
► To understand the three different
types of plate boundary and the
events that occur there.
► To understand the forces that
drive plate movement.
A plate boundary is where two plates meet. Most plates only move a
few millimetres a year. In some places two plates move towards
each other. In other places they may move apart or pass each other
sideways. As you discovered in the last lesson, it is at these
boundaries that most of the world's volcanoes, earthquakes,
mountain belts and ocean floor landforms can be found. There are
three types of plate boundary: convergent, divergent and
conservative, explained in Diagrams A-D.

?1"=:____
✓r-... _
Destructive or convergent ------=--=--=-��--=--::.=-:--: � / I'/ ��
j; /
'

/,
/ Ji \ '- -
,,,,-_

�I
0'-
plate boundaries �� � �"____--'
::::.... 1
Contin ental
These occur when lithospheric plates move lithospheric plate
together. The results are different depending
on whether the lithospheric plates are Oceanic

r '
te
oceanic, continental or one of each. clit:ho�sp::he:ric:;p�la � :;__.;.;;_;.;.�
-:,.

If an oceanic lithospheric plate moves towards

a continental lithospheric plate, the heavier
oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental
plate, into the mantle. This often causes ocean
trenches to form. The continental plate is
forced up by the impact and the folding and faulting
forms mountain belts. This area of movement of
oceanic plate below the continental plate is called a
subduction zone. As it sinks, pressure increases,
which can trigger violent earthquakes. At the same
time, partial melting of the rock produces magma,
which rises towards the surface of the continental
plate, forming a line of volcanoes.
Plates collide
forming high
mountain belts
O Convergence at the boundary of
an oceanic lithospheric plate and a
continental lithospheric plate
Constructive or divergent
plate boundaries
These occur where two lithospheric plates are
forced apart. Magma rises and the hot rocks
melt, forming a ridge of volcanoes and new
oceanic lithosphere. As the plates move further
apart, new ocean lithosphere is continually
being created and the ocean floor gets wider.
As this builds up it forms a mid-ocean ridge.
Spreading ridge - new rock is formed here
Volcanoes
form near ridge
Some faults run at
right angles to ridge

"111111-�- Continental
lithospheric
late --

Q Convergence where two continental

lithospheric plates meet

Where two continental plates collide, they buckle,

fracture and push upwards to form high mountain L------ Molten rock moves
upwards between
belts. The pressure pushing them together can two plates

._ 0
cause severe earthquakes, but not volcanoes.
Divergent where two oceanic
plates move apart
Conservative or transform plate
boundaries
At these boundaries, two plates slide slowly past
each other. Friction causes the two plates to stick
together and pressure builds up. When the friction
is overcome, the sudden movement at the
boundary creates a severe earthquake. As crust is
neither created nor destroyed, there are no
volcanoes at these boundaries.
(:) Seismic waves
C) The forces explaining
plate movement
\...----!Lithosphere
Activities
1 Draw the four types of plate boundary shown
in Diagrams A-D.
a) Annotate each of your diagrams to explain
what is happening at each boundary and
what features can be found there.
b) Go back to Map C in Lesson 11.4, page 209.
Name the type of plate boundaries at
locations 1-3.
c) Add these plate names to your diagrams as
examples of the plate types.
d) Identify on Map C a colliding plate
boundary and add that to your diagram as
another example.
Explaining plate movement
The processes by which tectonic plates move are
still debated among scientists and geographers.
Since the Earth's internal heat comes from deep
within the mantle, it was thought that convection
currents in the mantle might cause the lithospheric
plates to move. This theory is now being challenged.
Modern imaging techniques have been unable to
identify convection currents in the mantle that are
large enough to cause plates to move.
Now scientists believe the movement is caused by
two forces.
The key force is slab pull. As the oceanic lithosphere
sinks at a subduction zone, it is thought that the
weight of the cold slab of rock pulls the whole plate
along and down, like a coat falling off a table. Once
the coat starts to move off the table it speeds up as
gravity pulls it down. The second force is much less
powerful but occurs when gravity causes the mid­
ocean ridge to sink down and spread out. This is
called ridge push.
The work of discovery is continuing and how plate
movement operates, in detail, remains highly
controversial.
push
2 Name a type of plate boundary where
volcanoes do not occur.
3 Why has the explanation for how plates move
been recently challenged?
4 Write a paragraph to explain the latest theory
about the cause of plate movement.
5 Use Diagram E to draw and label a cross­
section showing how the plates move and the
two forces that cause this movement.
6 Why is it likely that scientists will produce new
theories to explain the movement of plates in
the future?
 11.6 What do we know about earthquakes?

Learning objectives Seismic waves are the waves

of energy caused by the sudden
Plate movement

movement of the plates

► To understand what an
earthquake is and what damage
they may cause.
Normally several earthquakes
occur in a short period of time
The area on the surface
directly above the
when the plates move

earthquake is called Sometimes an earthquake has

► To understand what causes
them to occur and how they are
measured.
the epicentre foreshocks. These are smaller
earthquakes that occur before
the larger earthquake that
follows
The largest, main earthquake
is called the mainshock.
The location below the Earth's Mainshocks always have
surface where the earthquake aftershocks that follow
starts is called the focus
Fault line

How does an earthquake 0 How an earthquake occurs

occur?
An earthquake is a sudden violent movement of
the Earth's surface. It occurs when two plates �­ Eurasian
E uras1an
suddenly move past each other. The area where
they slip is called a fault.
plate
( - plate

Earthquakes occur near the Earth's surface and go Indian

plate
to a depth of about 700 km. Below 700 km the
rocks become too hot and flexible to break. They �,
Arabian INDIA
»lat'e Indian
,I
Today
just bend very slowly. Indian
plate
plate
The 'power' of an earthquake reduces the further
away it is from the focus. The strength of shaking ,I I
at the surface is much less for earthquakes that SRI LANKA
f l
happen deeper into the lithosphere. Shallow
earthquakes are found at mid-ocean ridges while
<' - -----� . \
....l ;, 'India' landmass 1 nd'a 1;
at subduction zones earthquakes range from � { 50 million years ago I
1
Ocean
Equator
shallow to deep.

Earthquake in Nepal, 2015 lndian ..­

Ocean

On Saturday 25 April 2015, the streets of the

Nepalese capital, Kathmandu, were busy with
residents and tourists meeting friends, selling their
Indian
produce in the markets or preparing for lunch. At Ocean
11:56 a.m. everything changed. A massive
earthquake struck. It was the biggest earthquake
in Nepal for over 80 years, the previous large
earthquake occurring in 1934.
o
E::::3:� � :i
1 o o o km
The epicentre of the quake was Barpak village,
around 75 km north-west of Kathmandu in the Q The collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates
Gorkha region.
The seismic focus lay at a depth of 10 km, close to Nepal sits on the boundary of the two tectonic
the surface. The million-strong population of plates that collided to build the Himalayas. Their
Kathmandu had their lives thrown into chaos, along ongoing convergence also means earthquakes
with the residents of the many villages within a 100 (see Map C).
km radius of the quake.
 0 The ongoing convergence of the
Eurasian Indian and Eurasian plates and the
plate CHINA location of the fault line running
through Nepal
....
....
.. .. ... ... Epicentre
... ... ... 77 km north-west
of Kathmandu
New ......
...... f:.
...auft
... ;,- NEPAL

.
•oelhi ... .!.?. Though many have worried about the
e... ...
•
Pokhara Mt Everest

......
stability of the concrete high-rises that
...
.. ..
/... ......... .... have been hastily erected in Katmandu,
Converging at a rate .. .. .. .. Kathmandu
of 45 mm per year .. .. .. .. the most terrible damage on Saturday
.. .. ... ..
... ... .. ... ... .. was to the oldest part of the city, which is
... studded with temples and palaces made of
...N INDIA
Inda-Australian
plate wood and unmortared brick.
0 200 km

Nearly 9,000 people died and more than Hundreds of thousands of people lost everything and faced extreme poverty.
22,000 suffered injuries. It was the More than 600,000 homes were destroyed and more than 288,000 were
deadliest earthquake in the seismically damaged in the 14 worst-hit districts. The quakes' strongest impact was in
active region in 81 years. remote rural areas, making the response extremely challenging.

The death toll is passed The quake was followed by

4,000, but we don't know hundreds of aftershocks,
about the remote villages yet. and only 17 days later there
We can't get to them: roads was another major quake, a
are blocked by landslides. magnitude 7.3 tremor.

People need food, shelter, Everything suddenly started

medicine and power. People shaking. It wasn't too severe
are sleeping outdoors due at -Arst and we all managed to
to fear of aftershocks. get out of the building. Then
(:) Eyewitness views about the Nepal earthquake when we were in the yard outside
everything started shaking very
The quake triggered strongly and we were all bending
Rescuers are digging through the rubble of collapsed buildings down on the ground to stop from
an avalanche on
in the capital trying to reach survivors, as thousands prepare falling over, and keeping as far
Mount Everest, killing
to spend the night outside as darkness falls. away from the walls as possible.
at least eight people.

Activities
1 Look carefully at Diagram A. c) Which two plates meet at Nepal?
a) What is an earthquake? d) What type of plate boundary exists in Nepal?
b) Write definitions for the following earthquake­ e) Write a paragraph to explain the tectonic
related terms: seismic wave, epicentre, focus, processes at work in this region of the world.
foreshock, main shock, aftershock. 3 Imagine you are an aid worker in Nepal in 2015.
2 Study resources B-D about the Nepal earthquake. Write a letter home describing what it was like
a) When did the main shock occur in Nepal? in the earthquake, and outline what help the
b) Where was the epicentre of the earthquake? people of Nepal need.
 11.7 Can people manage risk living in
earthquake zones?

Learning objectives
► To understand how people manage risk.
► To understand how people can prepare for
earthquakes.
► To understand that the stage of development of
a country can affect the way the risk of living in
an earthquake zone is managed.
Preparing for an earthquake
Earthquakes don't happen that often. Many
people in an earthquake area may never have
felt one. Before the large earthquake in Nepal
in 2015, the last major earthquake was in
1934. Without people to remember what it
was like, it is possible to underestimate the
risk and think that preparing and planning is
not a priority. In the case of Nepal, you know
from the Asia and Development units that it is
a very poor country with a rapidly growing
population, so it doesn't have the resources
to prepare for a possible earthquake.
In other countries that are within earthquake
zones a lot can also be done to reduce and
manage the risk. Guidance and support is
DROP where you are, onto your hands and knees. This
stops you from being knocked over.
COVER your head and neck with one arm and hand. If
you can, get under a table or desk or crawl next to an
interior wall well away from windows.
HOLD ON until shaking stops!
C) Earthquake drill
Earthquake resistant buildings
A building falling down is much less likely in a high
income country than in a low-income country. In
earthquake areas in high-income countries there are
strict building codes, which make it very unlikely
buildings will collapse. Unfortunately, in a low-income
country the government and the people often do not
have the money to make all buildings earthquake proof.
(j Preparing your house for an earthquake
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People may well stay in an earthquake zone if r ()r: of<it ,,.Ho p•Mrt C!:•IN 1, tom t, ,. .,,

they think they have taken proper .

•

precautions. In Europe, North America and ""'01n9 1-.s

AIKhor St<lltlyW4h do� �ook•

Japan improvements in forecasting, safer lllllinhin

buildings, and emergency drills have greatly

reduced the number of deaths from these
events.
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0 An earthquake survival kit

(:) Features of an earthquake resistant
building Activities
1 Imagine you are in your house when an earthquake
Cross-bracing --tt-tf'--.,1., happens. What are the best actions to take to stay
reinforces walls
using two steel safe? Use Images A and B to help you.
beams 2 Imagine you lived in an earthquake zone and had
=M-l�f- Sh ear core
to prepare for an earthquake. Write a list of the
-- Shear walls
(concrete walls with things you will need to survive for up to two weeks
steel bars in them) without your home, shops or any other help, until
reduce rocking
movements aid agencies arrive. Use Image A to help you.
---Moat
Base isolator 3, Poster C provides guidance for people on how
to prepare their home to be safe during an
earthquake.
. . . . ....;.._,..___,....,----Ground
. .. . a) Discuss the guidance provided with a partner.
b) Identify five key points from the poster.
Shock absorbers c) Explain why you think these are the most
(base isolators)
absorb tremors of important safety measures.
earthquakes
d) Think about your own home. What safety issues
would exist if it was hit by an earthquake?
Nepal earthquake 4 Look carefully at Diagram D. Explain how
reconstruction won't succeed buildings can be made earthquake proof.
until the vulnerability of 5 The earthquake information A-C is produced for
the population of the west coast of the USA. This
survivors is addressed
area is particularly prone to earthquakes.

D espite good intentions to rebuild Nepal
to be 1nore resilient, 30 n1.onths on little
progress has been 1nade. Of 1nore than 400,000
hon1.es that were earn1.arked for reconstruction,
only 12 per cent have been rebuilt. Little of the
US$4. 4 billion in aid pledged for reconstruction
has been handed out.
In Nepal, 80 per cent of bt1ildings are slu111
settlements. These are households that are not in
con1.pliance with building nor111s and planning
regulations. In addition, Nepal is rapidly
urbanising. The temptation in urban areas is to
build higher, bt1t in a country like Nepal this
could have fatal consequences in an earthquake.
Local engineers fear mass casualties if heavy,
reinforced concrete structures (as are being
widely built) collapse in the ft1ture.
Safe building is difficult in a developing
country like Nepal. For 1nany people, putting
food on the table is a daily struggle. Investing in
earthqt1ake-resistant housing 111east1res is simply
not within reach.
C) Article on the Nepal earthquake,
The Conversation, 24 November 2017
a) Which two plates meet at this location?
b) What type of plate boundary is in this area?
c) Look back to Unit 8 and find the population
density for the west coast of America (see Map
A, page 145). Is this an area of high or low
population density?
d) Why do you think people may take risks and
still choose to stay in an area where
earthquakes may occur?
6 Read Article E about Nepal, 30 months after the
earthquake in 2015.
a) Think about what you learnt about Nepal in Unit
7, Development and Unit 10, Asia. Why is it
unlikely that the government in Nepal will
prepare people for an earthquake in the same
way as the government in the USA?
b) Write a paragraph to explain how urbanisation
has led to low building standards in Nepal.
c) Why has little progress been made in
reconstructing buildings since the earthquake
in Nepal?
7 Write a paragraph to summarise your findings in
this lesson, answering the enquiry question: Can
people manage risk living in earthquake zones?
 11.8 What do we know about volcanoes?
Learning objectives
► To understand what a volcano is and
how a volcano forms.
► To understand that there are different
types of volcano depending on location.
0 27 November 2017
Jakarta, Indonesia (CNN)
A t1thorities have isst1ed the highest-level warning possible
fiafter volcanic eruptions from Mot1nt Agt1ng on the
Indonesian resort island of Bali fcreed the closure of the
island's 1nain airport and evacuation of thousands of residents
living nearby. Thick ash started shooting thousands of 1netres
into the air above Mount Agt1ng on Saturday, forcing more
than 29,000 people to evacuate fron1. their ho1nes.
Volcanoes cause some of the Earth's most
spectacular and dangerous events. In any week in
2017, when this unit was written, there were
between 14 and 27 volcanoes erupting around the
world. In this lesson you will discover that there are
different types of volcanoes that erupt in different
ways. In fact, no two volcanoes are alike.
Steam, gas and dust
Crater - a hollow, tunnel-shaped
space at the top of a volcanic cone
Molten rock is called lava when
it comes out of the ground.
It flows down the mountainside
as a lava flow
e Features of a volcano
What is a volcano?
Volcanoes are openings or cracks in the lithosphere
where magma from inside the Earth can escape
onto the surface. The magma can erupt in a number
of different forms:
• as liquid lava that flows from the vent or crack
• as volcanic bombs - lumps of
Volcanic bombs - molten rock that solidify as they
balls of molten rock
that solidify as they fall explode out of the vent and fall to
Earth
Falling ash - small
pieces of shattered rock • as hot ash and dust which
thrown from the volcano
are thrown into the atmosphere
Secondary cones - and eventually fall back to Earth,
if the main vent is sometimes hundreds of kilometres
ocked the magma
d to the
from the volcano
• steam and gas, which may be
poisonous.
With successive eruptions over
prolonged periods of time, many of the
world's volcanoes have developed into
mountains with steep sides of lava that
have solidified into igneous rock (see
Diagram B).
Different types of volcanoes occur at
converging and diverging plate
boundaries. See Table Con volcano
types and characteristics.
e Volcano types and characteristics Stage of
Volcano type Characteristics Examples Diagram (the development of
shapes are
exaggerated) volcanoes
Shield volcano A volcano with gentle Mauna Loa, Hawaii Layers of ash Volcanoes are found in three
slopes. T hey form and lava
from runny lava which
states:
spreads far from its
source. • An active volcano is erupting
or has erupted recently and is
likely to erupt again.
Composite or Tall volcanoes with Mount Fuji, Japan Layers of ash • A dormant volcano is one that
Stratovolcano steep sides and a and lava has not erupted for 10,000
symmetrical cone
shape. They form years but could become active
from very thick, again.
viscous, or sticky, lava
that won't flow easily • An extinct volcano hasn't
so the lava builds up erupted for the last 1,000,000
around the vent.
years and will probably never
erupt again.

Activities
1 Write a definition of a volcano.
2 Write a paragraph to describe the three categories of volcanoes.
3 Read the notes and Table C of volcano types.
a) Use an atlas to locate the two volcanoes named in the table. What type of boundary is each
volcano located on?
b) Copy and complete the table below.
Volcano type Characteristics Two different examples Diagram Global location
Shield

Composite

4 Study the table below. The definitions have been mixed up. Redraw the table and arrange the
descriptions correctly.

Lava
----- Molten solidifying rocks, thrown out by the eruption
Volcanic bombs A large cloud of smoke and dust that forms over a volcano
Secondary cone Hot molten or semi-fluid rock erupted from a volcano or fissure
-------1
Ash cloud Sometimes the main vent of the volcano can be blocked so magma finds a new way out
of the volcano at its side

5 Return to your fact file on the volcano in Guatemala which you started in Lesson 11.1, page 202.
Add the following headings and conduct internet research to continue your fact file:
• Type of volcano • Date of previous eruption • Frequency of eruptions.
6 A shows Mount Agung, a volcano that Volcanologists believe is showing signs of unrest, and is
being monitored.
a) Use A and the website from 11.1 on page 203 to find out about the volcano.
b) If the volcano, or any other volcano erupts, collect images and news reports of the event, and
its effects, from the internet.
c) Write a short report about the eruption using your geographical data as though you were
a volcanologist.
 11.9 Can people manage risk living near
volcanoes?

Learning objectives Gas

► To understand the advantages and disadvantages Airborne and
of living in a volcanic area. Ground
► To understand how volcanic eruptions can be
monitored and predicted.

Globally, around 800 million people live within

100 km, and 29 million people within 10 km of Cameras
active volcanoes. 'Volcanic threat' is a measure
that combines the level of hazard and the number
of people exposed to it. It is by far the highest in
Indonesia, followed by the Philippines, Japan,
Mexico and Ethiopia. These five countries
combine to make up more than 90 per cent of the GPS
total global volcanic threat.
Tiltmeter
Why do people live near
volcanoes?
People choose to live near volcanoes because
they consider the advantages outweigh the
disadvantages. Most volcanoes are safe for long Deformation Surveying
periods of time between eruptions and those that
erupt frequently are usually considered, by the C) Monitoring and predicting volcanoes
people who live nearby, as being predictable.

Advantages of living near a

volcano
• Fertile soil that is good for agriculture.
• The presence of minerals.
• Geothermal energy to produce electricity.
• Tourism: volcanoes attract millions of
visitors every year.
We've always farmed here, near to Mount Agung. The
volcanic soils are very fertile, it's ideal for growing
crops. The volcano has not erupted for a while. It's
carefully monitored and we will get plenty of notice if
we need to leave. We know what to do.
0 Workers in paddy fields in the Mount
Agung region
Prediction, planning and
preparation
These '3 Ps': prediction, planning and preparation,
can reduce the impact of volcanic eruptions.
Prediction: Volcanologists monitor volcanoes all
over the world, taking readings, as shown in B, to
determine change so they can predict whether a
volcano is likely to erupt. In the last lesson you
monitored volcanoes which volcanologists think
are likely to erupt soon.
Planning helps communities to respond and
recover from a natural disaster, such as a volcanic
eruption. It includes drawing up evacuation plans
and using hazard maps to prevent building in high
risk areas where lava might flow. It also involves
setting up warning systems and responding q uickly
to advice from volcanologists.
Preparation involves educating people on what do
if a nearby volcano erupts. Tokyo, in Japan, is at risk
of a range of hazards including volcanoes. The city
authority has produced a hazard guide. See C.
 Activities
Remote Sensing 1 How many people in the world live near volcanoes?
2 Write a paragraph explaining why people choose to live near
Satellite volcanoes.
Thermal (ash hotspots
Imaging and lnSAR) 3 T hink back to the last lesson and identify the main dangers
that people face from an erupting volcano.
4 Design a poster to help people who live near volcanoes
to understand the significance of prediction, planning and
preparation.
5 For people to live safely alongside volcanoes, scientists such
as seismologists and volcanologists must monitor volcanoes
so they can decide if an eruption is likely.
--- Explain why each of these is useful for monitoring a volcano:
a) thermal imaging equipment
b) gas samples
c) satellites
d) seismographs
e) tiltmeters
f) gas trapping bottles.
6 Look carefuHy at the guidance published by Tokyo, Poster C.
a) Why has the local authority produced this guidance?
------Ground Vibration b) Write a paragraph to describe what people in Tokyo should
do if there is a volcanic eruption.

e Advice on volcanic eruptions from the Tokyo Metropolitan Government

8 Volcanic Eruptions I\
Protect yourself from a volcanic eruption

Protect yourself
Confirm the dangerous areas on the disaster prevention map
In order to protect yourself from a volcanic disaster, it is
.. .. .. ...
important that you confirm the dangerous areas and evacuation
centers beforehand using disaster prevention maps (shows
. . dangerous spots, evacuation routes, evacuation centers, etc.)
. .
made public by the municipality or others.

Prepare food and items for a disaster

When a volcano erupts, the ashes may affect logistics and
lifelines. Prepare drinking water, food, flashlights, extra fuel, and
other necessities. It would also be better if you prepare helmets,
masks and goggles as protection against dust.

Confirm the designated evacuation center beforehand

Tokyo has 21 active volcanoes When an evacuation order or advisory is issued due to a
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government's designated evacuation center. Confirm in
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 11.10 Can we ever know enough about
earthquakes and volcanoes to live
safely? Review

In this unit, you have learnt: 0

► the theory of plate tectonics
► how volcanoes and earthquakes are linked
to plate tectonics
► the hazards for people associated with
volcanoes and earthquakes
► how scientists attempt to predict, manage
and prevent these hazards.
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood!

Key terms to remember

This unit of work about volcanoes and earthquakes
has introduced you to new geographical terminology.
It is important that you understand the meaning of
new terms. You will be expected to use them in your
future geographical studies. You should be familiar by
now with all the words shown in the table below, now
that you have almost completed this unit of work.
1 Convergent boundary
Composite cones
3 Divergent boundary
4 Epicentre

-5 Subduction
6 Focus
7 Lithospheric or tectonic plates
8 Magma
9 Mid-oceanic ridge

-10 Moment magnitude scale

11 Mercalli scale
12 Mudflows or lahars
13 Plate tectonics
14 Prediction

-15 Preparation
16 Protection
17 Pyroclastic flows
18 Ridge push
19 Shield volcanoes
-
-20 Seismic waves
21 Slab pull
22 Volcanic 'hot spot'
 11 Can we ever know enough about earthquakes and volcanoes to live safely?

B 'Earthquakes don't kill people, collapsed

buildings do,' said Jo da Silva, the head of
Arup International Development at a lecture
at the United Nations Office for Project
Services. She said natural disasters cost the
world $100 billion a year, the equivalent of
Africa's entire yearly infrastructure budget.
Nepal's earthquake struck a country whose
buildings were barely built to engineering
standards and were hopelessly fragile in the
grip of such a strong quake.

Activities
1 Try this 'Odd One Out' activity with a partner. 2 Make a list of all the places studied in this unit,
You should be familiar with all the words and mark them on a map of the world.
shown in the key terms table now that you 3 In Lessons 11.2-11.5 you found out how
have almost completed this unit of work. scientists discovered what is happening to the
Working with your partner, look at the sets of lithosphere.
numbers in the table below which match to a) Create a timeline and summarise each
words on the words list. discovery and idea that led to the theory of
15 9 1 plate tectonics.
14 4 6 b) Predict how we might better understand
20 3 8 what is happening in the lithosphere in
1 3 19 50 years' time.
12 17 6 4 Study Photos A and B. One volcano is a shield
7 22 21 volcano and the other a composite cone.
16 15 14 Work out which image is the composite cone
2 3 5 and which is the shield volcano.
10 19 11 Justify your choice by providing evidence
from each photo.
a) Pick out the words in each set A-I and
write them in your book. Leave a space of 5 Study Text box C and Photo D.
two lines in your book between each set a) Describe the scene showing earthquake
of words. Start like this: damage in Nepal.
Set A= b) Do you agree with what Jo da Silva says in
shield volcano; mid-ocean ridge; her quote, 'Earthquakes don't kill people,
convergent plate boundary. collapsed buildings do'?
b) Discuss with your partner which word in c) Justify your answer.
each set is the odd one out. 6 Using what you have learnt in this unit, write
c) Underline this word in your book. 200 words to explain whether we can know
d) In the space you left between each set of
enough about volcanoes and earthquakes to
words, explain why you think it is the odd live safely.
one out, and what the other two words
have in common.
In this unit, you will learn
about: We are all connected to Africa. Between 1 and 2
million years ago the first species of humans
► the physical and human geography of appeared in Africa and eventually spread around
Africa the world. Africa is the second largest continent in
► Africa's colonial history the world, by area and population; home to 1.2
► about some of the challenges facing the billion people in 54 countries, speaking 1,500
continent different languages. Africa is rich in natural
resources. But the continent is often viewed in a
► about some of the opportunities to stereotypical way by other parts of the world
develop and change. (see A). While Africa does indeed face enormous
challenges, not every African is in need, nor is
0 Nigerian novelist, Chimamanda Ngozi every African nation in crisis. In this unit you will
investigate Africa as a geographer, challenging
Adichie, talks of 'the danger of a single
story', from her experience of living with her stereotypical views to reach your own conclusions
college roommate, when attending in Lesson 12.10.
university in the USA
Challenges and opportunities
facing the continent
Many countries and regions in Africa do face a
number of challenges. As a result, it is often viewed
as a country rather than a continent (see B). In this
unit you will investigate the diversity of the
countries and people, to discover how they are
looking to the future to overcome these obstacles.

Activities
1 With a partner discuss what Africa means to
My roommate had a single story of Africa. In this you.
single story there was no possibility of Africans a) On an outline map of Africa write down all
being similar to her, in any way. No possibility of the words that you associate with this
feelings more complex than pity. If I had not grown continent.
up in Nigeria, and if all I knew about Africa were b) What has influenced your views of Africa?
from popular images, I too would think that Africa
2 Read View A, and work with a partner to answer
was a place of beautiful landscapes, beautiful
animals, and incomprehensible people, nghting
the questions.
senseless wars, dying of poverty and AIDS, a) Who is Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie?
unable to speak for themselves, and waiting to b) Discuss the point she is making, and then
be saved, by a kind, white foreigner ... The single summarise her view in three sentences.
story creates stereotypes and the problem with
c) She refers to a single story about Africa
stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that
they are incomplete. They make one story become
creating stereotypes. What does she mean
the only story.
by this?
 FR
Africa is not a country
T
Black Sea
40'
�
) ITA
/SPAIN

here are 54 states on the

Algle�_ __......_,.,
continent, yet the media insists • •Tuni c ut1
) 1 RAN
on referring to it as one place. edite r r a n e a n S. e a
TUNISfA Trjpoh
• • Ala1tandna 1"'"" _.
Many public figures and Bengh� •

journalists have no proble1n ALGERIA SAUDI·

describing someone from Botswana LIBYA Biy�b.8

and a person fron1. Mauritania as 0-

ARABIA
'Africans'.They probably wouldn't
call the1n 'A111ericans' if they were
fro111 Brazil and the United States,
even though the distance between
Ir
the two is the same - and the
econo11iic conditions as different.
You don't have a filin called Out
ofAsia and you rarely go to Oceania
on holidays (instead you talk of

-,..
vacations in Australia, New Zealand
or another island).Yet for a continent
ATLANTIC
of one billion people three tii11es the Iii<}

size of the US, it's no proble111 to call OCEAN

it by one single nan1.e - 'Africa'! This
is hugely detrimental to n1.any
Iii• ,.,.,
s,�

countries. When a civil war starts in

the Central African Republic Scale teonm

(Africa!), it negatively iinpacts

.uJ
countries as far away as Senegal
(Africa!) and Lesotho (Africa!). This
has to change.

_...
00- • ·a.

11 w 1•cn•-"'"" o &«t
'
l!J 2l) r ,.
•
Isl
0.
"""
/43'

C) Article from The Guardian (9 Political map of Africa, Philip�s Essential School Atlas
online, 24 January 2014

d) What does stereotyping mean? b) the largest and smallest African countries,
e) Think back to your answers to question 1. and their latitude and longitude
Identify ways these may have been c) the seas and oceans that surround the
influenced by stereotyping. continent
f) Look at the vision statement for this course d) the countries at the following coordinates:
and write a list of the aspects of being a i) 22° S 18 ° E ii) 28 ° N 2 ° E
geographer that challenge stereotypes. iii) 1 ° N 38 ° E iv) 3° S 23° E
3 Read Article B. 5 a) Visit the Dollar Street website (www.
a) Why do many people view Africa as a gapminder.org). Search for two families in
country rather than a continent? Africa - one poor, the other more wealthy.
b) Why is this a problem? b) Compile a list of similarities and differences.
4 Look carefully at the atlas map, C. Find and label 6 Reread A and B.
the following on an outline map of Africa: Explain what you have learnt today that
a) the Equator and Greenwich Meridian challenges stereotypical views of Africa.
 12.2 What is the physical landscape of
Africa?

Learning objectives In terms of its physical geography, Africa is different to other

continents. Its surface is mainly composed of very old, stable,
► To know the physical landscape of hard rocks. Much of the continent is formed of one tectonic
Africa.
plate. The Great Rift Valley in East Africa is being formed as
► To understand the importance of tectonic activity forms new plates. As plates do not collide into
the natural resources of Africa. the continent, there are few mountain belts as found in other
continents, except the Atlas Mountains to the north. The Sahara
Desert, the world's largest hot desert, dominates North Africa.

0 Physical map of Africa, Philip s

Some of the world's largest and longest rivers are found in Africa,
-'
see Map A.
Essential School Atlas
20 10 •
;

Blsc/c Sea
40'

d i ,
<P
+ffi

..
r II n e a n
s
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S1d1•

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••

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0 CE AN
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Ill'
OCEAN

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51'

Sc.lo 139000 000 oou-,�ion alon9 lat�ude o· (Equ110,)

GABON CONGO OtMOCAAflC Atf'UBLIC UGANDA Kl:I', YA
Of TH� CONGO
Natural resources
Africa is rich in natural resources:
• It exports 16 per cent of the world's
uranium, used to produce nuclear energy;
bauxite, a main aluminium ore; and 58 per
cent of the world's cobalt.
• In 2011, Africa produced more than half of
the world's diamonds, and nearly 75 per
cent of the world's platinum.
• Africa has 10 per cent of the world's oil
and gas reserves.
• Africa is also rich in forests, a source of
major hardwoods.
• Nigeria and Libya are two of the leading oil
producing countries in the world.
These mineral resources are not, however,
evenly distributed across the continent. The
largest reserves are concentrated in a few
countries: Guinea mines 90 per cent of
Africa's bauxite; Ghana and South Africa
account for 60 per cent of Africa's gold.
South Africa is the world's largest producer of
chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium
and vermiculite. Botswana and the
Democratic Republic of Congo produce 69
per cent of Africa's diamonds. Zambia holds
69 - 75 per cent of Africa's copper.
Mining in Africa: FACTS
of the world's diamonds are produced in Africa (led by
Botswana and Congo)
There are over 110 listed mining companies with
operations in South Africa
of the world's total production of gold - 483 tons of
gold - is produced in Africa
of the mining in Africa is gold mining
of the world's mineral reserve is found in Africa
() Facts from a mining company in Africa
Activities
1 Look back at Lesson 11.2, Diagram A (page 204).
Describe how Africa has formed over the last 200
million years.
2 Look back at Lessons 11.3 and 11.4 (pages 206-207)
and compare the geographical data there with Map A.
a) Describe the distribution of volcanoes and
earthquakes across Africa.
b) Use coordinates to name and locate places on
Map A that you think are formed as a result of
plate movements.
3 Look carefully at Map A.
a) On an outline map of Africa, locate and name the
physical landforms and landscapes found at the
following coordinates:
° °
i) 37 S 37 20' E ii) 23° N 5 ° E
iii) 0 ° 10' S 24 °30' E iv) 10 ° N 37 ° E
v) 24 ° S 25° E vi) 32 ° N 5° W
b) Compare Map A with Map C in Lesson 6.10
(page 121) and name the river basins in Africa (13,
15, 17, 18, 20).
c) Name the seas and oceans that surround the
continent.
4 Look carefully at Photos B-D. They show the
Great Rift Valley, the Sahara Desert and Mount
Ki li r-n a r1j a r o.
a) Match the photos to their locations.
b) In each case justify your choice.
c) Locate each image on Map A.
d) For one of the photos use the enquiry questions
to describe what you can see.
5 Look carefully at Information E.
a) List the statistical evidence that demonstrates
the world importance of natural resources in
Africa.
b) What is the issue regarding Africa's natural
resources?
Stretch and challenge
Go to the degree confluence website: http://
confluence.org
Find confluence points as close as possible to the
coordinates provided in question 3a), for two locations
(some points are yet to be visited).
Use the enquiry questions on page 3 to describe each
location, and locate it on your outline map of Africa.
 12.3 How has Africa's past shaped
its present?

Learning objectives The history of European exploitation of Africa still

influences the geography of the continent. Before
► To identify the effects of European colonialism in 1860, Africa had a rich history and culture. It was
Africa from the fifteenth to the twentieth centuries. divided into thousands of small areas and
► To consider how those effects have shaped Africa's kingdoms, based on different languages and
present. cultures, see Map C. In this lesson you will explore
the damaging impact of the slave trade from the
� 1600s, followed by the colonisation of Africa by a
range of European nations from the 1880s.

NORTH The slave trade

�ERi

tfb-d Between the 1600s and the 1800s, 12-15 million

Africans were sold into slavery. Europeans bought
Tobacco, cotton, sugaf, {'(\o\osses
people in West Africa in exchange for goods. Over
the years a triangle of trade developed between
Europe and the New Worlds, shown in Map A.
After abolishing slavery from 1833, European
AFRICA
SENEGAL nations began to develop a new form of
exploitation of Africa, through colonisation.

SOUTH
AMERICA
The Scramble for Africa
Slave s British explorers, such as David Livingstone,
•N conducted expeditions to Africa and reported their
BRAZIL
0 1000 km findings to excited audiences at geographical
�c::::::::J \_ conferences across Europe. As the Industrial
0 Map showing the triangle of trade in slaves Revolution developed in Europe, nations were keen
between Europe, Africa and the Americas to exploit the abundant natural resources and cheap
v� _.,.,-.,
labour of Africa discovered by these explorers. The
Key new wealth of Europe also created a sense of
□ Belgian Italian
superiority. Many believed they were bringing
□ Boer □ Ottoman
□ British D Portuguese civilisation to a savage people. As the 'Scramble for
SPANISH MOROCCO
□ French •Spanish
□ German □ Independent Africa' got underway, it increased tension among the
I European imperialist nations, as they argued over
ALGERIA
RIO DE ORO new territories. To prevent conflict, fourteen
European nations met at the Berlin Conference in
Atlantic FRENCH WEST AFRICA
U 1884-85, dividing the
Ocean;

PORTUGUESE continent among

GUINEA
� themselves, see Map B.
BRITISH SOMALILAND
SIERRA LEONE
TOGO They gave little thought
GOLD
LIBERIA
COAST ; to the existing ethnic or
linguistic groups and no
African ruler was involved.
African resistance to the
•N
<

0 800 km
E:::::::3:::::J invaders was quickly
0
E-3 E-3
600 km overcome by force.
BASUTOLAND Key
•
Metres
9 Ethnic boundaries of
0 African national borders agreed at the
-Ethnic group
Borders of Africa, 1913 African groups before
Berlin Conference in 1884-85 the Berlin Conference
 --:Z
I do not want to miss a good chance of getting us
a slice of this magnincent African cake.

To open to civilisation the only part of our

globe which it has not yet penetrated,
to pierce the darkness which hangs over
entire peoples, is, I dare say, a crusade
worthy of this century of progress.
Q Cartoon entitled 'Gold diggers'
4:) King Leopold II of Belgium
Activities
The Belgian Congo 1 Create an annotated timeline to
King Leopold II of Belgium took control of a region of summarise the events affecting Africa
tropical rainforest in the Congo Basin, 75 times the from 1600 to the 1970s.
size of Belgium. He promised to make a better life for 2 Using the glossary to help you, define the
Africans in the area. The reality was very different. words colonial and imperial.
With the development of the bicycle, worldwide
3 Look at Map C.
demand for rubber boomed. Leopold encouraged
Explain what Africa was like before
companies to collect rubber from the many rubber
Europeans began to influence the
trees in the rainforest, but these companies brutally
continent.
exploited local peoples by forcing them to collect sap
from the rubber trees. It has been estimated that as 4 You may have studied the slave trade in
many as 10 million Congolese died due to the abuses your history lessons. Use this knowledge,
inflicted during Leopold's rule. together with Map A, to write a paragraph
describing how the slave triangle of trade
@ Tom Mboya, one of the founding fathers of the worked.
Republic of Kenya
5 What were the two main reasons why
Under colonial rule, little attention has European nations began the Scramble for
been paid to the education, health, Africa?
and training for Africans. Partition
6 What was the purpose of the Berlin
of Africa into separate colonies and
Conference of 1884-85?
the use of territories as sources of
raw materials for the benent and 7 Compare Maps B and C.
enrichment of the colonial powers have a) Describe how Africa changed after the
not allowed continental development. Berlin conference.
b) Create a rank order list to show which
The legacy of colonialism European countries controlled the
largest areas of Africa.
African countries began to gain their independence 8 Look carefully at D - two quotes by
from Europe in the 1960s. Still struggling with the Leopold II.
legacy of colonialism, many have found the road to a
a) One quote was said at a geographical
strong and stable nation to be a difficult one. The
conference and the other in private to
political boundaries created at the Berlin conference
a Belgian ambassador. Decide and
have often led to the re-emergence of ethnic conflict.
justify which is which.
The wealth of natural resources continue to be over­
b) Consider the actions of Leopold in the
exploited by European businesses. New countries are
Congo. What do you think was the
often still locked into old colonial trade, selling natural
resources on the world market. The best agricultural main reason for the Scramble for
land is still used to grow cash crops for export to rich Africa? Justify your answer.
countries; crops such as cocoa, coffee, sugar, peanuts, 9 Look at Cartoon F and Quote E.
cotton, rubber, tea, palm oil, timber and tobacco, a) What is the legacy of colonial rule
rather than growing crops to feed the growing today for Africa?
population of Africa. Poverty often leads to a reliance b) What is the viewpoint of the cartoonist?
on aid from the developed world.
 12.4 How developed are African countries?

Much of the world believes Africa is poor. In 2013, the Aid agency
Learning objectives Oxfam conducted a survey of 2,000 people across the UK. When
asked what they think of Africa, more than half said 'poverty',
► To understand the differences
'famine' and 'hunrger'. Only a small percentage said 'growth',
in levels of development across
African countries. 'business', 'education' or 'beautiful landscapes'. You studied the
causes of poverty and development in Unit 7 (pages 122-141), and
► To consider different points
applied this to Asia in Unit 10 (pages 182-201). In Lesson 12.1 (A) on
of view about development in
page 202, you were introduced to the dangers of a single-story
African countries.
view of Africa and stereotyping the continent. Is this world view of
Africa a single-story view, or reality? In this and future lessons in this
unit you will consider evidence and ask questions as a geographer,
to reach your own conclusions.
0 Gapminder graph for Africa As you discovered in
is not a country Unit 7, reasons for the
global distribution of
i INCOM[ LML 1 LML2 l.[V[L3 LEV[l 4 development and
poverty are
•• •
• 0 • • • -,._.r,._,, • • complicated. Diagram D
•
• in Lesson 7.6 (page 132),
80
• 0
• • e. • • • • •
75
"'1oa:o2018 •
••
• ib. J summarises the key
•
causes of poverty.
•
People around the
world have different
and often conflicting
(,0
• ideas. To determine the
situation in Africa you
lllallle2018 need to consider
50
different points of view,
see B-G.
tOOO 8000
Income• (i)

Africa! The world's Going into our trip, I knew that the
greatest wilderness. Human Development Index ranks
The only place on Earth countries like Mali and Niger at the
to see the full majesty very bottom of the list, but I wasn't
of nature. It includes really sure what that meant ... I
immense deserts, a discovered families that were not
vast rainforest, and for talking about development or the
thousands of miles the future. Their only priority was-Aguring
most fertile savanna in out how to get through the year. Have
the world. enough food. Keep their loved ones
healthy. Keep their babies alive till the
age of-Ave, when statistically their

e 9 An aid worker's view

chances of dying from water-related
David Attenborough's disease decrease dramatically. For
introduction to the television on his first visit to people who don't have access to clean
series, Africa North Africa water, food - the most basic needs -
survival alone is progress.
 I was asked to investigate why it is Africa is not poor, it
that the vast majority of African is poorly managed.
countries are poor. In South Sudan
it became clear. The people - most
of whom are from the Murie ethnic
group - are crippled by tribal
conflicts related to disputes over
cattle, the traditional store of
wealth in South Sudan. Earlier
this year several hundred people,
many of them women and children, The gap between the rich and the poor
were killed in deliberate attacks on in Africa is still growing. Our leaders,
villages. And so the answer is: war they just want to keep on being rich.
makes you destitute.
Q Ellen Johnson­ And they don't want to pay taxes.
Sirleaf, former
President of Liberia CJ Local fisherman on Lake Victoria
Africa is blessed with abundant natural resources
but plagued by poverty. The colonial period caused
0 Joseph Amamoo,
a Ghanaian author
considerable damage to the self-con-Adence of the
people, stifled economic development and choked off
growth in entrepreneurial skills. Manufacturing was
vigorously discouraged so Africa would not compete
with factories in the countries of the colonial
powers, such as France, Great Britain. For centuries,
even up to now, Africa has been primarily an exporter
C) A TV journalist's investigation of raw materials and natural produce.
into poverty in Africa

Activities
1 A good place to start your investigation is
Lessons 7.2 and 7.3 (pages 124-127). Use the
data here to build up an evidence file.
a) Look at Lesson 7.2, Table B. How many of
the bottom ten countries are African?
b) Look at Lesson 7.2, Map C. Draw a table
dividing all the countries of Africa into three
income groups: upper middle; lower middle;
low. Use Lesson 12.1, Map C, to help you.
2 Look carefully at Map A for this lesson.
a) What two indicators are being used on the
graph?
b) Go to the Gapminder website, scroll down the
home page and select Africa is not a country.
Play the animation.
c) Write a paragraph to explain what the graph
shows about poverty and development for
countries in Africa.
3 Read carefully the views expressed about Africa
in B-G.
a) Categorise the views into two groups:
positive and negative views of Africa.
b) Draw a Development Compass Rose (see
Lesson 7.1, D, page 123).
c) Decide which category each viewpoint fits
on the rose, and label the view on your rose.
4 Think about what you have learnt so far about
Africa in this unit. Match these thoughts to
Lesson 7.6, Diagram D (page 132), showing the
causes of poverty. Make a copy of the diagram
with the headings and then write in examples
you have studied in Africa.
5 Do you think the world view of Africa is a
single-story view, or reality? Justify your answer
using evidence.
 12.5 What is the pattern of climate and
biomes in Africa?

Learning objective The climate zones and biomes of Africa have

evolved as a repeated pattern north and south of
► To understand the pattern of climate zones and
biomes across Africa.
the Equator. This pattern has developed due to the
interactions of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere. In this lesson you will investigate these
interactions and explore each biome to identify
characteristic features.
0 The climate and biomes of Africa

Air warms up
High again and moisture
pressure evaporates, so
zone little or no rain

Desert/semi-desert Cool air descends

Little rain

liopic of Cancer
Trade winds Some air is
take warm +--M pushed
Faya Largeau air back to 20km northwards
•
Gao Savanna
Distinct wet and
the Equator and cooled

dry season

Trade winds converge at Air cools and

Equator Rainforest the ITCZ causing warm condenses at
�-'-------' air to rise and creating the Equator to
Rain all year give convection
low air pressure
rainfall

Savanna
Distinct wet and
dry season Trade winds 20km Some air is
take warm +-- H pushed
air back to southwards
Tropic of Capricorn the Equator and cooled

Key
D Desert/semi-desert
□ Savannah Desert/semi-desert
Little rain
Cool air descends

• Deciduous woodland
(Sudano-Guinean
transition) Air warms up
High again and moisture
• Tropical rainforest pressure evaporates, so
zone little or no rain
(Guineo-Congolian)
□ Other
0° Equator 20° N
Decreasing rainfall

500
4° N, 8° E 12° N, S° E 16° N, 0° W
500 ----- 50
THE SAHEL ZONE

500
18° N, 19 ° E
50 G
e Climate graphs for
different African
-
---
a..

400 .
countries
- I,, 40 400 40 400 - 40 400 40 �
...
Ill
E (LI
E C.
� 300 '" 30 300 30 �
0 L...--"' � "L-
•
....
>,

·a. 200 . - -
- ... 20 200 20 200 20 200 20 'E:
-� - E
0

l_r
100 rn---� 10 100 _,_______, --- 10 100 ...._____._ 10 �
...
�L.
Ill
....
0 . . 0 0 ..1-----==-��:.......J.. 0 0 .J__----lJU.l..lC:a........L 0 0 ..L..-----�----1. 0 <C
Calabar, Nigeria Kano, Nigeria Gao, Mali Faya Largeau, Chad
Total = 3070 mm Total = 841 mm Total = 271 mm Total= 23 mm
Trees dominate Fewer trees/more grassland Open grassland/scrub Desert

Savanna biome
These are found to the north and south of tropical
rainforests. Savanna regions have two distinct wet
and dry seasons. Savanna includes grasses with
scattered acacia trees. Plants and animals have to
adapt to the long, dry periods. This biome is
teeming with wildlife. Animals may migrate great
distances in search of food and water. The climate
graph for Kano (C) shows how the temperature
and rainfall patterns relate to each other - the
hottest temperatures come just before heavy
rainfall, and the coolest time of the year comes
just after the rains. Further away from the Equator
and its heavy rainfall, the grassland becomes drier
and drier, and gradually the climate and biomes
change (see climate graphs in C). Q The savanna biome
Activities
1 Look carefully at A and climate graphs C. c) Which four months have the least rain?
a) Name the four main climate zones and d) Calculate the temperature range.
biomes. e) Write three sentences to describe the savanna
b) On an outline map of Africa, draw and climate.
shade these biomes. Include a key. 3 Explain what happens to climate and biomes in
c) Write a sentence under each of the Africa. north and south of the Equator.
following headings to explain why the
rainforest climate occurs at the Equator: Stretch and challenge
i) air pressure ii) wind patterns iii) rainfall Visit the degree confluence website (http://
patterns. confluence.org/) or use GoogleEarth.
d) Now repeat c) for savanna. then semi-desert a) Using the coordinates provided in C, find
and finally desert. locations in each climate/biome zone. Download
2 Look carefully at Photo B and Graphs C. a photo for each zone into presentation software
a) Describe the savanna landscape using the and annotate each photo to show what you have
geographical enquiry questions. learnt this lesson.
b) In the savanna, which three months have the b) Playback your presentation to the class next
most rain? lesson.
 12.6 Is there a future for the Sahel?

Learning objectives
► To identify the causes and consequences of
desertification in the Sahel.
► To explore solutions to desertification in the Sahel.
Last lesson you were introduced to the Sahel
region in North Africa, see Map A. 'Sahel' is an
Arabic word meaning 'edge' or 'shore'. It lies at the
southern edge of the Sahara Desert. This is one of
the most vulnerable places to drought on Earth. A Erratic rainfall
drought is a period of abnormally dry weather that
lasts long enough to lead to a serious lack of
water, and crop failure. This region is known to the many
world for its frequent famines which have led to
the death of millions of its inhabitants.
Desertification in the Sahel
Droughts have occurred here when the normally
short rainy season is delayed or does not occur.
As you can see in Graph B, rains are very erratic in
the Sahel. There are also strains on the land. The
population is increasing rapidly and too many
people have cleared the vegetation for firewood,
shelter and farming. Livestock have also overgrazed
the vegetation. The removal of vegetation exposes
soil to wind and water erosion. All of these things
have caused the desert to spread southwards. This
process is called desertification.
In the 1950s, higher levels of rainfall persuaded
people to move northwards into the region
as the desert retreated, creating farmable land.
Farmers made the most of these years of good
rains, but did not let the soil recover its nutrients
by rotating crops and giving the soil rest.
Unfortunately, the rains failed in the late 1960s.
The soil was exhausted and would not grow
crops. Famine on a large scale occurred.

0 The location of the

Sahel region

ALGERIA

NIGER
MALI
CHAD SUDAN
,_ The Sahel -
BURKINA
FASO

NIGERIA
ETHIOPIA

400 km
F-3 I

Sr-____________________.::....______
4
4) Above and below rainfall
averages in the Sahel
E 3
region, 1950-2017
_c 2
� 1
� 0
Q)

g1 - 1
� -2
Q)

� -3
� -4 Below average rainfall in cm
-5 _._.-------.-�----,----.---,-----,-----.----.-----r--�-.--------T"-----.----l
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
 (9 Article from Inter Press
Service, 19 October 2011
r�
The man that stopped Problem: 1970-2000: 25-40%
less rain than from 1930-1960.
the desert

Y acot1ba Sawadogo, a peasant

far1ner from Burkina Faso, is
fa111ot1s as the '1nan who stopped
the desert' . Thirty years ago the land
had becon1.e barren and n1.any were
giving t1p far1ning and 1nigrating to
t1rban areas. 'The traditional farnung
1nethod used in my village allowed
the rainwater to be easily washed away
leaving the crops to dry up within
a short space of ti1ne. That's why I
thot1ght of a technique that wot1ld
counter this problen1.,' said Sawadogo.
His techniqt1e, called Zai, is based on
traditional African far1n practice. He
dug holes in the soil and filled the1n
with 1nant1re and co111post. Seeds
were planted in the holes at the start
of the rainy season. These attracted
termites which built tunnels in the
hard grot1nd, helping retain the rain.
He planted trees, to hold back the
desert. He chose trees with 111edicinal
properties because at the tin1.e there
were no health clinics in the area.
Sawadogo's corm11unity thought hi1n
1nad but he persisted, and today he has
a forest covering 25 hectares (62 acres).
MALI SUDAN
NIGER
�
-;. BURKINA
FASO
NIGERIA
Solution: Idea started as a wall of trees stretching across
Africa. Each country and locality will develop its own plan.
It is hoped that this wall of vegetation will help prevent
soil erosion from the Sahel and halt desertification.
(:) Plans for the Great Green Wall of Africa
Africa's Green Wall, aims to restore land and hope
T he Sahel is the foct1s of efforts to build a 'Great Green Wall' to hold back the
desert and provide jobs, says Elvis Paul Tangai11, who is leading the prograi1m1.e.
It's about providingjobs and 111oney to keep people in their cormnt1nities and able
to thrive in a harsh clin1.ate. Tangain says it's a matter of life or death for millions,
particularly yot1ng 111en who have no work and have seen crops and aniinals die
and face terrible choices.They 11iight join terrorist groups, or join the exodus [n1.ass
departure] of desperate nugrants trying to cross the Mediterranean on rickety boats
to find work in E11rope. Estin1.ated to cost about $8 billion, the project, funded by
the World Bank, United Nations,African Union, and the UI{ Botaiucal Gardens, is
not expected to be co111pleted until 2030.
4) Article from DOGO news.com

Activities
1 Write definitions of desertification and drought.
2 Look carefully at Map A.
a) Name the 11 countries that are part of the
Sahel.
b) Use the scale to measure the Sahel to
calculate the approximate area of the region.
(Remember: area = length x width.)
c) Between what latitudes does the Sahel lie?
3 Look back at A and C from last lesson.
Describe the climate of the Sahel, and explain
why winds blow across the region from the
Sahara Desert southwards.
4 Study Graph B. When was:
a) the highest above average rainfall?
b) the longest spell of above average rainfall?
c) the longest spell of below average rainfall?
d) Count the number of years below average
and then above average, levels of rainfall.
e) Write a paragraph to explain why this rainfall
pattern makes life so difficult for people in
the Sahel.
5 Write a list of the physical and human causes of
desertification in the Sahel.
6 Read Article C.
a) Who is Yacouba Sawadogo?
b) Identify and explain two approaches to
farming he developed that stopped
desertification on his farm.
c) Why do you think these approaches have
worked?
7 Look at D and E.
Write a paragraph to explain how the Great Green
Wall offers hope for the future in the Sahel.
 12.7 What are the challenges and opportunities
of population change in Africa?

Learning objectives The continent of Africa has a population of 1.1 billion people, with
an uneven distribution. It is the second most populated continent,
► To understand the population
comprising 15 per cent of the world's population. Africa's population
distribution of Africa.
has been on the increase over the past 50 years and now 60 per
► To understand the reasons for cent of Africa's population are younger than 25. The population is
population change in Africa. projected to double by 2050 to around 2.4 billion people. As you
► To appreciate the challenges and investigate Africa's population, you will further progress your
opportunities of this change. understanding of population change, distribution and structure,
introduced in Lessons 8.1-8.4 (pages 142-149). In this unit you will

0 Population change in 2010, consider different views about the opportunities and challenges of
population change for the continent.
Philip's School Atlas

•
Q Population pyramid for Nigeria, 2017
M
nary Is.

I .' "'• / �
Siillllnl---P /
ALGERIA
100+ Male 0.0% 0.0% Female
LIBYA
-----
Tropic of Ca
95-99 0.0% 0.0%
90-94 0.0% 0.0%
'· . 85-89 0.0% 0.0%
SUDAN
80-84 0.1% 0.1%
75-79 0.2% 0.2%
70-74 0.4%
65-69 0.6%
Equator
60-64
55-59
50-54
POPULATION CHANGE 45-49
=1 ...� �- •
-+---\
1.8%
Average annual population ZAM 40-44 2.3%
change(2000-20 10)
Over 3% �--11 N�IBIA r �
z a
,� q, R 35-39 2.7%
2.5-3% IBOTSW"J-"A , 30-34 3.2%
•' '
-- - - -- -

•• ' '
I
25-29
1----1
1.5- 2.5%
1------1
1----+---\
...,.SOUTH ] _en 20-24 � '' � ''
0 - 1.5%
AFRICA
''
a.
1----1
-1 -0 % .c
Q.
15-19 � ''
0 0 @ 10-14 •� . • •
5-9 •' '•
Across 47 countries (33 of which are in Africa) which are
0-4 8.6% 8.2%
designated by the United Nations as the least developed
countries, population is expected to nearly double from 1 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
billion in 2017, to 1.9 billion by 2050. The population growth,
the UN argues, will make it 'harder' for governments in Population growth,
these countries which are already struggling with reducing G)
-·-
urbanisation and economic
poverty and hunger as well as trying to improve access to development go together.
standard health and education systems. Rich countries are urban
countries. We in Africa
are currently rural, relying
on farming and mining.
Population growth increases
density and, together with
rural-urban migration,
creates big cities. Big
cities allow for innovation
and increase economic
opportunities .
 Since the middle of the last century,
improvements in public health have
led to an inspiring decrease in infant
and child mortality rates. Overall,
life expectancy has also risen. The 12
million Africans born in 1955 could
expect to live only until the age of 37.
Encouragingly, the 42 million Africans
born this year can expect to live to
the age of 60. The number of children
the average African woman is likely to
have in her lifetime is high, the global
rate is 2.5 children per woman, but
4.7 children per woman in Africa. In
Niger, it is more than 7.
Today, Africa has the youngest population in the world - 200
million Africans are between 15 and 24 years old. This young
population is expected to more than double by 2050, when as
many as 800 million Africans are expected to be between the
ages of 25 and 59. Today, China has the advantage of having
the largest labour force worldwide. But soon, China will be
replaced by Africa. According to these projections by 2050, one
out of every four workers in the world is likely to be an African.
This African labour force will be young and relatively cheap.
Therefore, it is to be expected that multinational companies of
the West looking for cheap labour would be inclined to move their
•
businesses to Africa, instead of East Asia.

It remains to be seen whether Africa can cope with this

population growth. All over our continent there is so much
discontent among young people. They are frustrated by
limited job opportunities, rising unemployment, corrupt
politicians, and limited opportunities to have their political
voices heard. As a result, we are seeing many young people
migrating from the continent and many others looking for
answers within extremist groups who support terrorism.

Activities
1 Look at Lesson 8.2, Map A (pages 144-145),
which shows the world distribution of
population.
a) Focus on Africa on the map. Identify which
parts of the continent are densely populated
and which are sparsely populated.
b) Compare your findings with Map A in Lesson
12.2 (page 204). identify positive and negative
reasons for population distribution across Africa.
2 Look back at Lesson 10.5, Graph A (page 190).
a) What was the population of Africa in: 1750,
1900, 1950 and 2000?
b) Write a paragraph to describe the population
change in Africa between each of these dates
quoting the figures you have identified in a).
c) Look back at the Demographic Transition
Model in Lesson 8.3 (page 146) to help you
suggest why this increase in population is now
taking place.
3 Look carefully at the atlas map, A.
a) Which country in Africa is the odd one out
with the lowest annual population change?
b) Create a table with two columns, as shown
here. Add a row for each category in the key,
and then list each of the countries in the
correct category.
nual population change Countries
Over 3%
c) Identify the distribution pattern for countries
with an annual population increase over 2.5
per cent.
4 Look carefully at the population pyramid for
Nigeria, B.
a) What do you already know about the size of
the population for Nigeria?
b) Describe the structure of Nigeria's population.
c) Compare B with the Demographic Transition
Model in Lesson 8.3. Which stages of the
model do you think Nigeria is in? Justify your
choice.
5 Read the different points of view about
population change in Africa, C-G.
a) Identify a view that provides reasons for the
population increase and justify your choice
from your knowledge of the DTM.
b) Identify two views that see this population
change as a challenge, and two that see it as
an opportunity.
6 Write a paragraph to answer the enquiry title
to the lesson, using the evidence from today's
lesson.
 12.8 What are the challenges and
opportunities of urbanisation in Africa?

Learning objectives Urbanisation in Ethiopia

► To understand the scale of urbanisation in Africa. Ethiopia has the second largest population in Africa
► To understand the opportunities and challenges of with over 100 million people. The government is
life in a growing city. trying to develop the economy of this landlocked
country. While 80 per cent of the population is still
rural, urbanisation and economic development are
In Unit 10 you investigated urbanisation in Asia. accelerating fast. Much of this is focused on the
Africa currently has the highest rate of urbanisation capital city, Addis Ababa, which is centrally located
in the world. In 1990, there were only 24 cities in in the country. This urban growth is occurring for
Africa with more than 1 million inhabitants. Today the same push and pull factors you investigated in
this number has increased to 48 cities. The growth Lessons 10.6 and 10.7 (pages 192-195). People
of cities can lead to economic growth, move to the cities because they expect to be better
transformation, and poverty reduction. off, but the reality is often more like Photo C. Slums
Alternatively, it can lead to increased inequality, are a big problem. Often built illegally, they offer
urban poverty, and an explosion in the number of cheap rents for people as they arrive in the city. Life
slums. In this lesson you will investigate both these in a slum is tough: there is limited access to water
challenges and opportunities. and toilets, and rubbish piles up as there is no
organised refuse collection. This can lead to
frustration and violence. There are a lot of
0 The share of the population living in slums, problems for the government to solve.
World Bank, 2011
-
•
Government
projects
Building: Hundreds of
thousands of apartments are
AURI TA
NIA j\ SUDAN
built every year. These new
, , THE �ALI NIGER CHAD houses are bought-to-own,
:�GAMBIA E E
t?N L B URKINA and opportunities to live in
F�SO
GUINEA't. "-f
them are distributed by a
BISSAU �U � IN
GHANA
TOGO NI GERIA
SOMALIA public lottery.
SIERRA REPUBLIC OF Infrastructure: The Light Rail
LEONE SOUTH SUDAN
LIBERIA -BE� CAMEROO CENTRAL Transit, the first in Africa,
COTE opened in 2015. Built with
D'IVOIRE EQUATORIAL
GUINEA . GABON Chinese support, it cost
) .. US$475 million.
Key CONGO
Business: Attract
Total urban population by country TANZANI
Million inhabitants, 2005
multinational companies to
--=.:------------ 65 ..COMOROS build factories in the city
ZA� M,__v offering incentives and
�~----- ------ 30 NGOLA
A
cheap labour.
�-- -- ----- 1 5 ZIMO
�- - - ------ 7 N
BOTSWA A
•
------- 1
�...,,� 0.5
NAMIBIA C) Government projects to
solve some of the
• tshare of urban population SO TH
problems in Addis Ababa
� living in slums .A.
AFRICA N
• No data 0 400 km
(j Slums in Addis Ababa: many new migrants live in informal housing
constructed in the backyards of existing housing stock
Activities
1 Think about what you have learnt so far about
Africa in this unit, together with what you
already know about urbanisation. Write a list
of the push and pull factors that are leading
to the rapid growth of cities in Africa.
2 Look carefully at Map A.
a) List the five countries with the greatest
urban populations.
b) In which countries do the majority of city
dwellers live in slums?
c) What percentage of Ethiopia's population
live in slums?
3 a) What is the population of Ethiopia?
b) Why do you think Addis Ababa is the
fastest growing city in the country?
4 Look carefully at Photo C.
a) Describe what it is like using the
geographical enquiry questions on page 3.
b) Imagine you live in this slum. Write a
paragraph to describe the daily issues you
face. Think about jobs, housing, sewage,
waste, crime, violence and health.
5 Photo C only shows one small area of the
Addis Ababa. It provides only one story of
what's happening in the city.
a) Use Google Earth to explore Addis Ababa
in more detail.
b) Use the geographical enquiry questions to
describe what the city is really like.
c) What do you think are the opportunities for
people living in a city in Ethiopia?
6 Read B.
a) Write a list of the projects.
b) In a group of four discuss how these
projects might improve the city. Write your
suggested improvements next to each
project in your list.
c) In your group of four identify other things
the government could do.
d) Share your ideas with the class.
e) Summarise and explain the best ideas.
7 Compare what you have learnt about
urbanisation in Africa with what you have
learnt about India in lessons 10.6 and 10.7.
 12.9 Does China want to help develop
Africa?

Learning objectives Last lesson you discovered that China funded a

project in Addis Ababa. In 2000, Ethiopia was one of
► To understand the trading links between the poorest countries in the world. Since then its
Africa and China.
economy has been growing, particularly the
► To consider different viewpoints to identify manufacturing sector. Financial support from China
reasons for this trade. has been an important factor, particularly the
building of the Addis Ababa to Djibouti railway (see
() Article from October 2016 A). T his is one of a series of projects that China has
funded in Africa. African nations and, above all, their
leaders, have come to see the growing relationship
New railway line connects with China as an engine for economic growth. In
landlocked Ethiopia to Red Sea this lesson you will investigate this growing

E
relationship between Africa and Asia.
thiopia is landlocked - 90 per cent of its
i1nports and exports have been transported Trade between China and Africa
by road to and from Djibouti ports on the Red
Sea. The new 7 50 kilon1.etre (460 mile) railway China overtook the USA as Africa's largest trade
partner in 2009. Now, 15 per cent of Africa's exports,
link will reduce the travel ti1nes using the ct1rrent
mainly natural resources, go to China. China
congested, pot-holed road to a smooth 10-hour
provides 21 per cent of Africa's imports, inclu?in� a
journey. Mekonnen Getachew, a project 1nanager
range of machinery, transportation, commun1cat1ons
for the Ethiopian Railways Corporation, said, 'In
equipment, and manufactured goods. China is
Ethiopia currently if you want to bring yot1r
funding the building of factories and the
container fron1. Hong Kong to Djibot1ti it will
construction of roads, railways, ports, airports,
take you n1.aybe two, three weeks. But it will take
hospitals, schools and stadiums, spending billions of
you n1.ore than that to take it from Djibouti to
dollars a year, in Africa. More than 1 million Chinese,
Addis Ababa. It will now take us one day or
most of them labourers and traders, have moved to
1nore,' he said. Constructed with a total
the continent in the past decade. Transport projects
invest1nent of $4bn, 70 per cent of which was
such as A are part of the global 'Belt and Road'
ft1nded by Chinese banks, it is the first 111odern
strategy you studied in Unit 10 (pages 196-197).
electrified railway line in East Africa. Ethiopia
Africa has the worst transport networks of all regions
will now have easier access to the sea and
globally. High transportation costs, and difficulties
Djibouti will have greater access to Ethiopia's
moving goods have been major obstacles to
emerging 1narket of 100 1nillion people. economic development. Chinese investment is
t stimulating economic growth. There are, however, a
SUDAN number of often conflicting viewpoints about
China's growing involvement in Africa (see C-H).

200
SOMALIA
Addis Ababa Key:
1111 Exports to Africa
SOUTH
SUDAN

...N
ETHIOPIA
-
Ill
150 1111 imports from Africa
·-0
C:

0 200 km

Ill 100

0
"t:J

::, 50

Q China's trade with Africa, 1995-2015

 China, which has fought its
own battles to modernise,
has a much greater sense
of the personal urgency of
development in Africa than
many Western nations.
I prefer the Chinese approach to that of the Be wary of donors who are
West - a built railway or school can never be more interested in extracting
uprooted and taken home. The West do nothing, your resources than in
except extracting our natural resources and building your capacity.
taking them back to their respective countries, to
manufacture and send the -Anished goods back.

0 Hillary Clinton, former

0 African economist US secretary of state

e Former Senegalese President

Abdoulaye Wade, 2008
Africa is opening itself up to a 'new
form of imperialism' in which China
takes African natural resources
and sells us its manufactured ones,
without transferring skills.
C) Sanusi Lamido Sanusi,
then-governor of Nigeria's
Central Bank, 2013
China has the strong political
commitment to supporting
Africa in achieving development
and prosperity. China and Africa
share mutual needs and are
facing rare historical opportunity
in pursuing development through
co-operation.
9 Xi Jinping, President of China
Many projects in Africa involve
using Chinese labour, so they
don't create jobs for Africans.
G Job advisor, Ethiopia
Activities
1 Read Article A.
a) Describe the route of the railway line.
b) Why is it important that landlocked Ethiopia
has access to a port?
c) What are the advantages of the railway for
Ethiopia and Djibouti?
2 Look carefully at Graph B.
a) Describe what has happened to trade
between Africa and China.
b) Why does China want to increase trade with
Atnca!
c) What types of products are being traded
between China and Africa? What does that
trading relationship remind you of? (Clue:
look back to Lesson 12.3 (pages 206-207).)
3 Think back to Lesson 10.8 (pages 196-197).
a) What is China's 'Belt and Road' policy?
b) Why is Chinese investment in roads and
railways so important to African countries?
4 Read the different viewpoints about China's
trade with Africa, C-H.
a) Categorise them into two groups: positive
and negative views about China in Africa.
b) Reread Quote D. What do you understand
by 'a new form of imperialism'? What was
the old form of imperialism?
c) Reread Quote H. Why do you think this view
is so negative?
5 Identify five key points from today's lesson to
help you write a 100-word answer to today's
lesson enquiry question.
 12.10 What are the challenges and
opportunities facing Africa? Review

In this unit, you have learnt: The first activity in Lesson 12.1 (page 203) asked you to
consider what you already thought you knew about the
► the physical and human geography of Africa continent. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie shared her
► Africa's colonial history experience of how people had a stereotypical view of
Africa. Source A is the story of a family in Africa, from
► about some of the challenges facing the
the Dollar Street website. For many people in the world
continent outside Africa, the poverty in which this family lives
► about some of the opportunities to develop represents that one-story, stereotypical view. There is
and change. no doubt that in Africa millions of people, 40 per cent
Let's see what you have remembered of the population, live in poverty. But as you have
discovered in this unit there are also opportunities, and
and understood! for many people in Africa quality of life is improving. In
this lesson you can reflect on what you have learnt and
whether your view of Africa has now changed .

...-----t What extra questions do I need the answers to?

.---- What does this source not tell me about this issue?

-- What can I infer? What guesses can I make?

-- What does this source tell me?

< Families in Malawi

-

Home cl Monthly ncome Count,

Wizilamu family $39 Mala'A
The Wizllam.J fam,ly Is from the village of Aka,,ia,ra, In the central region of Malawi. Nampedl ,s
70 years old and she is a small scale farmer carirl£ for her three grandchildren: 9-year-ok:J
Sitlotha, 10· year-old SDSaman, and 16 yenr-old Nadl. The Wizilamu family lives in o 1 room
house. They own the dwel�ng and some agricultural land The house has no electricity. no
drink ng water, and no toilet. Outdoor toilet faolity Is shared with other households. It ta�es 20
hours per week to co.1ect drinking water for the fam,ty. The family produces half of their food
supplies, whde the rest 1s purchased which costs them 60% of their Income. They use wood for
cooking n the kitchen. The famly's last vacation was about a year ago, and lasted one day. J A l 'orru ,es n �1.;,.v1 ➔
They have never been outside of Malawi. They do not save money, and the r oream is to buy
some clothes for themselves.

f) The Wizilamu family from the Dollar Street website

 12 What are the challenges and opportunities facing Africa?

Activities
1 Look carefully at the layers of inference Diagram A.
You can find out a lot more about the Wizilamu family by finding them on the
Dollar Street website.
a) Starting from the middle, write down each of the questions as headings.
Alternatively, your teacher might give you your own copy of A.
b) For the first question identify the key aspects of the family's way of life.
c) In the outside question you could consider where the children's parents
might be.
2 Discuss the enquiry title for this unit with a partner.
a) Draw a two-column table with the headings: challenges and opportunities.
b) Write lists in each column to summarise your ideas and views about Africa.
3 Think about what you have learnt in this unit.
a) Draw a Development Compass Rose.
b) For each category on the rose write five key points you have learnt in this
unit about Africa.
4 Look back at the UN Sustainable Development Goals in Lesson 7.9 (pages
138-139). Discuss the following with a partner:
a) Which goals have you investigated in this unit?
b) Which nine goals do you think are the most important for the future of
people of Africa?
c) Write out these nine goals on pieces of paper.
d) On a diamond-ranking grid place the goals in order of importance.
e) Write a paragraph to explain your choices.
5 Reread Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's comments about a single-story view of
Africa (see Lesson 12.1, page 202).
a) What was your story about Africa before you worked through this unit?
b) Now write 200 words to tell your new story about Africa.
c) Identify five questions or key points you now think you want to learn about
Africa in your future studies.

ry
" Future learning
You will have opportunities
to further progress your
locational knowledge of the
world in Unit 14. Why is the
J Middle East an important
world region? The Middle
East connects Asia and
Africa.
Future learning at GCSE
At GCSE you can further progress your
understanding of world economic
development, trade, population, urbanisation,
climate and desertification. The knowledge
of Africa you have developed in this unit will
be a very useful foundation for your
continuing studies at GCSE.
In this unit, you will learn about:
► how ice changes the world
► how erosion and transportation create glacial landforms
► identifying glacial landforms on OS maps
► how the distribution of ice around the world changes through time.

What are glaciers?

Glaciers are made of snow that, over hundreds of years, has been pushed down or
compressed into large, thickened ice masses. As well as snow, glaciers also contain
rock and sediment. If a glacier is melting near the surface, it also contains running
water. Glaciers are exciting and inspiring places to visit (see Photo A).
Glaciologists are Earth scientists who investigate glaciers all over the world. They
measure glaciers to see how they change and how they alter landscapes through time.
You will investigate their findings in this unit.

Where are glaciers found?

Glaciers form in locations where:
•
• average annual temperatures are near freezing point
• large amounts of snow fall during winter months
• temperatures throughout the year are not high enough to melt the previous
winter's build up of snow.
Glaciers form the largest reservoir of fresh water on the planet. They store 75 per cent
of the world's fresh water. They cover around 10 per cent of the Earth's total land area
and are found in 47 countries.

. ..

·) Two ice sheet co�7��J

. (,
..
.
of Greenland anEl A:\Frjarctica ).
make up more than 99 °&16
the world's glacial ice ,
' -------------- '\
•1:ii... ___ __ Equat�,r� ___
_
. t\. .. .............
' -�,,h
--"".i-7-··'
� .....,._. "\&' .

Q The world
Key distribution
D Glaciated regions of ice sheets
"="--==-=---�.-...-=----=------------------------
Antarctic Circle and glaciers
 0 Perito Moreno Glacier, Los Glaciers
National Park, Patagonia, Argentina

What are the different types of glacier?

Glaciers come in all shapes and sizes, from a small patch of ice a few
100 metres across to huge ice sheets. Glaciers are usually divided
into two groups:
• Alpine glaciers, which form on mountainsides and move down
slopes through valleys.
• Continental ice sheets, which spread out and cover larger areas
(see Photo C).

e Ice sheet: Antarctica

Activities
1 What is a glacier?
2 Where do glaciers form?
3 Who are glaciologists?
4 What are the two main types of glacier?
5 Look carefully at Photo A.
a) Use the enquiry questions to describe the
glacier.
b) Which type of glacier is shown in Photo A?
c) Locate the glacier in Map 8. Using an atlas,
find the latitude and longitude for this glacier.
d) What evidence can you find that the glacier
is a popular place visited by tourists?
6 Look carefully at Photo C.
a) Use the enquiry questions to describe the
glacier.
b) Which type of glacier is shown?
c) What evidence can you find in the photo
that this glacier is less popular with tourists?
7 Map 8 shows the world distribution of ice
sheets and glaciers.
a) Compare it with an atlas map of the world,
and write a list naming the eleven main
glaciated areas of the world.
b) Mark and name these glaciated areas on
an outline map of the world.
c) Write a paragraph to describe the world's
distribution of glaciers.
d) Compare Map 8 with a climate map of
the world. Using your understanding of
weather and climate, write a paragraph
to explain the distribution of the world's
glaciers.
 13.2 How and why do glaciers form
and move?

Learning objectives What is an Ice Age?

► To understand that the world's distribution of Glaciologists have discovered that global climate
glaciers varies through time. has changed in the past, as shown in Graph A.
► To understand how glaciers form and move. The climate of the UK, for example, has changed
► To understand what the differences are between many times between very cold glacial, and
advancing and retreating glaciers. warmer interglacial conditions. Ice ages are when
temperatures are low enough for ice to form
glaciers and ice sheets. Polar ice moves into
lnterglacials lower latitudes.

- 5°(
Interglacial Interglacial
-t-------,-----,-----,---,-----......---,--.,.....i
Scientists believe that there have been a number
Interglacial Interglacial Interglacial
�
QI of ice age cycles. During the last ice age, the
'lii -1 °( -l --___-----4__________...,___.,___-----4+-1- - - - - - world was, on average, around 5 ° C colder than
today. Currently about 10 per cent of the Earth's
QI
Q.

� -7°( 1"'<"1f--------'\--At--\----+-+t-----t--P\:ir-+------lf-\-+-'1r1--+---1 land surface is covered in glacial ice. During the

Glacial Glacial last ice age, ice covered up to 30 per cent of land,
Glacial Glacials
°
-12 ( -t----i----r---r--......--,----r---..------r--1 shown in Map B.
400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 Today
Years ago

0 Glacial-interglacial cycles over the past

450,000 years

Greenland
Ice Sheet

Laurentide
Cordilleran
Ice Sheet
Ice Sheet

Antarctic Ice Sheet

{s) World distribution of ice How do glaciers form and move?

sheets and glaciers during
the last ice age Glacial ice forms in upland or polar areas above the snowline. Here,
snow and ice cover the ground throughout the whole year. It takes
many years for snow to become glacial ice. As snow accumulates
(gains ice), it is compressed by its own weight. Gradually, dense,
hard ice forms and starts to flow down-slope under its own weight.
Where more ice is gained than lost over a year, it is called the zone
of accumulation. If temperatures remain low, with heavy snowfalls,
glaciers advance down-slope.
If accumulation (the amount of ice gained)
is greater than ablation (melting), then the
amount of ice stored in a glacier increases
and the glacier advances. If the ablation
is greater than the accumulation then the 0
glacier reduces in size and retreats. This
occurs in the zone of ablation. The ice
can move at different speeds. This creates
wrinkles in the surface of the ice, forming
great cracks called crevasses.
The end of the glacier is called the snout.
This is where the main output from the
glacier - water - is released. During the
last century, most glaciers around the
world have been shrinking and retreating.
This is due to warmer, drier climate
conditions.

e Margerie Glacier,
Alaska

Activities
1 What are ice ages and interglacials?
2 Look at Graph A.
a) How many interglacials and ice ages have Q)
there been in the last 450,000 years?
b) What are the lowest average temperatures
during a glacial period?
c) What are the highest temperatures during
an interglacial period?
·-----':;-.._
- ::-__-_:/_ -
,'
..
,, \

.__:::___ Bedrock erosion and tran�p<xt

-
- ___/
? Melting

3 Look at Map B.
a) Write a paragraph to describe the world's
distribution of ice and glaciers during the
last ice age.
b) Compare Map 8 with your map showing
the distribution of glaciers today. Identify
how it has changed.
c) Add the distribution of ice during the last
ice age to your map (Lesson 13.1).
4 Write a list of the new terms introduced in this
lesson. Write definitions for each of them.
5 Look carefully at Diagram D, which shows a
glacier as a system.
a) Make a copy of Diagram D.
b) Label the names of zones 1 and 2.
Termi�al
� - - -- _ - moraine
0 A glacier as a system
c) Add the main inputs and outputs on your
diagram.
d) Explain why glaciers advance or retreat
using your systems diagram.
6 a) Draw a sketch of the glacier shown in
Photo C.
b) On your sketch, label the names of zones 1
and 2, and glacial features 3 and 4.
c) Annotate your sketch to explain what is
happening at locations 1 to 4.
7 Write a conclusion to your work for this
lesson, to explain how and why glaciers form
and move.
 13.3
How do glaciers change landscapes?

Learning objectives Glacial processes

► To understand how glaciers erode, transport and Weathering, erosion, transportation and
deposit material, and change landscapes. deposition occur in different ways with glaciers
► To analyse a topological map of a glacier. than with rivers and the sea. Freeze-thaw
weathering takes place more often in cold
temperatures, as shown in Diagram A. It can occur
under and at the sides of the valley glacier. Rock
How do glaciers erode fragments of the mountainside continually break
landscapes? off and fall into the glacier ice.
Glaciers erode landscapes in the two ways
shown in Diagram B. Plucking takes place where Water in the As the crack
loosened blocks of bedrock become frozen to the crack freezes
and expands,
deepens,
more water
Over time, the
repeated freeze
base of the glacial ice. Often the rock has already making the enters and thaw breaks
been loosened by freeze-thaw weathering. As Cracked rock crack deeper and freezes up the rock
the ice moves forward, the rock frozen to the ice
moves with it, and is plucked from the bedrock.
This plucked rock debris becomes embedded at
the base and sides of the glacier. As the ice moves
forward, these rocks scrape against the bedrock,
wearing it away. This is called abrasion. It leaves () Freeze-thaw weathering
behind smooth, polished rock surfaces, which
may have scratches in them called striations.
How do glaciers transport and
deposit material?
As the glacier moves down­
• slope it is transporting vast
amounts of rock that have
mixed with the ice. This debris
---- I is called moraine. Moraine
0 varies in size from huge angular
boulders to fine clay. Down­
slope temperatures eventually
become warmer and the ice
will begin to melt, at the glacial
snout. As the ice melts, the
material it was transporting is
deposited. The water from the
melting ice runs down-slope,
feeding a river or lake. This is
called meltwater.

9 How glaciers erode landscapes

 :i:;..�=.,.
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- ::!:5: � ��=?:Z::::::z= �::z:s� .,';:
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..... � ·..
. � -­·-· The Fox Glacier is located in the West Coast
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region of South Island in New Zealand. It is
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:•.-·.:···�� .,,:•·· .•.· ,·•..· 13 km long and is fed by a 32 km 2 snowfield.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . �,�
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Scree
...--...
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-. It has an average depth of 100 m.

Activities
1 a) What is freeze-thaw weathering? d) Describe the distribution of moraine in the
b) Why does this form of weathering occur in area. The symbol for moraine is shown in
glacial areas? the key.
c) How does freeze-thaw weathering make it e) Give a six-figure grid reference, and explain
easier for glaciers to erode landscapes? where you think the glacier is likely to be:
2 Look carefully at Photo B. i) eroding the landscape
a) Which type of glacial erosion is shown at 1 ii) depositing material.
and 2? Justify your answer. f) Draw a sketch map of the Fox Glacier and
b) What process happens at 3? Again, justify label the following on it: glacier, glacial
your answer. snout, areas of moraine, meltwater, areas
c) What is happening at 4? where the glacier is eroding, and
d) Use Photo B to draw your own annotated depositing rock debris.
diagram to explain how a glacier erodes a g) What evidence can you find to suggest
landscape. that the glacier was once further west and
3 How does a glacier transport material? has retreated to its current position?
4 a) Explain why a glacier deposits material. Stretch and challenge
b) Where does a glacier deposit material it
has been carrying? Draw a cross-section of the glacier along the
snow and ice contours on the section line
c) What happens to the ice when it melts?
A-B, on Map C. Each bold contour shows a
5 Look at the topographical map of the Fox
difference of 100 m and each thinner contour
Glacier (C).
shows a difference of 20 m.
a) Locate the Fox Glacier using an atlas. What
Using your cross-section, describe how the
is its latitude and longitude?
glacier changes along its course.
b) Locate the glacier using Google Earth.
Where do you think crevasses will form along
c) Describe the shape of the glacier using
th is glacier?
Map C.
 13.4 How are landforms shaped by
glacial erosion? Part 1
Learning objective What landforms are created by glacial
► To identify and describe glacial
erosion landforms: carries, tarns,
erosion?
aretes and pyramidal peaks. During glacial periods in the last ice age, ice caps covered mountain
areas. River valleys were slowly filled by moving ice which
straightened and deepened them. Diagram A shows how such
landscapes changed, in three stages - before, during and after
0 The formation of valleys glaciation.

Before
Q Snowdon peak and
V-shaped Glaslyn from Pyg Track
valley

During
Arete Corrie
Truncated spurs
Main glacier

Pyramidal peak

After Arete Corrie

Hanging valley
I \I) Hanging waterfall

"l� •
���' )'l, \ U-shaped valley
Y,
I
\

A
N
0 5 10 15

Truncated spur
 Corries of ice and movement down-slope leads to the
A corrie is where a glacier begins to develop as a ice gouging and deepening the hollow. The ice
sheltered hollow on the sides of a mountain. As rotates as it moves and flows down-slope. After
snow builds up and turns to ice, it starts to flow. As an ice age, a lake may form in the hollow called a
ice builds up in the hollow, the increased weight tarn. A corrie has three distinctive features: a steep
back wall, an over-deepened hollow and a lip.

C!) How corries �-- Snow collects in

are formed hollow, squeezed .,:,.:.,---- Freeze-thaw weathering
•
into ice Plucking steepens the back wall -- Steep back wall

Glacier ,o--- Freeze-thaw weathering

• Scree

- .. . Rock lip

Corrie

Abrasion deepens the hollow Deep rock basin

STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3

Arete and pyramidal peaks Pyramidal peak

Where two carries develop side Another corrie

by side, the glaciers erode the behind the
rock between them leaving a mountain-�
knife-like edge called an arete.
When three or four carries Corrie _....,.:::...____
develop around the mountain
top, a pyramidal peak is
formed.

() Pyramidal peak

Activities
1 Use Diagram A to describe how a landscape can change during and after
glaciation.
2 a) Draw a sketch of the photograph of a corrie shown in B.
b) Label the three features of a corrie on your sketch, shown at 1, 2 and 3 on
the photograph.
c) Use Diagram D to annotate your sketch explaining how a corrie is formed.
d) Write a paragraph to explain how carries are formed.
54
� 3 a) Draw a sketch to show a series of carries, an arete and a pyramidal peak.
' r � � <..c-�
b) Annotate your sketch to explain how these features were formed.
4 Look carefully at the contour patterns shown in the OS map Extract C.
53 a) Name the glacial erosion features labelled 1-5 on the map.
b) Explain your choices.
�/�.I �
...,.: -:.:V 2.
_;.,-- , 5 Create a storyboard to show the sequence of the formation of carries, an arete
63 and a pyramidal peak. You could create a flipbook to animate your storyboard.
 13.5 How are landforms shaped by
glacial erosion? Part 2

Learning objective
► To identify and describe glacial erosion landforms: U-shaped valley,
hanging valley, truncated spurs, ribbon lakes, fjords.

The formation of U-shaped valleys

One of the most dramatic changes to a landscape caused by glacial
erosion is the formation of U-shaped valleys. A series of small corrie
glaciers move down-slope from the hollow on the mountainside
where they formed. They slowly join together to form one large
glacier - like river tributaries flowing into a main river. This large
glacier can erode more powerfully. It therefore creates a deeper
valley with sheer, straight sides and a flat bottom. This valley looks
like the letter 'U', hence the name - U-shaped valley. Look back
at Diagram A on page 248 and compare the three diagrams to see
how this happens. After the ice, the river that flows in the U-shaped
valley seems far too small for the huge valley it did not erode. It is 0 A V-shaped valley on the road
bet ween Darcha and Rohtang
called a misfit river.
Pass, Himachal Pradesh, India
Q A U-shaped valley in Nant Ffrancon Pass,
Snowdonia Hanging valleys and truncated spurs
When a U-shaped valley is created, the glacier
cuts through the interlocking spurs that previously
formed the river valley. This leaves behind steep
cliffs along the sides of the U-shaped valley -
these are called truncated spurs.
Once the ice melts and the river flows once more,
the tributary streams and their small valleys are
left hanging high above the new U-shaped valley
floor. This landform is called a hanging valley.
Often the tributary streams fall from this hanging
valley as waterfalls.

(9 Hanging valley and Hanging valley Truncated spurs

truncated spurs

Waterfall 1km

4:) Buttermere and Crummock Water,
Fjords
Fjords are flooded, glaciated valleys. They are
found in places where current or past glaciation
occurred below the sea level.
Fjords are formed when a glacier retreats, after
eroding its typical U-shaped valley, and the sea
fills the resulting valley floor. This forms a narrow,
steep-sided inlet (sometimes deeper than 1,300 m)
connected to the sea.
The term 'fjord' is of Norwegian origin. Norway
has one of the finest fjord coastlines in the world.
Fjords have sheer cliff sides, often with hanging
valleys and truncated spurs.
Activities
1 Compare the landforms shown in Photos A and
B. Explain how they are similar and different.
2 Study Photos A and B, and Diagram A on page
248. Explain how glaciers change V-shaped
valleys to create U-shaped valleys.
3 Look carefully at Photo B.
a) Draw a field sketch of the Nant Ffrancon
valley.
b) Label the following features on your sketch:
steep sides, flat bottom, misfit stream.
c) Annotate your sketch to explain how the
valley was formed.
4 Study Diagram C.
a) Name features 1-3 on the map.
b) Describe what hanging valleys and
truncated spurs look like.
c) Explain how hanging valleys and truncated
spurs are formed.
5 Look at Photo D.
a) Draw a fieldsketch of Buttermere and
Crummock Water.
Ribbon lakes
Sometimes the floor of a U-shaped valley is filled
with long thin lakes called ribbon lakes. These
lakes can form for different reasons. Where a
glacier transports big rock debris over softer rock
it sometimes erodes a deeper narrow trough in
the flat valley floor. As the ice melts, this fills with
meltwater, creating a lake.
Lake District - a ribbon lake
e Geirangerfjord and Seven Sisters waterfall and
hanging valley
b) Annotate your sketch to describe the ribbon
lakes and explain how they are formed.
6 a) What are fjords?
b) Explain how fjords are formed.
7 Work with a partner for this activity.
a) Write each of the following glacial terms
on a card: corrie, U-shaped valley, hanging
valley, abrasion, plucking, truncated spurs,
arete, freeze-thaw weathering, ribbon lake.
b) Study your work for the last three lessons
on glacial erosion.
c) Now, without looking at your work, try to
explain to your partner how glaciers change
landscapes through erosion from source to
snout. Try to use all the terms on your cards.
d) Your partner will record all the terms you
use and then repeat your description,
adding to it to improve it further.
e) Once you are both happy with your
account, write a paragraph summarising it.
 13.6 How do we know the Lake District
was glaciated?

Learning objectives So far in this unit you have discovered how

► To identify glacial landforms on OS maps and photos.
► To consider how an area in the Lake District was eroded
by ice.
glaciers form and change landscapes. In this
lesson you will apply what you have learnt
to investigate the landforms left behind by
glaciers in an area of the Helvellyn area of the
Lake District.

Helvellyn forms part of a

north-south ridge which is
located midway between
the lakes of Thirlmere to
the west and Ullswater to
the east. It is the second
highest peak in the Lake
District and England. The
area is shown on Map-flap
B, a 1:50 000 OS map.
During the last ice age,
glaciers developed in the
higher parts of the Lake
District. On the cold north­
and east-facing slopes,
sheltered from the Sun, ice
built up in hollows. This
ice gradually formed into
glaciers moving down­
slope, carving out a new
landscape. Photos A and
C and Map B show the
landforms created by ice.

0 A Google Earth image of the Helvellyn area of the Lake District

34 35 36

16

15

.&
N

�====�=======:]
0 5 10 km

e 1:25 000 Ordnance Survey map extract of Helvellyn

e Striding Edge and Red Tarn

Activities
1 Compare Image A with Map-flap B.
a) Name the places labelled A-E on Image A.
b) Use Google Earth to explore the glacial features in the Helvellyn area. Type 'Helvellyn Lake
District' into the search box.
2 Look carefully at Map-flap B and Photos A and C.
a) Identify the features and locations listed: Helvellyn, Thirlmere, Red Tarn, Striding Edge,
Nethermost Cove, Grisedale, the streams and waterfalls to the south-west of Willie Wife Moor,
Whelp Side, Swirral Edge, Keppel Cove, Grisedale Beck. (Clue: the local name for a corrie in the
Lake District is 'cove'.)
b) Record your findings in a table, using the column headings shown below.
c) Add at least three more locations of glacial features to your table.

Place Six-figure grid Describe the landform Name the glacial erosion
reference using the contour pattern landform

3 a) In which direction do all the corries face in the Helvellyn area?

b) How does this help you better understand how the glaciers developed in the area?
4 Compare Photo C with Map-flap B.
a) Give the six-figure grid references for where you think the photo was taken.
b) In which direction was the camera pointing when the photo was taken?
c) Draw a fieldsketch of either Photo C.
d) Label the following on your fieldsketch: places A-D, steep back wall, hollow, lip, arete.
5 a) Draw a cross-section along the section line A-B shown on Map B.
b) Label the features of the corrie on your cross-section.
6 Write a paragraph to explain how this corrie was formed by ice.
7 There are three U-shaped valleys on Map-flap B, one running to the west of Helvellyn, which
includes Thirlmere, and the other two to the east of Helvellyn that eventually merge into one at
Ullswater (on the eastern edge of the map, along easting 39). Think about what you have learnt
about how this area was eroded by glaciers, and draw an annotated sketch map to show how
you think all the corrie glaciers flowed together to form Grisedale and Ullswater.
 13.7 How are landforms shaped by glacial
deposition?

Learning objective How does glacial deposition create

► To identify and describe
glacial depositional landforms:
moraines, glacial till, erratics,
outwash plains, drumlins.
Erratics
Very large boulders that have been
carried a long way by the glacier.
landforms?
Glaciers and ice sheets carry huge amounts of debris, ranging from
boulders as big as houses, to fine rock particles. At the snout of the
glacier, the ice melts, so this material can no longer be carried by
the ice. It is therefore dumped or deposited. This rock debris is called
glacial till. It is a random mixture of boulders, rocks, sand and clay.
Most of this deposition takes place in warmer lowland areas. As the
glacier melts, this lowland area is covered in a thick layer of till, so
thick it buries the old landscape. Two main groups of landforms are
then created as a result:
• those formed directly from ice
• those formed from the meltwater that flows
from the melting glacier.

l
When the ice melts, the boulders
drop. They are formed from a very Some of these larndforms are shown in Diagram A.
different rock from the bedrock they
deposited on.
Drumlin
Smooth, egg-shaped hills that are 100-800 m long,
-­• and 25-100 m high. They are usually found in groups.
They are formed from glacial till, deposited by the
I #
glacier while the ice is still moving. The end facing the
glacier often has a steeper slope than the other end.

Moraine
Debris that has been carried by the glacier,
0 Some of the features
of glacial deposition
forming long ridges, made up of till. The moraine
is given different names depending on where on
the glacier it is deposited (see Diagram C).

Glacial till
The debris that had been transported by
the glacier is deposited, where it melts. It is
made up of a mixture of rocks and clay.
Outwash plains
As the glacier melts, streams flow away from the glacier. These
powerful streams are swollen by meltwater. They transport large
amounts of the debris from the glacier snout. The largest and
heaviest debris is difficult to move so it is left as a moraine. The
lightest clay-sized particles are carried furthest away from the
snout, eventually deposited as outwash plains.
What are the different types Activities
of moraine? 1 When and why does a glacier deposit the
material it has transported?
2 Where does the glacier melt?
3 What is glacial till?
4 Look carefully at Diagram A, which shows some
of the landforms created by glacial deposition.
Copy and complete the table below using
Diagram A to help you.

Descr:i�tion of Explanation of
landform how the feature is
formed
Smooth, egg­
shaped hills

a Lateral moraines Medial moraines Terminal moraine

Erratic

Smaller rock debris

carried away by
glacial meltwater
Long, narrow ridge
of glacial till

5 Why do you think the large boulders deposited

When glaciers advance they push and
transport a lot of rock debris. Then, as they
melt and recede, large ridges or moraines of
loose debris are left behind.
At the snout of the glacier, debris is dumped
at the melting ice front. This gradually grows
into a huge pile or ridge called a terminal
moraine. Scientists find terminal moraines
useful because they show how far the glacier
advanced before it began to melt.
by glaciers are called erratics (think about the
meaning of the word 'erratic')?
6 Why do you think meltwater streams are so
powerful and able to transport large amounts of
rock debris from the glacier?
7 Look carefully at Photo B and Diagram C.
a} Which type of moraine is found:
i) along the edges of the path of a glacier?
ii) all along the glaciers route?
iii} at the end of the glacier?
b} What types of moraine can be found at
locations 1 and 2 on Photo B?
c} Why do scientists find the location of
terminal moraines useful?
8 Copy and complete the table below by writing
the landforms shown in Diagrams A and C and
Photo B into the correct column.

Debris at the sides of the glacier forms a ridge Formed from melting ice Formed from meltwater
as the glacier advances. As the glacier melts and
gets smaller, it deposits this ridge and the sides,
forming lateral moraines.
When two glaciers meet, often two lateral
moraines merge together to form a large
ridge of debris in the middle of the glacier - a
medial moraine. These medial moraines are
also deposited as the glacier begins to melt.
 13.8 How do people use glacial landforms?

Learning objective The Lake District, England: tourism and

► To identify and describe how
people use glacial landforms.
ULLSWATERJ�iWo
DARLINGTON LOVELY TEESDALE AND PENRITH
VIA
water transference
Tourism in the Lake District began in the late eighteenth century.
Poets such as Wordsworth promoted the beauty of its glaciated
landscape. This was very attractive to people keen to escape growing
cities, such as Manchester and Newcastle. The railway reached
Windermere in 1847 (see A) encouraging day-trippers and sightseers.
During the 1960s, improvements in roads, particularly the M6
motorway, and increased leisure time led to increasing numbers of
visitors. In 2016 there were over 18 million visitors to the area.
Water transference scheme
In the mid-nineteenth century the Thirlmere valley, in the Lake
District, contained two small ribbon lakes, Leathes Water and
Wythburn Water, connected by a small stream. The city of
Manchester was growing rapidly during the Industrial Revolution,
creating a large demand for water for industry and homes.
After much public debate, in 1894, the Manchester Corporation

ITS QUICKER BY RAIL

constructed a water transference scheme. A dam was built,
flooding the whole valley, creating Thirlmere. They connected the
IIWIIM1ID Ul9AJUlf !Wff ,_, W ,cory IOWII w.ll.191111TN OIi -l •tll .MiOICY

new reservoir to Manchester by building a 96-mile underground

() A railway poster encouraging aqueduct, which is still in use today. The glaciated
visitors to the Lake District valleys are also used for hill-sheep farming.

Dinorwig, North Wales: hydro-electric power

Dinorwig is a glaciated area, shown in Map D. The area contains two reservoirs, close
together, which are separated by a large drop in height. In 1984, it was decided that
rwig
this was an ideal site for a hydro-electric power station. A hydro-electric power ....
station uses the energy created by water falling from a great height, to form
electricity. In Dinorwig, this power station was used to increase the amount of 61
available electricity at times of peak demand (when people needed it most). Glaciers
made this area an ideal location for such a power station.
Diagram B shows how the power station works. Water is stored at a high altitude in
Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and is released into Llyn Peris through underground pipes 60
and turbines to produce electricity at times of peak demand. It is pumped back from
Llyn Peris to Marchlyn Mawr during off-peak times. Once running, the station can
provide power for up to six hours
before running out of water. The �-=• · ., Surge tank 59
power station is also a tourist
attraction, with 132,000 visitors �:$�
a year. Electricity delivery
(turbine mode)

58
wydd
.
e) How the Dinorwig power Generator 58 59
station works
Rotary valve
 Geiranger, Norway: tourism
Geiranger, shown in Photo C, is a village in western Norway, at the
head of Geirangerfjord, a 20 km-long fjord. It is a UNESCO World
Heritage site. The organisation describes the fjord as 'one of the
world's longest and deepest ... and among the most scenically
outstanding anywhere'.
Tourism was not initially welcomed by the local community in
Geiranger. However, the first cruise ship to call in to the Geirangerfjord
in 1869 proved to be a success. This small isolated community is
amazingly now the third biggest cruise ship port in Norway, receiving
140 to 180 ships during the four-month tourist season. Geiranger has
just 215 permanent inhabitants, but is visited by about 700,000 tourists
a year. There are five hotels and over ten camping sites. The tourist
season stretches from May to early September.

Activities
1 Why did people begin to visit the Lake District from the late
eighteenth century?

e Geiranger
2 Look carefully at Poster A.
a) Who published the poster?
b) Describe how it is attempting to attract people to visit the area.
C) 1: 50 000 OS extract
of Dinorwig 3 In Activity 2 in Lesson 13.6 (page 253), map evidence
suggested Thirlmere was a ribbon lake. Explain why this is not
the case and why people have created the lake.
4 Look carefully at Map D.
a) Create a table to show the six-figure grid reference of
glacial landforms shown on the map.
b) On a sheet of A4 paper draw a sketch map of the area.
i) Label and name glacial landforms on your sketch map.
ii) Draw and name the key elements of the Dinorwig
Power Station on your sketch map, including the top
and bottom reservoirs and the power station.
5 Use Map D and Diagram B to write a paragraph to explain how
the power station uses glacial features to generate electricity.
6 Identify and locate four pieces of evidence on Map C to show
that tourism is also important in the Dinorwig area.
7 Look carefully at Photo C.
a) Describe what you can see in the photo using the five
enquiry questions.
b) Why do you think this fjord is a popular tourist destination?
c) i) Draw a fieldsketch of Geiranger.
ii) Label the following on your sketch - fjord, village, cruise
ships, campsites, hotels.
�
8 Consider all the evidence you have collected this lesson.
60 61 62 63 Write a paragraph answering the following enquiry question:
A
N
How do people use glacial landforms?
0-----------=.
1 2km
 13.9 How do we investigate how glaciers
are changing?

Learning objectives The work of a glaciologist

► To understand how glaciologists
investigate glaciers.
► To understand how glaciers are
changing.
► To interpret satellite images and
repeat photography of glaciers.
For centuries people have been studying and recording the world's
glaciers and ice sheets. Today, glaciologists investigate glaciers
using a range of fieldwork techniques and modern technology. This
includes data-logging, remote time lapse cameras, as well as space
technology providing satellite images. Glacial change is the main
focus of current worldwide research.

As a glaciologist, I conduct -Aeldwork on glaciers on a

regular basis. I perform a variety of tests on glaciers. I
measure the width of a certain point of the glacier, or
punch holes in it and run tests on the ice cores
extracted - like the one I'm extracting here. When we
analyse these ice cores we can learn about glacial
cycles. I also install data-logging equipment and
remote cameras on glaciers that show ice movement, I
can analyse back in my office. This allows the constant
monitoring of how the glaciers are changing.

0 The work of a glaciologist
Repeat photography
Repeat photography is one of the most important
methods used to understand how glaciers are
changing. Glaciologists research and catalogue
historical photographs of glaciers (such as Photo
B). They then take new photographs in the same
position (such as Photo C). The two photographs
can then be compared and contrasted to
examine how the glaciers have changed.

0 Grinnell Glacier, Montana, USA 1910 0 Grinnell Glacier, Montana, USA 2013
 ·-
f the G
Scale is approximate
1 2 3 4
OE=======::::I:=========E======:::::f:=========E=========:!
Activities
1 a) What is a glaciologist?
b) How do glaciologists investigate glaciers?
c) What aspect of glaciers do scientists
research today?
2 Compare the repeat Photos Band C of the
Grinnell Glacier.
a) Describe how the glacier has changed.
b) Explain why repeat photography is a useful
way to investigate glaciers.
3 a) Why has the use of satellites revolutionised
our understanding of glaciers?
b) Using an atlas or Google Earth, draw a
sketch map to show the location of the
Gangotri Glacier.
c) Using the scale provided on the satellite
Satellite images
Glaciologists are now able to investigate
glacial change using remote sensing
satellites such as Landsat. These provide
near-real-time views of every large
glacier and ice sheet on Earth, like the
one shown in Image D.
The Gangotri Glacier,
India, in the Himalayas
• The different coloured contour
lines show the extent of the glacier
at different periods of time so
you can see how the glacier has
reduced in size.
• This glacier is currently 30.2 km long
and between 0.5 and 2.5 km wide.
• It is the largest in the region.
• These glaciers cover 17 per cent of
the Himalayas. They form the largest
body of ice outside the polar caps.
• About 15,000 Himalayan glaciers
feed major rivers such as the Indus,
Ganga and Brahmaputra. These, in
turn, are the lifeline of millions of
people in the South Asian countries
you studied in Unit 10.
Skm
image (D), calculate how far the glacier
receded for each of the year contour lines.
d) Describe how the glacier has retreated.
4 a) Why are Himalayan glaciers important for
the countries of Asia?
b) What problems do you think the glacial
melting in the Himalayas might cause for
people in South-East Asia?
5 From your investigation of glaciers, what do
you think glaciologists have concluded about
how glaciers are changing?
6 Compare what you have learnt about
glaciologists with the vision statement for
Progress in Geography on Flap A. Explain why
glaciologists are excellent geographers.
 13.10 How does ice change the world?
Review

In this unit, you

have learnt:
► how ice changes the world
► how erosion and
deposition create glacial
landforms
► how to identify glacial
landforms on OS maps
► how the distribution of ice
around the world changes
through time.
Let's see what you
have remembered and
understood.
0 Glacier

Key terms to remember

This unit of work about glaciation has
introduced you to new geographical
terminology. It is important that you
understanding the meaning of new terms.
You will be expected to use them in your
future geographical studies. You should be
familiar by now with all the glaciation words
shown in the table below, now that you
have almost completed this unit of work. • I
"HOW ON fARTH 00 WE 11JRN IT OFF?"
1 ablation 13 interglacial
2 abrasion 14 outwash plain
€) How on Earth do we turn it off?
3 arete 15 plucking
4 corne 16 repeat photography
5 crevasse 17 ribbon lake
6 drumlin 18 satellite images
7 erratic 19 snout
8 fjord 20 snowline
9 glacial till 21 striations
10 hanging valley 22 tarn
11 ice age 23 terminal moraine
12 ice cores 24 truncated spur

0 Features associated
with alpine glaciation
 13 How does ice change the world?

Activities
1 Copy out Row A from the table below. 5 Look carefully at the Helvellyn mapflap and
a) Underline the word which is the odd one identify the glacial landforms at the following
out. grid references:
b) Explain why you think it is the odd one a) 348122
out, and what the other two words have in b) 343158
common. c) 332140
c) Repeat this activity for Rows B to H. d) 390185
[!.c .,,.•, Key terms e) 375155
• outwash snout I tarn 6 Melting glaciers make world news on a
plain
regular basis. B shows a political cartoon.
-- corrie arete erratic What point is the cartoonist trying to make
abrasion plucking glacial till about how glaciers are changing?
I • ice age satellite im-
ages
interglacial 7 Using what you have learnt in this unit,
write 200 words explaining how glaciers are
crevasse drumlin terminal
moraine changing.
- -
striations abrasion erratic 8 The information board in Photo D is there
snout fjord corrie to help tourists to better understand the
ice cores ice age satellite
landscape, and get more out of their visit to
I images the area. Choose a feature of glacial erosion
in the Lake District and design an information
2 Make a list of all the locations studied in this board for visitors, to show how the feature was
unit. Make sure you have named and located formed.
each one on your world map of glaciers and
ice sheets.
3 As you have discovered, glaciers change
places through three processes: erosion,
transportation and deposition. These three
processes are occurring at the glacier shown
in Photo A.
a) Which process is likely to be occurring at
positions 1, 2 and 3 on the glacier?
b) Explain how each of these processes works.
4 Look carefully at Diagram C. Name the glacial
landforms 1 to 10.
G) Information board in front of summit of
GroBglockner Franz Josefs Hohe Carinthia,
Austria

Future learning Future learning at GCSE

In Unit 15 you will investigate why glaciers are You may further progress your understanding
melting and the consequences of this for the of glaciation in the UK.
planet.
 In this unit you will learn: Middle of what, east of where?
► where the Middle East region is located One of the reasons why this region is so important
► what countries make up the region
is that it is located where the continents of Asia,
Europe and Africa meet. The Middle East can also
► the physical landscape of the Middle East be called Southwest Asia. The term the 'Middle
► the human geography of the region East' was first used by European colonialists in
► examples of conflict and controversy in the nineteenth century. Traders used it as a way
the Middle East of distinguishing this area from India and the Far
East (Southeast Asia and China). After the Second
► how important the region is to the world. World War, 'Middle East' became the dominant
term for the whole region. The Middle East is
So far in Progress in Geography, you have therefore, an outsider's term describing neither
investigated three locational units: Russia, a geography nor culture. This explains why different
country; and Asia and Africa, two continents. countries can be included in this region. This is
Now you are going to study the Middle East, a an important economic region that is rich in oil.
region. A region is an area that has certain
However, it is also a region in turmoil, often in the
characteristics in common that make it unique. news because of war and conflict.
There is no single, agreed-upon, definition of
what makes up the Middle East. Defining the
Middle East through ethnicity, religion, or national
identity is difficult, as the region is so diverse. So
for the purposes of this unit, the Middle East will
include the countries shown on Map A.

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262 Gulf of Aden �

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(YEMEN)
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 { Main I Search I .CJlillltriu I Information I Membtc Page I Random}
26° N 43° E

(visited by Craig Ntwman.

�o.JMaag and &a
0 Exploring the Middle East
�
ll.
16.Jan-2003 - We were

Saudi Arabia : al-Qasfm

- on a 5 day trip lo the l:fa'il
area of the Klnodom.
• which ls a
29.8 km (18.5 mile ) ,,,
•• hours drh We have been on a -Ave-day trip across part of Saudi
We hadk
of al-Dulaymiyya, al­ travelled' Arabia, approximately six hours' drive north of Riyad. We
Qasim, Saudi Arabia along exi
through g travelled by Jeep towards the con-Auence point. There are
ApproL aldtudt: 813 m (2667 ft)
of Riyad.
(Ul map�: Coo.a.I• ;\lapQunt
Burayda, many farms and small villages and this makes it difficult
,1ntdnt.1J1 nrJd to.Dfnu)
Antlpodt: 26?$ 1370\\' · head ng wes to -And suitable camping. We eventually came across
id 8.1':.-•
Atcaracr: 3 m (9 ft)
some nice small granite hills just off the road, which
offered us some protection from the strong winds. It was
a cool night. We reached the location next morning. We
were not able to go straight from our camping site as
there were farms in between, and also there were several
Bedouin tents and their camels grazing on whatever
small growth was around.

Activities
1 What is a region?
4:) The war in Syria makes 2 Why is it difficult to define a region?
headline news in a US
newspaper, 7 April 2017
3 What does the term 'Middle East' mean?
4 Look carefully at Map A.
a) List the sixteen countries and one state of the Middle East.
b) Which are the largest and smallest countries?
c) Name the seas that border the region.
d) The region is located where three continents meet. Name
the continent<; and explain why you think thi<; mioht be
important in the development of the region.
5 a) In groups. discuss what you already know about this region.
Use Photos 8-E to get you started.
b) Share your knowledge with the rest of the class.
c) List the te·n main things your class knows about this region.
6 Look carefully at F, it shows a screenshot and photos from a
website which you have visited before in earlier units.
a) What is this website, and what do members collect?
b) What is the latitude and longitude of the place visited?
c) Which country are they in?
d) Why do users of the website include a photo of their GPS, and
what does this show?
e) Look carefully at the photo of the location shown in F. Use the
five Ws enquiry questions to describe what this place is like.
f) Mark this location on an outline map of the Middle East.
g) Visit the website and find five other confluence points in
different countries in the Middle East. Carry out activities
b-f for these five locations.

4) Burj Khalifa, Dubai, United

Arab Emirates
 14.2 How does physical geography
influence the region?

Learning objective
► To understand the influence of physical
geography on the Middle East.

Main physical zones

This large and diverse region can be simply
divided into two physical zones. In the north are
the Pantie and Taurus Mountains of Turkey, and
the Zargros and Elburz Mountains of Iran. Much of
the rest of the region is made up of lowland areas
of desert. The dominant feature of the region
is the Arabian Peninsula, mainly covered by the
Arabian Desert and the Rub' Al Khali or Empty
Quarter. The western and southern parts of the
peninsula are fringed by upland areas. There are
three major river basins in the north and west: the
Nile, Euphrates and Tigris.

0 The Middle East physical geography

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(5671 m)
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SAUDI
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YEMEN
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Q Plate boundaries and earthquakes in the Middle East
How does plate movement affect the Middle East?
Go back to Unit 11 page 203 and look at the photo
of the earthquake in Van, Turkey in 2011. Map E
plots all the earthquakes that have occurred in the
Middle East over 116 years. They are the result of
plate movement. The Arabian Plate was part of the
African Plate about 500 million years ago.
...
/0
......... I jlg ...tl
,,.
These two plates have slowly spread apart, leading
to the formation of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden,
and the Persian Gulf. The Red Sea is lined with
volcanoes. The Arabian Plate has been moving
northward, currently at 3 cm a year, and colliding
with the Eurasian Plate. This collision has created
fold mountains in the north of the Middle East.

Activities
1 a) Use Map A to name the main mountains 3 Look carefully at Map E. It has been created by
and rivers of the region the United States Geological Survey. Imagine
b) Describe the distribution of physical regions you work for the USGS, as a geologist. Write a
across the Middle East. report to describe and explain the earthquake
2 Look carefully at Photos B-D. They show the activity in the Middle East.
Iraqi city of Baghdad on the banks of the River • Begin by describing the distribution of
Tigris, the Elburz Mountains in Iran and the earthquakes.
Rub' al Khali in Saudi Arabia. • Describe the distribution of volcanoes
a) Match the photos to their locations. shown on E.
b) In each case justify your choice. • Now explain how the movement of
c) Explain which photos challenge your views plates has led to these earthquakes and
of what the Middle East is like. the creation of fold mountains in the
d) What is the other name given to Rub' al north of the region.
Khali? Use your understanding of plate tectonics from
e) Looking at the photo of this area, why do Unit 11 to write this report, and look back at the
you think it was given this name? diagrams of plate boundaries to help you.
 14.3 What problems does the climate of the
Middle East create for the region?

Learning objectives Climatic zones

► To know the climate zones There are two main climatic zones in the Middle East: desert to the south
of the Middle East. and a Mediterranean climate to the north (see Map A).
► To draw and interpret
climate graphs. The south
► To be aware of the issues The Arabian Peninsula is predominantly desert. Rain comes mainly
climate creates for the between May and September but there is only light, brief rainfall in most of
region. the region and in some areas it never rains at all. Table C shows how many
days a month on average rain occurs in Riyadh. In the deserts, which are
baked by the blazing sun, the daytime temperature often rises to more
than 52° C. Yet at night the deserts are cool or even cold.

The north
A Mediterranean climate has two distinct seasons: hot dry summers when
0 Climate types in the the weather is similar to a desert, and warm and wetter winters. This mainly
Middle East arid (dry) climate in the region creates major problems of water scarcity, see
(., Map B and Article D. You were introduced to this
Key
-. global issue in Unit 2. Countries in the region are
Climate types
D Humid subtropical □ semi-arid/steppe 2 trying to find new sources of water and make
D Mediterranean □ Desert ,______.,., better use of this precious resource.
40
Black

. ., �..... �
'

'J,
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11.
}

--- -30

A
N
0 � 600 km

;E3 E3 • Major desalination plant

1----1
500-1,000 mm

e
-- Freshwater pipeline 250-500 mm
t------1
------- Proposed pipeline ..____, Under250 mm
-- Freshwater aqueduct
Temperature and rainfall in Tel Aviv and Riyadh

Tel Aviv Temp 0

c 13 13 15 19 21 24 26 26 25 23 18 14
Rain mm 110 110 60 20 10 10 10 10 10 30 70 80
Rain days 15 12 10 4 2 0 0 0 1 5 8 11
Riyadh Temp 0
c 14 17 21 26 32 34 35 35 32 27 21 16
Rain mm 3 20 21 22 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rain days 1 1 3 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Middle East faces water shortages for the Farming in arid areas
traditionally uses
next 25 years, study says -Aood irrigation, which
!r.'h��:;:=--i wastes a lot of water.
'O ising population and dwindling water supplies will affect
�illions of people and increase conflict in the region -
,J•n�1;, 'D ilJ!IV
In Israel, farmers use
recycled water and
The World Resources Institute has published a report stating that water .i111DN il''ftl!lif have also developed
supplies across the Middle East are deteriorating, threatening econon1.ic llarer-lniptta,, lffll effli drip irrigation - small
growth and national security and forcing more people to n1.ove to lrJ1t111 llOblbild plastic pipes in -Aelds
0_.1S:oIf ol.!0JI h;.,
already overcrowded cities. New world rankings place fourteen of the J that put water right
��( E_..9ietQ
world's 33 most water-stressed countries in the Middle East and North ■ •M at the roots of crops.
.,..� This saves 40 per
Africa region, including Bahrain, l{t1wait, Qatar, the United Arab
cent of water used in
E1Tiirates, Palestine, Israel, Saudi Arabia, On1.an, Iran and Lebanon.
farming.
'The world's den1.and for water is likely to surge in the next
few decades. Rapidly growing populations will drive increased
consun1.ption by people, far1ns and companies. More people will We in Turkey have more
1nove to cities, ft1rther straining supplies,' say the authors. surface water than the rest
of the region. We believe we
Middle East water supplies depend heavily on underground
can sell our water and
aquifers, but these are drying out at alar111ing rates. In the Sana' a basin
transfer it to other
in Ye1nen, the groundwater table is falling nearly six metres per year countries in the region.
and governn1.ent has debated 111oving the capital city. In Egypt, where Water can be a basis for
de1nand for water is growing fast as population rises, the country has promoting a regional system
less water per person each year. between countries.
Water shortages are already comn1.on across the region with
supplies restricted to only a few hours a day, but this year many sn1.aller
cities have run ot1t of water con1.pletely. One reason why water is so Seventy per cent of the
scarce is because far1mng wastes so 111t1ch. Analysts urge the t1se of world's desalination plants
'smart' irrigation technologies to redt1ce water loss on farn1.s. are in the Middle East.
Desalination is the
process of removing salt
C:) An article edited from The Guardian, 27 August 2015 from sea water and
transforming it into safely
Activities consumable water.

1 Look carefully at Map A. Write a paragraph to name and

describe the distribution of climate zones in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, 40 per
2 The climate data in Table C shows the two main climates cent of our water comes
- Mediterranean and desert. from underground
aquifers, where the rock
a) Draw climate graphs for each location.
is saturated with water
b) Calculate the annual rainfall for each graph. stored for thousands of
c) Describe the climate for each place. years. We need to be
3 Using your climate graphs and Map B, explain why more careful that we
rainfall patterns are so important in the region. don't use it too quickly,
as it is non-renewable.
4 Read Article D and explain why there is a water crisis in
the Middle East.
5 Look carefully at E-1, which show four ways of improving Environmentalists are
water supply. concerned that
desalination brines (the
a) How is Israel tackling its water supply problems? salt left from the process
b) Use Map B to explain why Turkey has the potential to of desalination) are just
transfer water. dumped back into the sea,
c) What and where are desalination plants in the region? doubling the salinity of the
d) What environmental problems are caused by Persian Gulf, and damaging
the environment.
desalination in the region?
e) What is an aquifer and where are they located in the
Middle East?
 14.4 Why is the population of the Middle
East so diverse?

Learning objectives The Middle East has a population of about 410 million people. Its
population, as shown in Map A, is very uneven and is clearly linked
► To identify parts of the Middle to physical geography. The vast deserts of the region are sparsely
East that are densely and sparsely
populated. The north of the region and the fringes of the Middle
populated.
East, particularly .along the coasts, are more densely populated and
► To describe the distribution of Egypt contains the most densely populated areas.
population across the Middle East.
► To identify reasons for the Why is the population so diverse?
distribution of population of the
region. The location of the Middle East, where three continents meet, has
been very significant in its long history. It is at the junction of trade
routes that have existed for over 5,000 years connecting Europe, Asia
and Africa, and all the cultures of the Mediterranean. The movement
of people and ideas for so long has led to the formation of a very
diverse and complicated region, with many languages, cultures and
religions. While the majority of the inhabitants of the region speak
Arabic, there are several countries in the Middle East that are not
majority Arabic speaking, including Turkey, Iran, and Israel.
The region is the birthplace of the three main religions of Judaism,
Christianity and Islam. Islam is the most practised religion across the
region, although this can vary by country. For example, 40 per cent of
the population of Lebanon are Christians, and in Israel 70 per cent are
O Population density across the Middle East region
\
0 Population figures for
�••}oO
' Middle East countries
in millions, 2017
-. -
I?

, �-
I)
CJ

�t � SYRIA Middle East Population in

CYPRUS�
LEBANON
country millions 2017

•
ISRAEL IRAQ• f • Bahrain 1.5
93.4
-
Egy pt
l • Iran 79.1
• I
I""
39.2
• KUWAIT
Iraq

- BAH�
Israel 8.3
• EGYPT
9.7
' ' • • { QATAR
Jordan

1
\ ' '"-.. Kuwait 4.1
• UAE
Lebanon 6.2
4.7
SAUDI
ARABIA
/OMAN -
Oman
'J 2.7
-
Qatar
Saudi Arabia 32.6
Key
Persons per km2
YEMEN Syria 18.3
->100
Turkey 80.9
•so-100
010-50 ...N United Arab 9.4
)Dl-10 Emirates
l,.□ <1 0 400 km

Yemen 28.3
�
 .._ -.....
-
Ethnic Groups of the Middle East (tradhlonll Western view) P•oplee ol Turkey P•oplH Ol ltln
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-----
The ethnic populations of the Middle East
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Jewish. There are many different ethnic groups in Persian Iran. The ethnic Kurds have no country of
the region, but as Map C shows, Arabs are the their own but big communities in Iran, Iraq, Syria
majority group in almost every Middle East country. and Turkey.
T he exceptions are Israel, Turkey and mostly-

Activities
1 Look carefully at Map A. according to their population, with the
a) Describe the distribution of population largest first.
across the region. b) Draw a bar graph to show the population
b) Look closely at the population density for totals for each country in the region.
Egypt. It is very different to that for any c) Write a paragraph to summarise what your
other country in the Middle East. Compare graph shows in terms of the variety of
this map with an atlas map of Egypt. Why population size for each country.
are the densely populated areas of the 3 Look carefully at Map C.
country shaped like this? a) Write a list of the main ethnic groups that
c) Compare the population density of the live in the Middle East.
Middle East with Map A in Lesson 14.2, b) Describe the distribution of these groups
page 264, and Map A in Lesson 14.3, page across the region.
266. Explain how physical geography has c) Why is the population of the Middle East so
influenced the distribution of population in diverse?
the region.
4 What is the main religion in the Middle East?
2 Table B shows the total population for each
5 In what ways is the population of Israel
country in the region in 2017.
different to other countries in the Middle East?
a) Create a rank order list of countries
 14.5 Why is the Middle East a major
economic region of the world?

Learning objective The oil was discovered in 1908 in what was Persia
► To understand the importance of oil to the (now Iran), with later discoveries all over the
economies of the Middle East and the world. region, as shown in A. These discoveries were
made just as the car was becoming an important
means of travel and oil was needed as a source of
Crude oil reserves in the region fuel. The world's richest countries, such as the UK
and USA, have become very interested in what
In Lesson 14.2 you investigated the impact of was, until the oil discoveries, a very poor but
moving plates on the physical geography of the historically important part of the world. Oil has
Middle East. They have also had an impact on the brought great wealth to the region.
economic geography of the region. The Middle
East is the source of the world's largest and most UAE
important reserves of crude oil. Kuwait 5.9%
6.1 %
The Arabian plate currently holds 48 per cent of
the world's oil reserves and 43 per cent of the
world's natural gas. This wealth of oil and gas is
the result of the slow continual movement of the
Arabian plate. The Arabian plate experienced
around 570 million years of nearly uninterrupted
sedimentation, an ideal setting for the creation of
hydrocarbons, the compounds that make up
crude oil.

0 Oil and gas in the Middle East Share of world oil reserves

Oman
Saudi Arabia 288
Egy pt
Iran
·�
Iraq
Kuwait

�
UAE
Qatar 890
IRAN Syria
Turkey ■ Gas reserves - ■ Oil reserves -
Yemen Trillion ft 3 Billion barrels
Share of world oil and gas reserves

90%
86%
80%
EGYPT
SAUDI 60%
50-60%
ARABIA
50%
Key
--Oil
----- Under construction , i.
Gas
0 600 km
----- Under construction � � E::�=::JE=::=3
I
�- - - - 2 _ _ _ ���-�-
- _ Oman Saudi Iran Kuwait Qatar UAE
Arabia* *Export revenue
Percentage of govt. revenue from
hydrocarbon sector
 EUROPE FSU
6.0 10.8
USA&.. - 22.4 3.3
CANAD;ix; .:::.::;t"_,.;,
21.3 3.5
r

,,�
��r

3.0 10.8
13.9 28.4
4.2
MIDDLE
EAST CHINA
8.4
3.6
ASIA
AFRICA PACIFIC
10.2 21.3

8.8 4.1

Key LATIN \
D Production AMERICA
D Consumption
_.. Trade flows ,,
All values in million
barrels a day ... source: BP Statistical Review

The importance of oil C) The global balance of trade in oil

The discovery of oil has revolutionised the
economy of the region. The information in A and
Map B show how important the region is today
for world economies, dependent on oil. China, for
example, which you investigated in Lessons 10.5
and 10.9, has to import 60 per cent of its crude oil
needs to sustain its rapid economic growth.
Over 50 per cent of this crude oil comes from
the Middle East. Although oil has stimulated great
wealth for some countries in the region, their
economies are still reliant on one product - oil.
They therefore lack the maturity and range of
economic sectors found in countries such as the
USA and the UK.

Activities
1 Look back at Lesson 2.7, pages 34-35,
and explain why oil is so important to the
economies of the world.
2 What has caused the formation of oil and
natural gas in the Middle East?
3 What are hydrocarbons?
4 When was oil first discovered in the region?
5 Look carefully at A.
a) How important are the oil and gas reserves
of the Middle East?
b) Make a rank order list of the countries in
the region which have oil and gas reserves.
c) Which countries in the Middle East do not
have oil or gas reserves?
d) Describe the network pattern of oil and gas
pipelines across the region.
e) What evidence can you find to show how
far oil and gas dominates the economies of
countries in the region?
6 Look carefully at Map B.
a) What three sets of data does this map show?
b) Which areas of the world consume the
most oil?
c) Which parts of the world produce the most
oil?
d) Which parts of the world are the most
reliant on importing oil?
e) Compare A with Map B. Which areas of the
world do you think will import oil from the
Middle East?
7 What potential problems do you think are
created by having an economy that relies on
money from exporting oil?
8 Consider what you have learnt this lesson
about the balance of trade in oil and then
write a paragraph to answer the lesson
enquiry question: 'Why is the Middle East a
major economic region of the world?'
 14.6 How has the United Arab Emirates
developed?

Learning objectives
► To know the levels of development across the region.
► To identify reasons for the development of the UAE.
Governments across the Middle East face a
diverse set of challenges that can hold back
economic development, including:
• an arid environment that can lead to water
scarcity
• an overreliance on oil exports creating a
need to find ways to diversify their economy,
to protect them from falling oil prices, or oil
running out
• high unemployment, particularly among a
growing population of young people
• unrest and conflict among the many ethnic
groups in the region.
Overcoming such issues in order to develop
requires strong leadership from governments. In Q The Human Development Index for UAE,
the next two lessons you will compare the progress
of two contrasting countries in the region, the
United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen.
0.85
How has the United Arab
Emirates developed?
• UAE was formed in 1971. It is a group, or
federation, of seven emirates - land ruled by a
monarch called an emir.
• Abu Dhabi, the largest and most important
emirate, covers 85 per cent of the country.
• Dubai is the most populated: 35 per cent of
UAE's population.
• Oil reserves are the seventh largest in the world.
• Natural gas reserves are the seventeenth largest
in the world.
• Second largest economy in the Middle East.
• Since its formation the economy has grown 231
times.
1970-2010

0.80
Europe with Russia and Turkey
�-- ...-- ...-­
0 The oil and gas industry in the UAE 0.75
II
/
/
In 2011, UAE ranked 30th
,,,,.,
,,
0 0.70 among 187 countries in the
a � / Human Development Index

•
Q 0 0.65 I
' United Arab Emirates

'
,,,,.•
I
Umm al-Quwain AN
C o 0.60
Khaima

S� a �..-!,.....l Fakkan

ATAR
Data sources: United Nation's Human Development Index database and Wolfram Alpha

_____......,...., Aal-Ain

OMAN

•
UAE

SAUDI ARABIA 0 100 km

E=:==3::===:J
Key
•oil field - Oil pipeline 8 Gas processing plant
□ Gas field - Gas pipeline * Zakum gas field (UAE's largest,
--Terminal • Oil refinery world's 4th largest)
How is the economy e Population pyramid for UAE 2017 (total
population of 9,397,598)
diversifying?
100+ Male 0.0% 0.0% Female
A strong and consistent government, since
95-99 0.0% 0.0%
1971, has been very successful at diversifying 90-94 0.0% 0.0%
the economy to reduce the dependence on oil 85-89 0.0% 0.0%
exports. Dubai has been particularly successful 80-84 0.0% 0.0%
at this, becoming a global city. Oil revenue has 75-79 0.1% 0.0%
been invested in developing modern ports, 70-74 I •• I ••
airports and airlines, turning Dubai into a world 65-69 I •• • I • •
60-64 1.3% I ••
communication hub. Dubai promotes itself as 'a 55-59 2.8% I ••
gateway to global trade, as a dynamic and diverse 50-54 � •• ••
economy at the crossroads of the world'. The •• ••
.•
45-49
city's assets, including its architecture, modern 40-44 9.7% �

••
transport system, high-class hotels, shopping 35-39 10.13%
malls, theme parks, year-round sunshine, beaches 30-34 10.47% 3.6%

.
25-29 9.33% 3.3%
and deserts are all the result of economic
20-24 •• • � •
investment using oil revenue. As a consequence, •• •
15-19 I• • •
the city has developed into the fifth largest world •• I• •
.•
10-14
tourist destination. 5-9 2.5% �

0-4 2.6% ••

How is the population of UAE 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

changing?
Only 1.4 million people in UAE are emirati as the
country has one of the largest proportions of
migrant, mainly male, workers in the world. This
has had a distorting effect on the population
structure of the country (see Graph C). Immigrants
make up 90 per cent of the workforce. The
biggest numbers of workers come from the
nearby countries of India, Bangladesh, Pakistan
and the Philippines, but also a small minority from
Europe including, in 2012, 240,000 from Britain.

Activities
1 Look back to Lesson 7.2, page 124, Map C.
a) Find the Middle East on the world map.
b) Compare it with Map A in Lesson 14.1,
page 262.
c) Draw a table to show which income group
each Middle Eastern country is in.
2 Write a list of the challenges countries in the
Middle East need to overcome in order to
develop.
3 a) What is the UAE?
b) How is the country governed?
c) What makes Abu Dhabi and Dubai the
most important emirates?
4 Look at Map A.
a) Describe the distribution of oil in the
country.
b) Why is oil important to its economy?
c} Why is it important that the country doesn't
become reliant on oil revenue?
d} What is the process called where a country
becomes less reliant on an export product
by varying its economy?
5 Study Graph B. How successful has UAE been
in developing since 1970?
6 Look carefully at Graph C.
a) Why is the shape of the pyramid so
distorted on the male side?
b} Why do you think UAE uses so many
migrant workers?
 14.7 Why is Yemen the poorest country
in the Middle East?

Learning objectives
► To understand factors that
hinder development.
► To compare the levels
of development for two
countries.
Yemen is the poorest country in the Middle East. It is also a country of great
beauty and heritage, including four UNESCO World Heritage sites. Yemen's
population is 25.4 million and approximately 54 per cent of those people
live in poverty, surviving on fewer than $2 per day. Approximately 45 per
cent of the population is malnourished. In 2017, the latest civil war in Yemen
has created a humanitarian crisis (see B and C). This war is the result of
extreme poverty and the political instability and corruption that has
hindered any possibility of economic development. In this lesson you
investigate why the country is so poor and make comparisons with the UAE.

Yemen economic report

Conflict
Until 1990, Yemen was divided into two different
countries - the north and south. Regular outbreaks of
civil war between these two areas have drained the
wealth created by oil reserves. Instead, wealth has
been used on military and arms spending.
Imports/ exports
Virtually no products are exported. Agriculture is poorly
developed and most food is imported. The economy
is reliant on oil exports, foreign aid and money sent
from Yemenis living abroad. In the 1970s and 1980s,
every family had at least one male relative working in
Saudi Arabia who sent home large sums of money.
But when Yemen declared itself neutral during the Gulf
War, many Yemeni workers in Saudi Arabia were forced
to leave. This meant much less money received by
Yemen from this source.
Governments and wealth from oil
Many corrupt governments have misused the nation's
wealth. In 2005, oil revenues accounted for 67 per
cent of government income, and 86 per cent of
export revenues. These oil reserves are running out,
but gas fields have been discovered. Exploration and
investment by oil companies have not developed
due to the insecurity of the country. Oil pipelines in
Yemen's eastern desert were destroyed by opponents
of the former president to prevent the government
getting export revenues.
Infrastructure
There are no railways, leaving many areas inaccessible
and many people unable to access medical, and
other basic services.
Population
The population is due to double to more than 40
million in the next 20 years, and to reach 60 million in
30 years. Two-thirds of the population are under 24, but
unemployment among young people is estimated at
60 per cent and this will only worsen as the population
grows.
Gender equality
The World Economic Forum named Yemen the
worst country for gender equality. Yemeni girls are
often taken out of school to marry young or care
for relatives. As a result, school attendance and
graduation rates for women are far lower than for
men. Approximately 49 per cent of Yemeni women
are illiterate.
Water
Yemen is ranked as the seventh most water-stressed
country on the planet. This is due to mismanagement
of water supplies. In Yemen's capital city, Sana'a, tap
water is only available once every four days for its 2
million people.
Tourism
Yemen has potential in tourism. Its physical
geography is spectacular. Yemen's cultural heritage,
including its distinctive architectural styles, has
in the past attracted travellers worldwide. Future
development of this is dependent upon solving
Yemen's security crises, developing tourism's
infrastructure, and providing a stable and secure
environment.
 100+ Male 0.0% 0.0% Female
95-99 0.0% 0.0%
90-94 0.0% 0.0%
85-89 0.0% 0.0%
80-84 0.1% 0.1%
75-79 0.2% 0.2%
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39 Activities
30-34
25-29 1 Read the Yemen economic report.
20-24 a) Turn back to Lesson 7.6, page 132, and reread
15-19 the causes of poverty.
10-14
b) Draw a spider diagram as in Lesson 7.6, page
5-9
0-4 7.3% 7.0% 132, and use the report to summarise the
reasons for lack of development in Yemen.
10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
2 Read B and C about the impact of the latest war
0 Population pyramid for Yemen 2017 (total in Yemen. C was produced on 21 January 2015.
population of 28,119,545) a) Identify five key points from the data that
best identify the issues.
Yemen at 'point of no return' as b) Write a paragraph to describe what life
conflict leaves almost 7 million must be like in Yemen.
c) Why has this organisation published the
close to famine poster?

A id agencies have warned that Yemen is 'at the
point of no rett1rn' after new figures released by
the UN indicated 17 million people are facing severe
food insecurity and will fall prey to famine without
urgent humanitarian assistance, due to the latest war
in the country.
After the outbreak of war,AwadAha1nad Qasemal­
Wesabi fled street fighting in Taiz with his wife and
four-year-old son, Jamal, relocating to Ibb, a city 30
miles to the north. 'We ran from our ho111e because
of the conflict,' he said. Yet food proved hard to co1ne
by in Ibb, where makeshift tents house thousands of
people displaced fron1. elsewhere in Yen1.en.
Al-Wesabi lost his wife to the cold weather and is
struggling to feed Jamal. 'We ran fron1. the war to be in
another city, yet n1.y son and I suffer fron1. 111alnutrition
here on a daily basis.'
'Our survival depends on what is left from other
people. Sometimes we eat but other ti1nes we don't
find anything to eat, we eat only one 1neal a day, n1.y
son goes into the restaurant next to our tent and takes
what is left from people's food; so111e rice and bread.
We eat corn with water and the water is not clean.'
0 Article from The Guardian, 8 March 2017
3 What do you think is the main reason Yemen is
poor?
4 Look carefully at the population pyramid for
Yemen, A.
a) Describe the shape and structure of the
pyramid.
b) Which stage of the Demographic Transition
Model (page 146) do you think Yemen is in?
Justify your choice.
c) Write a paragraph comparing A with the
population pyramid for the UAE on page 273.
5 Go back and look at the Sustainable
Development Goals in Lesson 7.9, page 138.
Identify the four goals that would best support
the Yemen.
6 Draw Development Compass Roses for UAE
and Yemen.
7 Use your DCRs to help you compare the
development of UAE and Yemen.
Write a paragraph to explain why there is such
a difference in development between the two
countries.
8 What do you think are the three most important
reasons for the differences in development,
between the UAE and Yemen?
 14.8 Why is there ongoing conflict in the
Middle East?
Learning objective
► To understand some of the reasons for conflict in
the Middle East.
The conflict in Yemen you investigated last lesson is
part of wider ongoing conflict in the region. There
are a variety of reasons for this:
Borders: Some tensions have been created by
regional borders, which were first created by Britain
and France when they were trying to colonise the
region. This has led to divisions between groups
such as the Kurds, who are divided across five
different states.
Israel was also created in 1948 as a Jewish homeland.
This led to the division of Palestine and has caused
ongoing tension and conflict in this region.
The Arab Spring: In 2011, protesters took to the
streets in Tunisia and Egypt to demonstrate against
their governments. Unemployment, rising prices and
corruption were common. These protests eventually
led to a change in government in both countries.
They also led to more protests in Yemen, Bahrain,
Libya and Syria. In these countries, however,
protesters were met with violence and the
demonstrations failed. The ongoing wars in Yemen
and Syria are a result of these protests.
0 Article from The Guardian, 27 January 2017
Saudi Arabia sees Yemen
intervention as defence of 'backyard'
Oil: At the heart of many of the problems in the
Middle East is oil. Although it provides wealth for
this region, it has also led foreign nations in
Europe and particularly the USA, to interfere in
Middle East politics. This has made the conflicts
worse and has resulted in an increase in terrorist
atrocities around the world.
Religion: There is a religious division in the region
between two main Islamic sects - Shia Muslims and
Sunni Muslims (see maps D and E). Two of the most
powerful countries in the region are Saudi Arabia
and Iran. Saudi Arabia is the leading Sunni power
and Iran is the leading Shia power. Neighbouring
countries look towards one of these two for
religious and political support. These religious
tensions have increased since the Iraq War in 2003.
The Iraq War: The balance of power in the region
between the two Islamic sects changed after the
Iraq War in 2003. The Iraqi Government, led by
Saddam Hussein, was formed mainly by Sunnis, who
were a minority within the country. When Saddam
Hussein was overthrown, Shia Muslims were put in
power, creating two strong Shiite states in Iran and
Iraq. This has worsened tensions between Iran and
Saudi Arabia as each tries to protect their own power
and influence in the region.
The ongoing war in Yemen is a result of many of
these tensions. The Yemeni Government is fighting
against a rebel Houthi group. Within the region, a
coalition of Middle Eastern countries led by Saudi
Arabia support the internationally recognised Yemeni
Government in the fighting, (see A and C).

C onservative kingdom blames Iran for backing

Houthi rebellion on its southern neighbour's
territory.
� Recent war:in
!I'���-=> the Middle East
\ Key
I (
Conflict �
Sat1di Arabia defends its 1T1ilitary intervention in Yemen as TURKEY � t
being based on a UN resolution authorising the restoration
co
i) •a
,I\.
'v
t,
""- r:% ) rvcasp,an
.
., . .,.. r, 1:> Attack of'US _ � Sea
�
of the internationally recognised government in the Ye1nen. • � , . r---.. �or ces,-lebanon,
The coalition has conducted airstrikes and has blockaded
• (l '-"" '- 1983 � r,
Uj invasion

-.r ..
o ' CYP� · . f of Iraq, 2003
A
\..

the only port for in1.porting goods into the country. It also LEBANON !I, SYRIA Iran/Ira� War,
insists that the intervention is necessary to defend its own ISRAEL_ -. "' l�AQ ,& 1980-1988
---.. �-.OROAN "- IRAN
411MWAI
security. The conservative kingdon1. sees its neighbour, the �.
Arab world's poorest country, as its backyard, and blan1.es its Six-day(lWar,1967
Yorn Kip-,;>u ..., Iraq invades..._ U T
strategic rival, Iran, for backing Houthi rebels. The Saudis say Kuwait • 1990 \.BAHRAIN
War, 1973
Gulf War, 1991 u
their priority is to have a stable neighbour to the south and
� SAUDI ARABIA - !. / -------�
�1/ �AJ.A:R
to protect their southern cities. EGYPT l.....,.... _/ i
\ ld:\E
0--

I_j· VA;) \ t
\... 0Ec=::::E=I:::::'.8�00 km
--- -
(j Countries for and against military
-
Saudi Arabia (Leading the coalition)
action in Yemen
C
Kuwait UAE Morocco Qatar Jordan Senegal

C �
Egypt Sudan
II
Belgium
11
France
-
Russia
Yemen
Turkey Iran

China

EGYPT BAHRAIN_
AT
�Q
SAUDI r; ·u
Key
ARABIA
-81%+
-81%+ -61-80%
061-80% 041-60%
041-60% 0 21-40%
021-40% 05-20% YEMEN
05-20% 0 600 km 00-5% 0 600 km
E-3 E-3 E-3 E-3

G) Estimated distribution of Sunni Muslims in the C) Estimated distribution of Shia Muslims in the
Middle East Middle East

Activities
1 Create a spider diagram to summarise the
reasons for conflict in the Middle East.
2 Look carefully at Map B. Create a timeline to
summarise the major conflicts that have
occurred in the region.
3 Look carefully at Maps D and E. Write a
paragraph to describe the distribution of Sunni
and Shia Muslims across the Middle East.
4 Why did the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in
the Iraq War lead to growing tensions
between Sunni and Shia Muslims?
5 Look carefully at A and C.
a} Why is Saudi Arabia leading a coalition of
countries to blockade and bomb Yemen?
b} Compare the countries in the region
offering military support in Yemen with
Maps D and E to explain why they are
doing this.
c} Why do you think Iran is against military
action?
d} Why are countries outside the region
supporting the conflict?
 14.9
world region? Part 1
In this unit, you have learnt:
► where the Middle East region is located
► what countries make up the region
► the physical landscape of the Middle East
► the human geography of the region
► examples of conflict and controversy in the
Middle East
► how important the region is to the world.
Let's see what you have remembered
and understood!
Why is the Middle East an important
In this unit, you have learnt about the diversity,
contrasts, wealth and issues of the Middle East as
well as why it is such an important region of the
world. In the next two lessons you will investigate
a major world issue, war in Syria. This will provide
opportunities for you to use and apply, not only
what you have learnt in this unit, but also much
of what you have learnt throughout Progress in
Geography. You will investigate the causes of the
war, and consider its consequences for places and
people across the Middle East and into Europe.

e A visual summary of the effect of the war in Syria from

0 How did the war in Syria start? Global Post, 2015

* *
SYRIA'S BY THE NUMBERS 4-VEAR CONFLICT

• .840,000
Background
Syria borders Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon. It has a
population of 23 million people. Up until 2011 it had a stable
economy, supported by oil and natural gas extraction. But there
were complaints from its citizens about a lack of political
Si1ice the confhct
�112011. 210,000
people people
freedom and widespread corruption and repression under its have been have been
leader, President Bashar al-Assad. The Assad family had held killed wounded

4/5titii
power since 1971 and Bashar had succeeded his father.

3 0
,11:ibiMJ paody

O¼
•ehou�tdds
0 stnfflllf,. to ed the

Syrians • baSIC food needs lo

live 11e11t.v the poverty line of Syrians Sl!SUillk.'e
The conflict
Inspired by the Arab Spring, (see page 276), pro-democracy Ai.-c�e hfe expectancy

75.9 to 55.7
demonstrations began in March 2011. The unrest spread and in .)yna dropped from
was met with force by the government. In turn, protesters
armed themselves and the violence increased. ��d
Since then civil war has raged. years years 2014

', • 3 million J(havebs lost their

due to the
International involvement Synans
. conrhct

-t
Regional and world powers have become involved and have
worsened the situation in Syria. Iran, Russia, Saudi Arabia 12 m1·11·10n have lost
their pnmary
and the USA have all provided military, financial and political
support for both the government and opposition, which has
!_..,; _..,
�- �
Syrians �urce of
r,come
continued and heightened the conflict. The war in Sy ria is
being used by international forces to fight out their own battles.

Religion
The government's Shia minority is fighting against the Sunni
There are
currently
39 •
registered
Syrian
6.11.8
m1 ■10n
Syrians are
internally
displaced
• • •
Refugees
million
..
majority, backed by Shia Iran and Sunni Saudi Arabia
respectively. These divisions have led both sides to commit ••
atrocities, with high numbers of deaths and people now SYria's refugee population is the second •••••
largest 1n the .arid after Palestine.
displaced from their homes. �
 14 Why is the Middle East an important world region?

Why did people start to leave

Syria? People see the news and it's all
about death and destruction, and
The war has led to the mass migration of people they think there's nothing left for
from Syria. This is a forced migration, where Syria to lose. What they don't
people have little or no choice, but to escape the realise is that millions of Syrians
war - 11.5 per cent of the population have been are staying, we are continuing to
go about our daily lives, despite
killed or injured in the war. Syrians began to flee
the hardships of the war.
their homes when life became unbearable, see
D and F. Syrian children have experienced and
witnessed relentless violence and brutality and
as a result have lost family, suffered injuries and
missed years of schooling. In order to escape,
hundreds of thousands of people began to flood This is my life and my country. How could I leave it? My wife
over the borders, initially into neighbouring is seven months pregnant and it is very dangerous,
countries, Turkey, Jordan and Lebanon. They especially now we are under siege. She is really scared and
became refugees - people who are forced she worries that every day is the last of our lives. Her only
to leave their country as a result of war. Most wish is to live to see our newborn baby. The people here are
Syrians would prefer to have stayed in Syria or civilians. They are not fighters - they just want freedom
from the regime. This is our land and it belongs to us.
somewhere close by, where family, culture and
Assad wants us to be kicked out of our house and is trying
language are familiar. Indeed, the first to flee
to displace us. People want to keep their homes.
settled in neighbouring countries close to the
border, expecting to return quickly to their former
lives. And in fact, the majority of Syrians are still
living in their war-torn country (see C and E).

We had a very beautiful life in

Syria before the war. We were forced to leave our
country, our jobs, our homes, our parents, our friends,
our everything, to start a new, safe life. I'm 35 nearly.
I just left for my life, for my children's lives.

My home was destroyed

by bombs. We went to live
with my parents. But
there was not even peace
there, only bombing,
kidnapring, killing. That's
why we had to leave. I
feared for the lives and
Due to the sensitive nature of this topic, future of my children. We
the people on this page wish to remain had to protect them.
anonymous.
 14.10 Why is the Middle East an important
world region? Part 2

Refugees were pushed out of Syria by war, and
pulled by the prospect of peace and safety. There
are now over 5 million Syrian refugees. For the
countries which host this huge number of refugees
(see Map G) there are ongoing problems as they
attempt to support these people. Shelter, food, work
and services must all be found to accommodate
them. It is also very difficult for refugees to adapt to
a different way of life, language and culture, in a new
country, particularly when they are traumatised by,
and fleeing from, war.
.IC:, /
These refugees thought they would live in refugee
camps in neighbouring countries for a short time,
and then hopefully return home. Years later, they
find themselves still there. Many Syrians have now
given up any hope of returning home. With
nothing left, and their places of exile under
increasing strain as more refugees pour out of
Syria, hundreds of thousands of people are ready
to travel much further to find security. They make
difficult and often dangerous journeys into Europe
in hope of a better life .

6) European and neighbouring countries . . ·.... . . . .. . . ... ' ....

.
accepting Syrian refugees, 2011-16 Key --
. -.. . . . -··
0 Top 15 European countries
I .L
.
OORWAY 1 � ! � for Syrian asylum �, � �,
.-,:� applications, Apr 2011 to ! , ; SYRIA� , , L :1-
I I
'�..r'
SWEDE
�--;� ,.,' 1,'1RIFU6EES;''ill/1 I -
102,87 ·_
�
Nov 2015
□ Syrian refugees registered '{" ,:ij �d½ ::--.-'•',_,� )I _,
(f in neighbouring countries, j
DENMARK
up to 19 Jan 2016

Number of refugees

10,000 100,000 500,000

0 A cartoon on the Syrian

refugee crisis

I felt lonely in Denmark. It was really

difficult for me to learn their language
and their customs. Their culture is
completely different to ours. I feel out
of place wearing a veil in a non-Muslim
country. When I came to Europe, I
never thought that one day these
JbRDAN obstacles would make me think of
LIBYA 635,324 going back to Syria. The so-called
EGYPT 'promised land' is an illusion.

Life in the camps here in Turkey is difficult. It 0

0 is not a permanent solution. It's cold in the
tents in winter. We are not permitted to
work, there are no schools for our children.
We've seen how welcoming people are to us in
Germany and Sweden on the TV news. We
know the journey there will be tough, but
we've got to try, it must be better than this.
We need jobs. We need a future.

Due to the sensitive nature of this topic, the people on these

pages wish to remain anonymous.
 14 Why is the Middle East an important world region?
When I argued that refugees
were welcome in Germany, I didn't
mean an unlimited number of them, and I'm
worried about potential terrorists coming as
well. Germans must be safe.
I thank the Turkish nation. They accepted
us as a guest. We have been here for -five
years. They gave us jobs, they gave us
food. But now we want to return home.
I miss my country, my family, my village,
I miss everything there.
Activities
1 Read the text in A.
a) What was Syria like before war broke out?
b) Think back to what you learnt last lesson
about the cause of conflict in the region.
Use this and A to write a paragraph
explaining why Syria is at war.
2 Look carefully at B.
a) Discuss with a partner and write a list of
what you think are the five most significant
impacts of the war.
b) Share your ideas with the rest of the class.
3 Write defir1itior1s of forced r11i9ratior1 and
refugees.
4 Think back to Unit 8 when you learnt about
migration. People make difficult decisions to
move or stay in a place, considering push and
pull factors. Now read views C to F.
a) Identify the push and pull factors for those
who left.
b) Why have the majority of people stayed in
Syria?
c) Discuss with a partner what you might do
faced with the same choices.
5 Why did people initially move to neighbouring
countries?
6 Look carefully at Map G. Describe and explain
the distribution of Syrian refugees.
7 What point of view is portrayed in cartoon H?
8 Look carefully at viewpoint I and cartoon H.
a) Why do you think Syrians started to move
from camps in neighbouring countries into
Europe?
There are lots of Syrian
men on the streets in our
town with nothing to do.
They hassle me and
pester me when I'm
walking by. It makes me
afraid. Before the
refugees came, we could
go wherever we wanted at
night. But now we are
scared.
9 Initially European countries wanted to
help the refugees, but I, J, Kand M identify
growing problems.
a) Why do you think European countries
become concerned about taking more
refugees? Use the evidence to justify your
answers.
b) What are the main reasons for this change?
10 In Unit 8 you learnt that the attractions or
pulls of a new place to live are perceived, and
not real, until the migrant actually experiences
them. Read carefully the views of refugees in I,
J and L.
a) What have they learnt about the place they
moved to?
b) What problems have they experienced?
c) What do you think many refugees would
prefer to do?
11 This issue demonstrates why the Middle East
is important to the rest of the world.
a) Think about what you have learnt in this
unit, and identify five things that make this
region so important.
b) Why do countries like the UK and USA
keep getting involved in the politics and
wars in the region?
12 How has this unit progressed your
understanding of development, population,
migration, economy, plate tectonics, and
natural resources?
13 Look at the vision statement flap. What
progress have you made towards this vision in
this unit?
 You have stolen my dreams and my
In this unit, you will learn: childhood with your empty words ...For
more than 30 years, the science has
► that climate change is a controversial issue been clear ...cutting our emissions in
affecting the future of the planet half in 10 years only gives us a 50%
► about the evidence of climate change chance of staying below 1.5 degrees
[Celsius] ...this may be acceptable to
► the causes and consequences of climate you ... 50% risk is simply not
change acceptable to us - we who have to
► about the options for the planet's future. live with the consequences.

8 Greta Thunberg speech at UN Climate Change

Summit, 2019
Progress in Geography has helped you investigate
different aspects of geography and the world. In
your journey to becoming a geographer you have
(j Noam Chomsky, an American
Professor of Philosophy and
discovered that the big ideas introduced in each unit
Linguistics, 2016
of the book are interconnected. The physical,
human and environmental worlds introduced Not recognised until the 1970s, human use of
in Lesson 1.1 (pages 2-3) are not separate, fossil fuels and other actions .... is leading to
they are thickly woven into a complex fabric. a rapid increase in carbon dioxide in the
Pull on a thread, make a change, such as environment and is warming the environment
at a rate not seen in historical records. Extreme weather
deforestation in Nepal, and the pattern and
events - such as
shape change somewhere else.
more frequent and
C) William Gray, USA intense droughts,
Climate change Meteorologist floods, heatwaves ...
In this unit you will continue your focus on climate. You have are wreaking havoc on
already discovered that people all over the world have African economies...
Yet the continent
adapted to their climate; it supports life, and economic
accounts for less
development. In Unit 2 you learnt that the world's biomes
than 4% of global
evolved over long periods of time as the climate interacted emissions.
with other elements such as soil, vegetation and wildlife to
create unique environments. However, when extremes of
weather occur and climates start to change, these biomes
also begin to change. This can create major problems for I'm not disputing that
people. Geographers, meteorologists, glaciologists and there has been global
scientists have been collecting evidence that suggests the warming. But this is
world's climate is changing, possibly threatening the future of natural, due to ocean
the planet. This is called climate change. This is a complex circulation changes and
other factors. It is not
and controversial issue. Different people have different, and
at times opposing, views about what it is, and its possible
human induced. «) Vera Songwe,
Executive
causes and consequences.
G United States Secretary of the
UN Economic
() Sir David Attenborough President Trump
Commission for
The stakes are very high. We know these changes Africa
1
are happening, the evidence is incontrovertible. If We can t destroy the
temperatures continue to rise, it could have a competitiveness of our
catastrophic effect on the human race. It is not factories in order to
for scientists to dictate to the world, it is for prepare for non-existent
scientists to declare what they see and then global warming. China is
allow people to make up their minds. thrilled with us!
 The Earth is an evolving dynamic system. Current
changes in climate, sea level and ice are within
variability. Climate has always been driven by the Sun,
the Earth's orbit and plate tectonics and the oceans,
atmosphere and life respond. Humans have made their
mark on the planet, thrived in warm times and
struggled in cool times. The hypothesis that humans
can actually change climate is unsupported by evidence
from geology, archaeology, history and astronomy.
0 Kurt Cuffey, Professor of
G) Ian Plimer, Professor of Earth Science, Australia
When we look at the complex environmental
systems of our planet, from climate to the polar .---­
ice sheets, there will always be lingering
uncertainties, and some surprises probably
await us. It is time for remaining sceptics to look
at the startling map of ice shrinkage around the
North Pole, and begin to plan for the future.
Geography, University of California

4D Environmentalists demonstrating, London, March 2019 We're facing the biggest

environmental challenge our
generation has ever seen. No matter
what we're passionate about,
something we care about will be
affected by climate change. Over the
past 150 years, we've changed the
balance of our planet by living
beyond our means. We've burnt huge
amounts of fossil fuels (such as
coal, oil, gas), bred huge amounts of
�
methane-producing livestock and

�Y�TEM cut down vast swathes of forests,

which would naturally absorb carbon
ll-v1NG1 f
'II
dioxide from the air.

llMAr
G WWF - environmental
group

The argument about whether there is

We are the nrst generation to be able
to end poverty, and the last
generation that can take steps to
avoid the worst impacts of climate
change. Future generations will judge
us harshly if we fail to uphold our
moral and historical responsibilities.
In my country [Uganda], most people
global warming is over. It is now clear that,
depend on their farms and crops for
for 30 years, we have been in a strong
survival. .. There are areas that experience
global warming trend at a rate of about
extreme drought with occasional -Aoods .. ..
0.2 Celsius per decade for the past 30
This is affecting the crop production ...
years, The Earth is now at its warmest
people are left with no hope for the
level in the period of instrumental data,
future ...a lack of rain means starvation
that is, since the late 1800s.
and death for the less privileged.

Ban Ki-Moon,
Vanessa Nakate, fI> Jim Hansen,
climate activist, Director of
former Secretary­
2019 NASA Institute
General of the
of Space
United Nations

Activities
1 What is climate change?
2 What do you already know about climate
change or global warming?
3 Why is this a controversial issue?
4 Read carefully the views expressed in A-L.
Work with a partner and group these views
into two categories, those that see climate
change as an issue caused by humans, and
those that don't.
5 Write two paragraphs, one summarising the
views of those who see climate change as
an issue, and a second for those who don't.
6 Which of views A-L do you think makes the
strongest case? Explain your choice.
 15.2 What is the evidence for
climate change?

Learning objectives
► To identify evidence of climate change.
► To apply understanding of ideas in earlier units.

In Lesson 15.1, David Attenborough suggests that

scientists present the evidence of climate change
to allow people to make up their own minds
about what action to take in response. To do this
effectively you need to think like a geographer, -0. 5 -------.---�------.-----.------,.--------.----
applying what you have learnt about the world
across the units in this book.
• Consider the spheres of the Earth introduced in
Lesson 2.1 (pages 22-23) and how they interact and
are interdependent, creating the world's biomes.
• Remember how the weather and climate works.
• Reflect on how people use the Earth's natural
resources as the basis for economic growth, trade
and development, driven by energy in all its forms.
• Think about how people strive to improve, to have
happy, healthy lives, and the inequalities many people
need to overcome to achieve a good quality of life.
• Recognise that the world's population has
grown rapidly, and many places in the world are
overcrowded.
• Apply your understanding of how glaciers are
changing.
Most importantly you need to investigate the evidence of
climate change gathered by scientists and presented in
this lesson.
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
0 Graph to show changes in annual
global temperatures, 1880-2013
A warming world
Meteorologists and other scientists
monitor the world's climate and plot
data on graphs such as Graph A. This
data shows that the average
temperature of the planet is rising, on
average 0.8 ° C in the past 100 years.
Most of the warming occurred in the
past 35 years, with 16 of the 17 warmest
years on record occurring since 2001.
The 20 warmest years on record have
all come since 1995. The five warmest
years in the global record have all come
in the 2010s. The warmest year on
record was 2016. The data shown in
Diagram B shows further evidence of
climate change for ten key indicators.

Activities
1 Look carefully at Graph A.
a) How do you think meteorologists have
collected this data?
b) Describe how the global temperature has
changed.
c) Write a paragraph to explain why you think
this is the most important evidence of
climate change.
d) How does this evidence suggest the climate
is now warming more quickly?
2 Look carefully at Diagram B.
a) List the different indicators of climate
change in two groups: those that show an
increase and those that show a decrease.
b) Think back to Unit 13. Write a paragraph to
explain how glaciologists have collected data
that shows that glaciers and ice sheets are
decreasing in size.
c) How does this decrease indicate climate
change?
 C) Ten indicators of a warming world
The decreasing size of the
world's glaciers, ice sheets, snow
cover and permafrost are an t
important indication that the
Air temperature near surface (Troposphere)

world is getting warmer.

The world's oceans are
t
Glaciers
Snow cover
heating up as they absorb
Humidity most of the extra heat
,, ,,,,,, being added to the climate
system. More than 90 per
\ \ \ I \ \ \ \

', , ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
\ \ \ \ \ \ I \

t
cent of the warming that
\ \ I \ \ \ \ \

,,,,,,,,
\ \ \ \ \ I \ \
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Temperature over oceans
. .

has happened on Earth

\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \

t
Sea surface temperature during the past 50 years
Sea ice
t has gone into the oceans.
i t Sea level
Water expands as it
Ocean heat content
warms, leading to a rise in
the sea level. Melting of
ice sheets and glaciers
raturmer land

Gs the temperature of the land and sea increase, also increases sea levels.
greater evaporation rates occur. This leads to an Research suggests the
increase in the humidity of the atmosphere. This will global sea level has risen
ultimately lead to an increase in global rainfall. This between 10 cm and 20
has occurred in the northern hemisphere since the cm in the past 100 years.
beginning of the twentieth century. In the UK,
summer rainfall is decreasing on average, while
winter rainfall is increasing, leading to repeating
patterns of summer drought and winter flooding. The decrease in the
world's ice sheets
Arctic sea ice has been
declining since the late 1970s,
reducing by about 4 per cent,
or 0.6 million square kilometres
(see Photo C). The Greenland
and Antarctic ice sheets, which
between them store the
majority of the world's fresh
water, are both shrinking at an
0 The extent of Arctic sea ice, 1984 and 2012 accelerating rate.

d)Explain why sea levels are rising, and how this scientists better understand changes that are
is an indicator of climate change. occurring on the planet?
e) Why is 90 per cent of global warming b) Write a paragraph describing how the Arctic
absorbed by the oceans? Sea is changing.
f) Think back to what you learnt in Unit 4. c) Look back at Lessons 5.8 and 5.9 on Russia
Explain why an increase in global (pages 96-99). How is climate change
temperatures is leading to an increase in leading to economic advantages for Russia?
rainfall around the world. 4 Having investigated the scientific evidence this
3 Look carefully at the satellite images in C. lesson, do you think climate change is
a) How has the use of satellites helped happening? Justify your answer.
 15.3 What are the causes of climate
change?
() Changing global levels of carbon dioxide
Learning objectives 500
480
► To know the natural and human causes of climate change. 460
- 440
► To understand how changes to greenhouse gases can lead �
�c 420
400
o - Current
cv = 380
to climate change. "C
·- ·-
E 360
level
� ._ 340 For centuries, atmospheric carbon dioxide
� � 320 had never been above this line - 1950
c: .l!l 300
o level
In Lesson 15.1 (pages 282-283) you discovered that it is -e �
._ 280

generally accepted that global climates are changing. a- 260

240
220
There is less certainty, however, about the causes of this 200
180
change. Climate change is not new; in Lesson 13.2 160 ------,,-........--.-----,--....-------,,-........-------.---

(page 244), Graph A shows that the world has been

through a series of ice ages separated by periods of
warming, called interglacials. Scientists, including
glaciologists, have proved that there are natural causes
responsible for climate change. However, it is doubtful
that these natural causes can be responsible for the
more rapid increases in temperature, also known as
global warming, occurring since the 1970s. Today, 97
per cent of scientists believe that human activity is to
blame for this rise. As you discovered in Lesson 15.1
(page 282-283), this human cause is more
controversial. To understand this human impact you
need to understand a natural feature of the atmosphere
called the greenhouse effect.
�enhouse gases - natural causes:
Greenhouse gas is any gas in the atmosphere that
takes in or absorbs the heat produced by the Sun.
The main ones are carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapour and nitrous oxide. They occur
naturally in the Earth's atmosphere. Water vapour
is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the
Earth's atmosphere. It occurs in the atmosphere
as part of the water cycle. Erupting volcanoes
emit carbon dioxide stored in the crust and
mantle. Soil and natural vegetation also emit
carbon dioxide slowly into the atmosphere.
Methane is released in low oxygen environments
such as swamps and bogs and through the roots

Greenhouse gases
0 The greenhouse effect of some plants. These processes all account for
the changes in the Earth's climate through time.
make up only about 1
per cent of the
atmosphere. They act
like a blanket around the
Earth, or like the glass
roof of a greenhouse -
they trap heat and keep
the planet warm. They
let the Sun's light shine
onto the Earth's surface, Atmospheric
but they trap the heat growth
that reflects back up into rE: .
the atmosphere. This i. .
greenhouse effect keeps I•
�........:.:;

the Earth warm enough

to sustain life. Scientists
say that without the
greenhouse effect, the 0
00
average temperature of 0

the Earth would drop

from 15 ° C to as low as
-l8 ° C.
 r
Canada
..,...- ��.��r· Russia
.. 726.6 2 326.1
EU
4 918.1
South Japan
USA China Korea 1 298.9 Key
6 866.9 10 385.5 678.3
Saudi'¼_ . Current emissions
Arabia ./\......----; (millions of metric tons)
Mexico India
688.3 542.1
2 326.2

.. . ...
'

'·

•. Brazil
1 162.6
.,

South
... Australia
587.5
Africa
559.7
Argentina
,,
-
359.0

e The top contributors to global greenhouse emissions around

the globe, 2010, from the World Resource Institute

Greenhouse gases - human Activities

causes: Gases such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are
human-made. Human activity is
increasing the natural levels of
these gases - it is making the
greenhouse 'blanket' thicker. As
the world's population has
grown and countries have
developed, they need energy to
fuel industry, transport, and
cities. Power stations, factories,
homes and cars burn fossil fuels
or stored carbon, coal, oil, and
natural gas, mined from rock
layers. The world's forests
naturally absorb greenhouse
gases, but people are cutting
down forests as they develop,
often burning the forest, which
adds carbon dioxide. A growing
world population needs food, in
particular livestock and rice
paddy fields: these release
methane and nitrous oxide into
the atmosphere. These human
changes to the planet are
happening rapidly. This is
upsetting the natural carbon
cycle of the planet.
1 Look back at Lesson 13.2, Graph A (page 244).
a) Thinking about your studies in this unit, write a paragraph
explaining how glaciologists have found out about changes
in climate, ice ages and interglacials 1n the Earth's history.
b) What does this evidence prove about changes in climate?
2 Look carefully at Diagram A.
a) What are the greenhouse gases?
b) Explain how they help keep the planet warm.
c) Why are they called greenhouse gases?
d) Why does the natural occurrence of these gases strengthen
the case of people who think climate change is occurring
naturally, and is not caused in the main by humans?
3 Look carefully at Graph B.
a) Describe the changes in carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere.
b) What is the significance of the 1950 levels?
c) What has happened to the levels of carbon dioxide since
1950?
4 Look again at Diagram A.
a) Identify three ways that humans are adding greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere.
b) In each case, explain how each of these is affecting the
amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
5 Look carefully at Map C.
a) Create a rank order list showing which countries and regions
of the world are emitting the most greenhouse gases.
b) Which countries are emitting the most gases?
 15.4 What are the consequences of climate
change for our planet? Part 1

Learning objective As you discovered in Lesson 15.2 (pages 284-285), the Earth's
systems are beginning to change as a result of climate change.
► To consider the future consequences These changes are having, and will continue to have,
of climate change on the physical consequences for people all over the world. You have already
geography and human geography of
investigated some of these consequences in the units of
the planet.
Progress in Geography. In the next two lessons you will
consider these consequences, as a geographer. Maps A and B
show predictions for future global temperature and
precipitation patterns.
0 Predictions for global temperature patterns
PREDICTED CHANGE
IN TEMPERATURE
The difference between actual annual
average surface air temperature,
1960-90, and predicted annual average
surface air temperature, 2070-2100.This
map shows the predicted increase,
assuming a 'medium growth' of the global
economy and assuming that no measures I
.
to combat the emission of greenhouse
gases are taken.

5 - 10° C warmer

3 - 5° C warmer

2 - 3 ° C warmer

1 - 2 ° C warmer
°
O - 1 C warmer ij .. '
Source: The Hadley Centre of Climate Prediction
and Research, The Met. Office.
b'
- .. / �9-.r:.
a..
._______________________.._______________________,@

0 Predictions for global precipitation patterns

PREDICTED CHANGE
IN PRECIPITATION
The difference between actual annual
average precipitation, 1960-90, and
predicted annual average precipitation,
2070-2100. It should be noted that these
predicted annual mean changes mask quite
significant seasonal detail.

Over 2 mm more rain per day

---
1 - 2 mm more rain per day

0.5 - 1 mm more rain per day

0.2 - 0.5 mm more rain per day
1------4

No change
I-----<

0.2 - 0.5 mm less rain per day

1------4

0.5 - 1 mm less rain per day

1------4

1 - 2 mm less rain per day

_
1------4

_C/l .___ ___,

Over 2 mm less rain per day
a.

.c
a..
@
Extreme weather and climate differences
New extreme weather events and unusual climate clearly evident in 2017. These are swirling tropical
patterns are now occurring around the world cyclones that develop over warm oceans. They
each year. The US organisation, National Oceanic produce winds of 119 km per hour or higher,
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), publish damaging buildings and trees when they hit land.
a map each year summarising these events. Map They are becoming bigger and more frequent,
C shows the data for 2017. Extreme weather you will study them in more detail as part of your
events such as hurricanes and typhoons are GCSE geography course.

Selected Significant Climate Anomalies and Events in 2017

I ., <.. SEA I( F fYTl'NT
During Its growth WdSOf\ th@ Arctic Nd ,ts sm.,llest annu.11
m.1><1mum extenL Dunng Its meh seoHOn, the Arctic re�hed Its ASIA
"9hth st'NI� mm,mum �Pnt on rKOfd. Much-warmef-tharNvtrage condlllons �� presenc

-..
ALASKA ICIOU much ol the cont,ntnl. 2017 was the third WllmtSI
Bamiw, AK"-1 Its WMJMSt NowmbH )'far sill{econtkwntal records blgan io 1910, behind 2015

fro,,,_,.
.and 2007. Rimi• Mid CNN had thnwwmest Jan-Sep
on record. with a temper�urt dtpartlA't
5il1<e national rteOtds begin. The Klngdorn of Bahr-,n set
of9.l'C (16.• fl lbow
• newrnontNyttn'C)tr.tturt IKO!d In A,lritJuly, AU9USI,
aod Sep(ffl\ber,
FUROPE
r I"•DA Eu�. •s a whole, expllltneed iU f'tfth WllfflfSl ,..,
s-, precipit.lliOt'I defi<lts In 2017 ln tti.p.cwlnct
of Brltkh Columbt.l coNrllluted to the d('llflol)f'l'f'l1t
on rKOrd. Sewr.11counirles hid• top a y«r. Portugal
(2nd). UIC (Sth), France (S thl, AustrlJ (81h and Germany
(8th!
�,�, Ht� prtCJpit.ltlon during June 29-July 2
of the IMgest wildfire season [2.S mlllon aaesof land trlggeied -e floods aaoss paru of
c. GUOUS UNITl,J !, A lS .afft<led) ii\ tht ptOVllltt� hdtory '°u1� China, ca� S6 fat.allt� .tnd
The 2017 l'l,lt,ol'l,ll tem�•ture WIS the third OYfr S billion USO In IUl'l\ql
higlws t s�e t89S. behind 2012.ind 2016. :rt.ANTIC HURrlCAHE
SCASON
Abo� lllletage activity PORTUGAL
TIiis was lht MOSt iCthlt St.son Had ilS fourlh drlt� year on ltcOld Tht Aprl•
HURRICANE HARVEY sinct 2005 Ind lht 7Ul MOSt KllW WESTEFIN PACIFIC OCEAN
Oectmb« per,od was the drtest such period -YrHO:>N srA �"N
(August IT" �tember 1• 2017) on rtCOfd ,n the basln. ,n the 81-year record.
MaJUmum w4ncb - 21 S krnlhr o
11 st01ms. 1 hurrtca� Near ....,. xtlvlty
26 sto,ms. 12 lyphoom
HJ,rwy PloduCed rKO!d p,eclplt.ltion
tvtals In IRIS ofTnn end Louiliana
BANGLADESH, INDIA & NEPAL
lU"'ll'"A>-tE IRMA Torrt!nll.al ra.n �• during Aug 9-12. � Its second-ttwst January,
T " ' �t i 17) with -ai toatlons rtc""'"9 rn'!arl, September on record.
EASTERN NORH PACIFIC MEXICO Maximum winds- 29S km/Iv their n01mal monthly pre<lp,t.ltlon
. U RICANESEASON MtxiCo hJd iU hiQlhtst J.ln�y OCtobtw lrrn.a .affected Puerto RJcotht U.S.. Virgin IO�ls In just a few days.
�ar -• actMty ttmperarure since records began In 1971, bllndi, •nd florid.a
11 no,ms.
9 hurricanes besting the prelllous rte0td W1 In 2016. NORTH �DIAN OCEAN
HURR CANE MARI& CYCION �l',.<;ON
(Stpl�mbtf 16"-'3 Nell -19' Kll'lity
AUSTRALIAN CYCLONE
M.mmum winds• 280 km/h' q::...<.(\"j SOUTH\VEST PACIFIC
4 stonm., 2 c)'donts OCEAN CYCIONF
..,,i.�
MIN caused major destruction .ac:rou the a.tow ll\'W�.ictivlty
Caribbean ljlands, SOUTli Wt$I 1,-. 7 storms. 3 � SEASON
Below .werage ictlYlty
OCFAN CYCI ONF 0 �lYI II r>. :I \.J",k,l,C>
(.Hi lt& AHl•►Nll�lf stASON
An lni.nse hut waw .ttRCted parts of south«n South Below average actJYtty
America In laf\Uary. Of note, tht l'Nldl'Plum tempeqture AFRICA S storms. 3 c�lonts · JSTRAUA
of 43.s''C Cl 103 Fl wurtcOtdtdat PuertoMlldryo on 27 2017 wasthe fourth warffibt bpe,1�td Ill tlwd warmest )'tat Slnet
muaryulhls was the h,ghest temperatureffer rtco,ded ye« on reco,d, behlmd 2010, n.JUONl recoribbt� in 1910 Sn'lf'I
so far south (43"S) in the WOt:.;.;d
1 ;:;:._____
. ,, 2016.and 201S. ot Alntrall1'i ten warmest �arson
ft(Old hj� occurred Sln<t 200S,

ARGENTINA
The 2017 Nllonal temc>eraturt wast� hl9MS1
""'' records begiilfl ,n 1961, Surpasslfl9tt,e pre'VIOUS
ANTARCTIC' �El\ ( J r!1
01.orlng 111 !7owth wnon. the Antarctic hid In wcond vnalltst
record set in 2012. IMV.ll ma•lmum e•ttnt. !Nltng ,u mtlt st1,on. tht Arlt,rctlc
reached Its smallest mlnlmum e.tent on reco,d.

e Extreme global weather events, 2017, from NOAA

Will the weather get worse this year?

2 017 unleashed so1ne catastrophic weather across the
world.
change in average or typical weather over a number of
years, but we can still experience extre111es in any one year.
What is the difference between weather and climate? What the future looks like
First, we need to re1ne1nber the difference between weather According to recent research we may see changes to
and clin1.ate change. In a nutshell, the difference is tin1.e. weather extre1nes, which could beco111e n1.ore frequent in
Weather is the conditions in the at111osphere over a short the case of high ten1.perature or heavy rainfall, or less
period of ti111e. Cli111ate is how the atmosphere behaves frequent in the case of extreme cold.
over a longer period of tin1.e. W hen we talk about clin1.ate In a war111ing world, we can expect it to get wetter, but
change, that generally 111eans changes in long-tern1. averages with longer, drier spells, although when rain falls it 1nay be
of daily levels of ten1.perature and rainfall. So we 1nay see a in intense bursts.

(:) Article from The Conversation, 11 January 2018, by Lindsay Beevers, Professor of Water
Management, Heriot Watt University
 15.5 What are the consequences of climate
change for our planet? Part 2
50 Mlll,ON
MORE P ......-PlE
WILL BE
AT RISK
OF HUNGER
DUE TO - Tackling climate change is a vital part of Oxfam's work,
CLIMATE
CHANGE
BY 2050
M ore than 52 n1.illion people in 18
countries across Africa are facing
crisis levels of hunger as a result of extreme
weather, compounded by poverty and
conflict, warned Oxfan1 today.
So1ne areas are facing a second extreme
drought in four years while, in others,
drought has been followed by severe
flooding as clin1.ate change disrupts nor1nal
weather patterns.
Parts of Zimbabwe have had their
lowest rainfall since 1981 which has helped
push n1.ore than 5.5 111illion people into
extre1ne hunger. Za1nbia's rich maize­
growing region has been decin1.ated and
exports are banned in a bid to help 2.3
1nillion people who are going ht1ngry. The
situation is worsening in Angola, Malawi,
Moza1nbique, Madagascar, Na1nibia and
Zi1nbabwe.
Drought has hit the East and Horn of
Africa, particularly Ethiopia, l{enya and
Somalia, destroying harvests and livestock.
Cereal prices in some areas have rocketed
to a five-year high, pricing out poorer
people. Nearly seven n1.illion people in the
region are livingjt1st below the catastrophic
hunger line.
(j Oxfam press release, November 2019
Life is already a struggle for poor communities, but
climate change is making things so much harder,
particularly for women. Droughts and floods are
becoming increasingly frequent, while growing seasons
are more and more unpredictable. It means that millions
of people are going hungry. People living in poverty are
more vulnerable to the effects of climate change for
many reasons. They're often forced to live in temporary
settlements, and on land prone to flooding, storms and
landslides.
especially as it threatens to reverse many of the advances
made in tackling poverty over previous decades.
� Oxfam's efforts to combat poverty
At the sa1ne ti1ne, record-breaking
ten1.peratures in the Indian Ocean have
du111ped heavy rain on l{enya and South
Sudan, causing flash flooding - especially
along 111ajor river arteries. South St1dan
has declared a state of e1nergency with
n1.ore than 900,000 people hit by floods.
Kiri Hanks, Oxfam's Climate Policy
Advisor said: 'Millions of already poor
people are facing extren1.e hunger because
of compounding climate shocks that
devastate vulnerable comn1.unities. Parts of
Zimbabwe have had the lowest rainfall for
38 years while Sot1th Sudan is suffering
devastating flooding. It is a vicious cycle In many rural communities
where poor and 1narginalised communities, [in African countries],
n1.ostly wo1nen and girls, are 111ore exposed women are the ones who
to the climate crisis and less able to cope provide food for their
and recover from its har1n.' families. They work
tirelessly, only for a
Oxfa111 is currently helping 111ore than
massive -Aood to come
seven 1nillion people in ten of the hardest­
and wash away their
hit African countries with food and water, crops. They have to start
and long-ter111 projects to help people from scratch to restore
cope better with climate-related shocks. their lost food, and walk
Oxfan1. plans to reach 10 per cent of those extremely long distances
n1.ost in need in these ten countries and is in order to survive.
trying to raise £50 11.iillion ($65 million)
to do so. 0 Vanessa Nakate,
climate activist, 2019
Activities
1 Throughout Progress in Geography you have
investigated changes and events around the
world that are actually causes and
consequences of climate change. The
evidence of this has been marked on pages
with a special symbol.
a) Working with a partner, go back through
the textbook and look for examples of this
symbol. Write a list recording each example
you find. Try to find five. Share your findings
with another group and add examples that
are different to yours to the list.
b) Order your list into causes and
consequences of climate change.
c) In each case justify your choice.
d) What conclusions can you make from your
findings?
e) Identify three geographical questions
about your findings you would like to
investigate further.
2 Look carefully at Maps A and B.
a) How has the predicted change in
temperature been calculated in Map A?
b) Identify six regions of the world that are
expected to have the largest rise in
temperature.
c) How has the predicted change in
precipitation been calculated in Map B?
d) Identify three regions of the world that are
expected to have:
i) an increase of 2 mm or more rain per day.
ii) over 2 mm less rain per day.
e) What is predicted about rainfall and
temperature in India?
f) What evidence of this change have you
already investigated in Unit 10?
3 Look carefully at C and D.
a) What is the difference between weather
and climate change?
b) What is extreme weather?
c) Using Map C make a table to show the
extremes of weather in 2017. For each
form of extreme weather, name locations
where they occurred in a separate column.
d) What can meteorologists learn about the
consequences of climate change from
studying these weather events?
4 Look back at views E and L on pages
282-283. Write three sentences to explain the
impact of climate change on the continent of
Africa.
5 Look carefully at A-C on pages 288-289 and
article F on page 290.
a) Identify the impact of climate change on
the weather and climate of Africa.
b) Think back to your study of Africa in
Unit 12, identify three challenges you think
climate change will create for the
continent.
c) Reread view E from Vera Songwe on
page 282, write three sentences to explain
why you might think the consequences of
climate change on Africa are unfair.
6 Look carefully at E, F and G.
a) What key message is the campaign poster
trying to make about the consequences of
climate change?
b) Identify the reasons why Oxfam believe
people living in poverty are the most
vulnerable to the impact of climate
change.
c) Why do Oxfam believe tackling climate
change is a vital part of their work?
d) Look at E and G. Why do you think climate
change makes life harder for women in
particular?
e) Look back at Lesson 7.7 on pages 134-135.
Write three sentences to explain how
gender inequality makes the effects of
climate change more difficult for women.
Stretch and challenge
Go to the Oxfam or another aid agency's
website. Investigate their climate change
campaign and identify 5 actions they are taking.
 15.6 What are the consequences of
climate change for the UK?
Learning objectives
► To consider the consequences of climate
change on the UK.
► To consider how climate change will
affect different people.
There are also consequences of climate
change for the UK. Rising sea levels will
have a significant impact on the country,
shown in Map C. In Lessons 6.8 and 6.9
(pages 116-119) you discovered that
flooding can do significant damage to
settlements in the UK. In 2018, the
Environment Agency warned the RESEARCH
PRIORITY
population that flooding will only get worse
with climate change, as they published new
guidance on how to cope with flooding.
The UK Government has assessed the risk
of climate change in order to plan for the
UK's future (see Diagram A).
Activities
1 Diagram A shows the UK government's risk
assessment for climate change.
a) Create a table to show each risk.
b) Add two columns for now and the future
and show whether the government
considers the risk low or high.
c) Add a fourth column where you can explain
the nature of each risk.
2 Read the quote in 8.
a) Who is making this statement?
b) T hink back to Unit 6. What is the role of the
Environment Agency?
c) What is the agency's view of climate change?
3 Look carefully at Map C.
a) Draw a table with two columns: one for
positive changes, the other for negative
changes. List the changes shown in the
appropriate column.
b) How is the coastline of the UK predicted to
change?
c) Should the UK be worried about climate
change? Justify your answer.
Flooding and coastal change risks to communities,
businesses and infrastructure
Risks to health, well-being and productivity from high temperatures
Risk of shortages in the public water supply, and for agriculture,
energy generation and industry
Risks to natural capital, including terrestrial, coastal, marine and
freshwater ecosystems, soils and biodiversity
Risks to domestic and international food production and trade
New and emerging pests and diseases, and invasive non-native
species, affecting people, plants and animals
NOW RISK MAGNITUDE FUTURE LOW MEDIUM HIGH
0 The UK Government's climate
change risk assessment, 2017
4 Suggest how each of the following people is
likely to feel about climate change:
a) a farmer in the Midlands
b) a resident in York, living next to the River Ouse
c) a resident at Mappleton on the Holderness
Plain
d) a hotel owner on the south coast of
England.
5 The Environment Agency website has created a
GIS to help people check whether their house
is at risk. Visit this website: www.gov.uk/check­
flood-risk.
a) Enter your postcode. How safe is your
home?
b) Enter the postcode of your school. How
safe is it?
c) Enter 'Southampton'. Compare the areas at
risk of flooding with OS map-flap D. Explain
the location of the flood areas using the OS
map. Give grid references of evidence of
why these areas could flood.
d) Do the same activity for Teesside using OS
map-flap C.
 C) Sir James Bevan, Chief Executive of the Environment Agency

Climate change is likely to mean more frequent and intense-Aooding.

Floods destroy lives, livelihoods and property. Our -Aood defences
reduce the risk of-Aooding, and our -Aood warnings help keep
communities safe when it threatens. But we can never entirely
eliminate the risk of-Aooding. This is why we have launched guidance
on -Aooding. Checking your -Aood risk is the nrst step to protecting
yourself, your loved ones and your home.

Severe water shortages are expected as summers get drier and,

by the 2050s, will extend across the UK. If temperatures are
driven up significantly, many places in the UK will have a e Risk of flooding in England and Wales
demand for water 2.5 times greater than that available.
...N
( Flooding already causes about £1 billion of damage 0 200 km

every year, but the risks will rise further as climate change
leads to more intense rainfall, bringing floods to places
-
not currently in danger. The number of households at
significant risk of flooding will more than double to 1.9 . ,,
million by 2050, if the global temperature rises by 4° C. •,
• •Redcar
�.Whitby
,

The rise in world sea levels will mean an '�\�

,___
increase in sea level exceeding one metre and
possibly as much as two metres on UK coasts by
Leeds•
nches
---
Hunstanton
2080. This, plus the increase in intense storm �

Heacham
events, will cause greater coastal erosion. Snettisham
Low-lying and soft-sediment coastlines will be 7"-------.
most at risk. The five most vulnerable coastlines ·ng's
are South Wales, North-West Scotland, Yorkshire, nn
Lincolnshire, East Anglia and the Thames Estuary.

A warmer, wetter climate will bring benefits to

British agriculture, allowing for year-round crop 1a ditf ' (
cover and opportunities to grow a more diverse I

range of crops that until recently were unable

to grow here, such as maize. �\
-\.
!e�uth
The deadly heatwave of 2003, which peaked at
38.5° C in the UK, will be a normal summer by the
2040s, and related deaths will more than triple. Key
There are currently no policies to ensure homes, • Potential flooding in areas at risk
schools, hospitals and offices remain tolerable in • Most at risk
high heat. • At serious risk

Climate change is likely to drive food prices up, with extreme weather leading to Resorts on the south
lost crops and price hikes. About 40 per cent of UK food is imported, making the UK coast could become more
vulnerable to droughts and floods driven by climate change around the world. like the Mediterranean.
 15.7 Antarctica - the frozen continent?
A geographical enquiry

Learning objectives Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent. It contains 90 per
cent of all the ice on Earth. In this lesson you are going to conduct your
► To understand the importance own geographical enquiry about how Antarctica is changing as a result
of Antarctica.
of climate change. You will need to consider what you have learnt so far
► To investigate how the in this unit as well as in Unit 13, and think about the types of
continent is changing due to geographical data you have used.
climate change.
► To conduct your own What is Antarctica like?
geographical enquiry.
The southernmost continent on Earth is more than one big block of ice.
The continent is divided into two regions, known as East and West
Antarctica. East Antarctica makes up two-thirds of the continent, and is
about the size of Australia. Ice in this part of the continent averages 2
kilometres (1.2 miles) thick. West Antarctica, on the other hand, is a
series of frozen islands stretching toward the southern tip of South
America, an extension of the Andes Mountains. Despite its thick ice,
Antarctica is classified as a desert, and in fact more rain falls in the
Sahara desert. Unlike most desert regions, however, the moisture
doesn't soak into the ground. Instead, the snow piles on top of itself.
No one lives permanently in Antarctica. Human habitation exists at a
variety of science research stations placed by a number of countries.

0 Physical map of Antarctica Scientists also drill for ice cores, which can provide a climate history of
the region over thousands of years.
from Philip -'s Essential Atlas

f• 4 S c o t i a ,o· West lro11 G ee ,., ch 20• 20" East from Greenwich

,,,.
Stanley �
Sea
60 'tFalkland South R11ser-Lsrsen �
Islands Orkney Sea
tV.K)
e
lshJncJs
Cosmonaut

i
'b()_, Sea

.:.""
�
f? ig
rslid�I'ZJ;go Q.'b soi; ,��: ..�,��J!�;!�za
Brunt V
Ice S{Jelf �
� Cape Shetland S e a ::: EaderbJ La11J
•�� Horn Islands � Halley• �
Punta 111 * Palmer
rusA 1 •
Antarctic
Arenas ,i, Anvors Island -:.LarsePeninsula
(U.KJ./ �
�
Kemp
lonJ Mawson
n d I IA.nlra/,,,/
<;)' Adelaido Island
Ice SfleJf "'o... Po/mer
_
,1/ucRobcrtson
< Berl<r}er ,r I ond Cape Darnley
Rothera • .
,u,c.1 Vf1ilkl11s 1slanp Prince Charles Amery
Ice �eJf . ·�1-:,,1 I Ronne Mountains Ice $�elf
Alexander lce
• Shelf � 0 I ambcrt G/ac,cr Prydz Bay
Island 1mer1can • Davis
-.c: Q..uten Eli1c1be1 h
8el/1ngh1Jusen :: ,., Lond �•9 hlan.l
<> � Ellsworttl Patriot -I

f :::
SBB
...= -v,nson•Mass,f ,a,.,,.,
0 Mountains • Hills �
o, soot�
A n t::: : i c
Peter I :) • Amundsen-Scott •�
Island -... 4897
We s t
� pole ,u.s.A1 Qyeen
� Davis Sea
Q(,. r,
:tt�,._
Har)'
Thurston
Island
A n tarctic a '>I' 4'0
�,. �..;� �eO \�(.\-.;
.,����, LanJ Shackleton
/,,_o
,..
c ��
.,
G ,,,1)'4, •I
• Vostok Ice Shelf
1

Key to map symbols

"" IJ
-:J rt1 I a
nJ f\J
ic ._ Mourt Markham
4349 V
L]
,.......,,..,,,_,
Height of ,ce lin metres! .Casey
4,0
CJ lend permanently coveted with ICO Amundsen
Sea
Ross Ice Shelf c,
'> ..
- Lend o,,.r 3000 metres I'
S<:on ,-! Scale

� --------
Permanent settlements l'V.L •• �_,. :/ comparison map
Mounr�busi& M urdo-,

r.
C,pltel Cltits VOCICfl,rod [i) 3743 IU S II'
rii U.K. 11nd lrel11n(I
on same scale
■ O•v I Selected research eu,t,on and
"--' tne country wh,eh runs it • ,.�Ross "f' .
8 _
�--------==� --=::...__ _� 1&0• ___:� S e a
140•__..::;__....;..;_
� ••del1c :i
Dumont L!J1
Scale 1:35 000 000 1 cm O'l the mac 350 km on the grourd Land d"Urville
0 SOO.m lOOOlcm 1500l(m 2000km 2500km 3000km iao•
Oc11c.r I on � r---�.,.,,r,,.�1
Cap1 Adara ..
p_:�!
-rni rr� I' I rr I ryr ir "I "• "1 T' lJ l&o-
South Magnci1e Pole
2015
� .3 � Ii II z
cm cm
 How to conduct
your enquiry
•
ANTARCTICA'S OCEAN IS HOME TO SOME OF THE OST INTACT AND HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS LEFT ON THE PL ANET!

You can use the geographical data

here to get you started. Map A is a
physical map of Antarctica, and the
campaign poster B highlights why
this continent should be protected.
You can also research your own
lNTAllt:TICA S OCEAN IS UlE A HUlJHYPlTIIIIT IT S l.llE A UV UB RAT RY
FO SCl£h11STS TO LCARN ABOUT W O PUI. T FOi TI IIS AND LIVES
Alla HElLTIIY PATIEIITS TEU OOCT
B001£S WDRI Aff!I OW geographical data using the internet.
1 The activities provide the structure
and plan for your enquiry.
https://discoveringantarctica.org.uk
www.bas.ac.uk
www.asoc.org/index.php
www.antarctica.gov.au/webcams
If' IE WT TO BI ASL£ TO TACKLE PROBUMS ll [CUMITE CRAIGE AMll OCUN AlillRtTICA S OCUM IS £ Of THE D I.Y PUCES U HH!S LEFT EARTH.
www.coolantarctica.com/index.php
l EATI ti WE NEED 10 HAV[ lll£AS Of T ORLD THAT SIIOW US W AT l HEALTHY wt IEID TO Pi OTCCT IT. BECA:ISEIIUR LIVES COOO IT•
PllKU LOW l.llE.

IBE PART OF THE LEGACY AND HELP US CREATE THE 1LARGEST !NETWORK OF 'NO-TAKE MARINE !RESERVES IN THE WORLD

>>>>>>> JOIN THE WATCH! WWW .ANTARCT1ICOCEAN.ORG <<<<<<<

C) Poster from www.asoc.org

Activities
You are going to write an article for a newspaper or magazine, or create a web page,
about how Antarctica is changing as a result of climate change. Many people know
very little about this remote wilderness, so it is important that you provide basic
geographical information using the geography enquiry questions.
1 Begin this enquiry by deciding on your own geographical questions to investigate
the impact of climate change.
2 Your article should have four sections:
• Introduction: Where is it? How far away from the UK is it? How long would it
take to get there? Size? Describe the climate (include temperature, wind and
precipitation). Hours of daylight in winter and summer? Scenery on the coast
and inland? Plants and wildlife on land and in the sea?
• Ownership or control: Who owns or controls Antarctica? What treaties are in
place at the moment over the area? What are their aims?
• Evidence of change: Collect and write about geographical data that shows
how Antarctica is changing as a result of climate change.
• Conclusion: The reasons why Antarctica should be protected.
3 Present your article/web page to other students in your class.
4 Being a geographer: Look at the vision statement for Progress in Geography.
Which aspects of this have you made progress in through conducting this enquiry?
 15.8 What can we do about climate
change?

Learning objectives
► To understand the interconnected
human causes of climate change.
► To understand that action to face
climate change requires international
agreement and collaboration.
0 Article from The Guardian,
4 December 2015
In Lesson 15.2 (page 284-285) you investigated the causes of
climate change. There are larger, over-arching causes that you
now need to consider: world population growth and
development. The human causes identified in 15.2 are a
consequence of the sheer number of people, all striving to
develop, see A-C. The next steps that people need to make
regarding the impact of climate change need worldwide
collaboration (working together) and understanding of all the
causes and consequences. Sustainability is a key element of
action now and in the future. You were first introduced to this
concept in Lesson 2.10 (40-41), and several times since then.

Though climate change is a crisis, the

How is climate change
population threat is even worse
linked to development?
Oxfam published a report in 2015, which

T he world's population has 1nore than doubled, fro111 3 billion

people to now 111ore than 7 billion. The ability to feed son-:ie of
this growing population has led to a revolution in the way people farm.
identified the impact of development and
world inequalities on the issue of climate
change, including Graph B. They
Producing all this food requires a lot of water. In fact, approxin1;ately identified that the poorest half of the
70 per cent of all usable water on Earth is now used for food production. global population are responsible for only
This farnung revolution has made 111ore food, 1nt1ch cheaper. As a around 10 per cent of global emissions
result of this - and as well as increasing industrialisation and globalisation yet live in the countries most vulnerable
over the sa111e period - those of us in Europe, North fu11erica and to climate change.
Japan have had n1.uch 1nore 111oney to spend on consumption. In fact,
we e111barked upon the creation of a consumer culture - of clothes,
televisions, electronics, mobile phones, cars and holidays.
All the food and other things we have been producing and
consun1.ing require a lot of energy - to generate the basic n1.aterials,
111ant1factur ing, transport, use and disposal.As a result our use of oil,
coal and gas has increased dramatically to 111eet rocketing de11.1-and
for energy const1111ption, increasing greenhouse gases.
We are now starting to see the first signs of the in1.pact this is
Richest Richest 10% responsible for almost half of total
having on our life support systen1.: Earth. Agriculture is causing 10% lifestyle consumption emissions
serious soil erosion and depletion of groundwater in intensively 100
farmed regions. Land use for agriculture, urbanisation and QI
90
0 19%
infrastructure (e.g. roads) continues to cat1se loss of habitat for 1nuch ·-
C: 80
of the world's biosphere. Many of the world's oceans are being rapidly >- 11%
"t:J
70
degraded by overfishing and pollution. QI 701o
60
The climate change now emerging is predon1.inantly a n, 4%
n, 50
consequence of the past activities of fewer than 3 billion people; C: 3%
0 Poorest 50%
not the current activities of 7 billion of us. De1nand for food is set n,
40
responsible for
2.5%
to double by 2050 as a result of increasing population and 30 only around
Q.
0 2% 10% of total
consun1.ption per capita - especially as n1.ore people move to an Q.
"t:J 20 lifestyle
1.5% consumption
increasingly n1.eat-based diet. 0
10
� em1ss1ons
There are no si1nple solutions: but leaders at the Paris sumn1.it 0
1%

cannot even begin to tackle cli1nate change unless they recognise

that its parent - ot1r increasing popt1lation - is creating a greater Q Percentage of CO 2 emissions by world
looming crisis. population
 GOAL 13:
CLIMATE ACTION BT• MIIRGREET OE HEER
4:) The key points of the Paris Climate Agreement, 2016
THE CLIMATE IS EVEN WITH ALL THE MEASURES TAl<EN,
IT WILL TAl<E DECflDES TO REVERSE Key points of the Paris Climate Agreement
CHANGING! GLOBAL WARMING - so we MUST BE Approved by 195 countries, it will take effect from 2020
PREPARED TO MANAGE EXTREME
THE CLIMATE IS ALWAYS
CHANGING NATURALLY, WEATHER AND NATURAL DISASTERS!
8UT IN THE LAST
200 YEARS, HUMAN
BEHAVIOR
HAS HAD
AN ADDED
INrLUENCE Temperature Finance Differentiation Emissions objectives
2100 2020-2025 Developed countries 2050
Keep increases in Rich countries must must continue to take Aim for greenhouse
temperature well provide a 'floor' of the lead in the gases emissions to
below 2° c $100 billion from reduction of peak as soon as
2020 greenhouse gases possible
Continue all efforts to
limit the rise in
temperatures to 1.5 °(
0

Burden sharing Review mechanism Climate damage

Developed countries must A review every five years with Vulnerable countries have won
provide financial resources to the first review in 2023 recognition of the need to avert,
help developing countries minimise and address losses
suffered due to climate change

Action requires international agreement

ALL NATIONS MUST WORK TOGETHER
TO HELP MITIGATE AND ADAPT TO
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACTS
rOR THE BENErlT Or PEOPLE EVERYWHERE.
0 Sustainable Development Goal 13: Climate Action
Activities
1 Go back to Lesson 8.1 (page 143-144) and
compare the graph showing the world's
population with the global temperature graph
(A) from 15.2, (page 284), Map C showing
• global greenhouse gas emissions from 15.3
(page 287) and Graph B from this lesson
showing carbon dioxide levels.
Describe the pattern you can see.
2 Read Article A.
Make a list of the ways the journalist thinks that
world population increase has led to climate
change.
3 Look carefully at Graph B.
a) Describe what it shows about the global
emissions of carbon dioxide.
b) What world inequality is identified?
4 Study Poster C.
a) Identify what this Sustainable Development
World governments have begun to make progress in the
collaboration needed to work towards global solutions to climate
change. In 2015, countries adopted the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals, which includes Goal 13 shown in C. In 2016,
the Paris Agreement on climate change entered into force (see D).
Goal is trying to achieve.
b) Go back to Lesson 7.9 and look at Poster C
(page 138-139). Which other goals are linked
to protecting the Earth?
5 Look at Diagram D.
a) What is the purpose of the Paris Agreement?
b) Draw a two-column table. In the left-hand
column write the key points of the
agreement. In the right-hand column explain
how you think each point is trying to take
action on issues you have investigated in
Progress in Geography.
c) In June 2017, the USA withdrew from the Paris
Agreement. President Trump said, 'The Paris
Accord will undermine (the US) economy,' and
'puts (the US) at a permanent disadvantage.'
Explain what he meant by this and what new
problems this creates for the world.
 15.9 What is the future for the planet?
Review
At this stage of Progress in Geography you should now
understand what it is to be a geographer. In this lesson you will
In this unit, you have be able to apply your understanding of climate change to the
learnt: big ideas of geography, shown in in Diagram A. This unit has
been designed to provide a conclusion to the whole book.
► that climate change is a
controversial issue affecting the
future of the planet
0 The big ideas of geography and how they link to
climate change
► about the evidence of climate
change
Atmosphere Biosphere
► the causes and consequences of
- ,-

\
climate change
► about the options for the planet's
future. Population change Climate Change Hydrosphere
Let's see what you have = = =
remembered and understood!

Development Economy

In terms of climate change, the world has three possible options

from this point forward:
1 Do nothing and live with the consequences.
2 Adapt to the changing climate, adjust to things like rising sea
level and flooding.

3 Mitigate (make less severe) the impact of climate change

by finding ways to reduce the concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere, such as stopping the burning of fossil fuels and
cutting down forests.

C) Options for the future of our Earth

What can I do in the

future?
It's time to consider what impact you
are having on the future of the planet.
Diagram D shows the personal choices
you can make to reduce the impact of
climate change during your life.

e WWF's global footprint calculator


C) Ways to reduce your own contribution to climate change
Activities
1 Draw a concept map like Diagram A to help you
make the interconnections between the big ideas
of geography, which affect climate change.
a} Draw and annotate connection lines to
explain the link between each big idea.
b} Draw red lines for causes of climate change.
c} Draw blue lines for effects.
d} Discuss with a partner what you think are the
three most important causes of climate
change.
2 Your class will be divided into three groups to
prepare a case for each of the options shown in B.
a} Think like geographers and identify five key
points about your option for the future.
b} Show how each key point fits into your
concept map.
c} Record your key points in the form of a
poster or presentation slide.
d} Present your views to the rest of the class.
e} Debate the three options.
15 Climate change and the Earth's future
f} The class can conclude by voting for what
they think is the best option for the future of
the planet.
3 Look at Screenshot C. WWF have a footprint
calculator on their website. Visit their site at
http://footprint.wwf.org.uk
a} Conduct a summary of your own global
footprint.
b} Complete each of the resources.
c} Compare each round with your partner and
find out why you are different.
d} Make a list of the top three factors that affect
your footprint.
4 Look carefully at D. It shows what personal
choices you can make in your future to reduce
the impact of climate change.
a} Think about what you have learnt in this unit,
and explain the reasons for the six factors
identified as having the highest impact.
b} What choices can you make as a geographer?
 15.10
What is a geographer? Review

In Progress in Geography, you II II

have learnt: I II
► about being a geographer
► how to ask geographical questions
► how to conduct geographical enquiries
► key aspects of studying people and places
► how to use geographical data, including maps.
These were the objectives introduced in Lesson 1.1.
You have now completed this stage of the journey of
becoming a geographer.
Let's see what you've learned and how
this connects to the study of geography
at GCSE level!

Activities
1 In Lesson 1.1 you were asked to use the vision statement for Progress in Geography to
answer the question: what is a geographer? Now you have completed the course,
answer this question again, but from your experience as a geographer.
2 In Lesson 1.1 you were also asked about your views of the way the world was shown
on the front cover of this textbook.
a) Think about what you have learnt from Progress in Geography. Identify the five
most important things you have learnt from the course.
b) Design a new back cover for Progress in Geography to show these five things, in
the style of the front cover.
c) Your design represents the progress you have made to understanding how the
world works. Look carefully at the vision statement for the course and identify this
progress.
3 Read the aims of GCSE geography shown opposite.
a) Copy and complete the following table, adding a row for each of the four aims.

b) The aims identify four key aspects of studying geography and are shown in red
after each aim shown in the bullet points. Write these in the 'GCSE aims' column.
c) Write the text for each aim in the second column.
d) Think about what you have learnt in Progress in Geography. Use the contents page,
and the vision statement to match what you have learnt to each aim for GCSE.
4 Write a paragraph to summarise how you think your progress in this course has
prepared you for GCSE geography.
 15 Climate change and the Earth's future

Aims of GCSE Geography

GCSE specifications in geography should enable
students to build on their Key Stage 3 knowledge and
skills to:
• develop and extend their knowledge of locations,
places, environments and processes, and of
different scales, including global, and of social,
political and cultural contexts. Know geographical
material
• gain understanding of the interactions between
people and environments, change in places and
processes over space and time, and the inter­
relationship between geographical phenomena at
different scales and in different contexts. Think like
a geographer
• develop and extend their competence in a range
of skills including those used in fieldwork, in using
maps and Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
and in researching secondary evidence, including
digital sources, and develop their competence
in applying sound enquiry and investigative
approaches to questions and hypotheses. Study
like a geographer
• apply geographical knowledge, understanding,
skills and approaches appropriately and creatively
to real world contexts, including fieldwork, and to
contemporary situations and issues, and develop
well-evidenced arguments drawing on their
geographical knowledge and understanding. Apply
geography
•

As you have discovered, Progress in Geography:

Key Stage 3 has been designed to help you
become a good geographer and provide the key
knowledge and understanding for you to build
on to make progress and succeed at GCSE level.
This final unit on climate change, and extreme
weather, is an important topic at GCSE.

Good luck and enjoy the next stage

on your learning journey.
Unit 1
Eastings a figure or line representing eastward
distance on a map (expressed by convention as
the first part of a grid reference, before northing)
Environmental world habitats, such as
mountains, forests, oceans, and how they develop
and change
Groyne a wooden barrier built out into the sea to
stop longshore drift of sand and shingle
Human world how and where people live,
develop and earn a living
Northings a figure or line representing northward
distance on a map(expressed by convention as the
second part of a grid reference, after easting)
Physical world what our planet is like, the work
of rivers, the sea and ice
Rural an area in the countryside
Scale a measurement of enlargement or
reduction from the original size, often shown as a
ratio, e.g. 1:50,000
Urban a built up area used for housing and industry
Vertical photograph what the land looks like
from above
Unit 2
Biological weathering when rocks are weakened
and broken down by plants, animals and microbes
Biome a large community (large ecosystem) of
plants and animals found in a major habitat such
as rainforests, tundra, etc
Chemical weathering when rocks and materials
are weakened and eroded by chemical reactions
from substances dissolved in water (such as salts,
acids, etc)
Clay a type of rock that is very sticky, finegrained
and stiff, which can be shaped and moulded when
it is wet, is very slippery when wet, but can be
dried and baked (to form bricks or pottery)
Crude oil naturally occurring and unrefined
petroleum that can be refined into diesel, petrol,
gasoline, kerosene, and other petrochemicals
Fossil fuel a natural hydrocarbon fuel such as
petroleum, coal or natural gas, which is formed by
the fossilised (preserved) remains of ancient plants
and animals that are deposited over millions of years
Freeze-thaw weathering when rocks are broken
down and weakened when water seeps into cracks
then freezes and expands, which breaks rocks apart
over time
Geologists expert scientists who study the
structure of the Earth and its rocks
Impermeable when materials cannot let liquids in,
are water resistant
Industrial revolution a period of time when places
became heavily industrialised, relying on machines
for agriculture or transport or manufacturing, such
as in the UK during the late 1700s and early 1800s
when innovations saw machinery and factories
appear rapidly across the nation
Natural resources substances that are found in
nature which can be used by humans for our
benefit, such as water, soil, coal, minerals, wood,
animals, etc
Non-renewable substances which are limited and
so will run out one day or cannot be replaced
during our lifetime, such as natural gas, coal, etc
Porous when materials such as rocks have small
pores (holes) which allow liquids or air to pass in
and out
Raw materials the basic materials or substances
from which products can be made, such as wood
can be transformed into furniture, etc
Renewable resources that can be replaced over
time, and will not run out, such as water, wind,
forests, etc
Sustainability when materials and resources are
used in a way that will balance the needs of the
present without compromising the future, the ability
to maintain something such as economic growth
Water scarcity a lack of freshwater resources
available to meet the demands of water use in an
area
Weathering the process by which rocks and
materials are broken down due to biological and
weather processes such as rainfall, ice, wind, plant
roots, etc
Unit 3
Arable a farm that grows crops, e.g. wheat and
barley
Balance of trade the difference in value between
a country's imports and exports
Disposable income the amount of money left
over for spending and saving after essential items
such as food have been paid for
Economy the wealth and resources of a country
in terms of the goods that are produced and
consumed there
Employment sectors all the types of jobs in the
economy grouped into sectors
Employment structure dividing businesses and
industries into sectors
Exports raw materials, goods and services sold to
another country
Globalisation the increasing links between
countries around the world as a result of the
movement of goods, services, and money
Imports raw materials, goods and services
brought into a country from abroad
Labour intensive a business or manufacture that
needs a lot of workers
Loss the amount of money lost by a business
Manufacturing making products by hand or by
machine, usually in a factory, that are then sold to
customers, people or businesses
Market garden a farm that grows fruits,
vegetables and flowers
Market the location where the customers for a
manufactured product are located
Mixed [farms] a farm that grows crops and
keeping animals
Multinational a business with branches across
many countries
Native something that grows or is found naturally
in an area or a country
Pastoral a farm that keeps animals, e.g. cattle or
sheep
Profit money left over after the costs have been
covered
Service something helpful that the public needs,
such as transport, education, hospitals, or energy
supplies
Trade the activity of buying, selling, or
exchanging goods or services between people,
firms, or countries
Transnational a business that is found in more
than one country (similar to multinational)
Unit 4
Air pressure the weight of air pushing down on
the earth
Anticyclones high pressure systems in the
atmosphere associated with dry, settled periods of
weather
Climate graph a graph showing the average
temperature and rainfall for each month of the year
for a specific location
Cold front the boundary of an advancing mass of
cold air, in particular the trailing edge of the warm
sector of a low-pressure system
Condensation water vapour is cooled and turns
back to water droplets
Dew water droplets condensed from the
atmosphere on to cool surfaces near the ground
Dew point temperature temperature at which
water in the air condenses to form dew
Drought a long period of low rainfall
Fog a thick cloud of water vapour in the air near
the earth's surface which restricts visibility
Frost thin coat of ice covering objects when the
dew point temperature is below freezing
Humidity amount of water vapour in the air
Isobars lines on a weather map connecting areas
of equal atmosperic pressure
Isotherms lines on a weather map connecting
areas of equal temperature
Meteorology the scientific study of the atmosphere
Occluded front weather pattern in which a cold
front overtakes a warm front; associated with
formation of cyclones
Precipitation water droplets in clouds become
too heavy and fall as rain, snow, hail, etc
Sunshine when the sun shines
Temperature measurement of heat or cold
Warm front the boundary of an advancing mass
of warm air, in particular the leading edge of the
warm sector of a low-pressure system
Warm sector the wedge of air between the warm
and cold fronts of a depression
Weather stations areas with tools and equipment
for measuring changes in the atmosphere
Wind the movement of air on a large scale over
the Earth's surface
Unit 5 Corrosion rock breaking down due to a chemical
Arctic a polar region located at the northernmost reaction
part of Earth Cross profile a slice taken across a river showing
Arctic Circle the parallel of latitude that (in 2000)how wide and deep it is
runs 66.56083 degrees north of the Equator. Deposition takes place when a river slows down
Everything north of this circle is known as the and no longer has the energy to carry the material
Arctic it is transporting, so drops some of the material
Choropleth a type of mapping where a range of Evaporation conversion of a liquid into a vapour
increasingly dark colours is used to represent data or gas
grouped into categories Flood plain low-lying land either side of a river
Continental climate climate group that which regularly floods
experiences extreme seasonal change Groundwater flow water which has soaked into
Demographics the social characteristics and the rock layer and is flowing towards the river
statistics of a population Hydraulic action water flows against a rock
Densely populated high population density surface, wearing it away
Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) zone extending Hydrologists people who solve water-related
200 nautical miles from a country's coast, within problems such as finding new water sources or
which it has the right to explore and exploit the managing floods
living and non-living things found there Infiltrating water soaking into soil
Geographical information system (GIS) any system Intercepted precipitation being caught by leaves,
for capturing, storing, checking and displaying data etc
related to positions on the Earth's surface Interlocking spurs hillsides that a river flows
Greenpeace environmental campaign group between
Indigenous native to a particular place Lateral erosion when the river banks are worn
Permafrost permanently frozen ground, found in away, making the river wider
polar and tundra regions Long profile a slice taken along a river from
Plain flat area at a low elevation source to mouth
Population density the number of people who Meanders bends in a river
live in an area of land Model a diagram that shows a geographical
Sea ice frozen ocean water process in a simple way
Sparsely populated low population density Mouth (of river) the end of the river, where it
Taiga natural forest ecosystems found in the cold flows into a lake or the sea
climates of Northern Europe and America Ox-bow lake a curved lake left behind when a
Tundra flat, treeless Arctic regions of Europe, meander becomes cut off
Asia and North America, where the ground is Plunge pool a deep part of the river eroded by a
permanently frozen waterfall
Unit 6 Precipitation water falling from the sky in the
Abrasion materials carried by the river hit rocks
form of rain, hail, snow, etc
and wear them away River cliff a steep bank on the outside of a
Attrition materials carried by the river hit each
meander
other and wear each other away, becoming Run off water running over the surface of the land
smaller and rounder Slip off slope a gentle slope on the inside of a
Bradshaw model geographical model describing meander
how a river changes from source to mouth Source the point at which a river starts to flow
Condensation conversion of vapour or gas into a Stored water remains in one place for a time i.e.
liquid in a lake
Surface run off water running over the surface of
the land
Throughflow water that has soaked into soil and
is flowing towards the river
Transported material is moved down the river
V-shaped valley a valley created by vertical
erosion (when the river cuts down) near the source
of the river
Waterfall river flows over a step in the rock
Watershed area from which water drains into
one river
Unit 7
Bilateral aid when a government in one country
provides aid to the government of a foreign country
Child bride child marriage is a formal marriage of
a minor below the age of 18 years old
Choropleth map a map which uses differences
in shading within areas to indicate the average
values of a particular quantity
Colonialism type of government where a
geographic area is ruled by a foreign power
Department for International Development human needs such as clean water, shelter, food,
(DflD} a government body in the United Kingdom work, healthcare, sanitation and education
who oversees aid Quality of life the general well-being of people,
Developing when a country is changing for the which includes income, health, education,
better to ensure people reach an acceptable
standard of living or quality of life
Development the process of change by which
people reach an acceptable standard of living or
quality of life
Ecological footprint the amount of the
environment required to produce the goods and
services necessary to support a particular lifestyle
Extreme poverty when an individual lives below
the international poverty line of us $1 90 and has a
severe deprivation of basic human needs
Gender inequality the unequal treatment of
individuals based on their gender. There are
different forms of gender-based discrimination,
gender stereotyping and an unequal distribution
of power between women, men, girls and boys,
and other genders
GNI a measurement of economic activity that is
calculated by dividing the gross (total) national
income by the size of the population. GNI takes
into account not just the value of goods and
services, but also the income earned from
investments overseas
GNI per capita the total GNI of a country divided
by the total population
Human development index (HDI} a method of
measuring development in which income, life
expectancy and education are combined to give
an overview
Income money that an individual, business or
country earns in exchange for providing a good or
service
Inequality difference between poverty and wealth,
as well as in peoples' wellbeing and access to
things like jobs, housing and education
International aid the voluntary donation of
money, goods or knowledge from one country to
another
Life expectancy the average age a person may
be expected to live to
Non-governmental aid charities called non­
governmental organisations (NGOs) raise money
from the public to support development projects
in other countries
Poverty when an individual lacks access to basic
employment, and the environment
Subsistence farming a type of agriculture
producing food and materials for the benefit only
of the farmer and his family
Sustainable development goals 17 goals defined
by the United Nations in 2015. These goals call for
action by all countries and aim to end poverty,
fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate
change by 2030
United Nations an intergovernmental
organisation of 193 member states formed after
the Second World War. The primary aims of the
UN are to secure international peace, eliminate
poverty and protect human rights
Unit 8
Birth rate the number of people born in a year,
measured for every thousand of the population
Census a population survery usually carried out
in a country every ten years
Death rate the number of people who die in a
year, measured for every thousand of the
population
Demographic Transition Model (DTM) a Unit 9
generalised model linking population changes with Coastline the strip of land that forms the
development changes over time boundary between the land and the sea
Deported forced to leave a country Erosion the process by which rocks and soils and
Forced migrants people who have no choice to materials are worn down and moved elsewhere
move from one place to another due to war or due to mechanical and chemical action (such as
natural disasters wave power, or salts in water) or weathering
Immigrant someone who moves to live processes (such as wind, rain, plant roots, etc)
permanently in a different country Geomorphology the scientific study of the
Migrant someone who moves from one place to physical structure and features of the Earth, its
another landforms and processes
Natural decrease when the death rate is higher Glacial till unsorted glacial sediment
than the birth rate, natural decrease is the loss of Sedimentary rocks that are formed over time
population each year from sediment deposited by water or air, such as
Natural increase when the birth rate is higher limestone and shale that form in layers in the
than the death rate, natural increase is the extra ocean floor
population each year Subaerial erosion the weathering and movement
Over-populated too many people living in an of the top of a cliff
area for the area to support Transportation broken rock is carried away by
Population total number of people living in a moving water, ice or wind
particular area Unit 10
Population distribution the spread of people in Silicon Valley region in California where many
an area technology company headquarters are located
Population pyramids diagrams, essentially bar Slum poor area of a city that is overcrowded and
graphs, that show the structure of a population by often lacking in basic services such as water and
sex and age category electricity
Push factors and pull factors push factors are Unit 11
the things that make people want to leave an area;
pull factors are the good things that attract people Continental drift the movement of continents
to a new place and tectonic plates, which is driven by convection
in the mantle
Refugees people who have been forced to move
away from their home country to seek safety in Lithosphere the rigid outer layer of the earth,
another country made up of the upper mantle and the crust
Rural to urban migration movement of people Mid-ocean ridge a continuous mountain range
from the countryside to towns and cities within a found on the ocean floor
country Mountain belt a long chain of mountains
Slums a densely populated urban area with poor Natural disaster when a natural event causes
quality housing great damage and loss of life
Under-populated when there aren't enough Natural hazard when a natural event threatens to
people to make use of the resources and cause great damage and loss of life
technology available Ocean trench a long, narrow depression on the
Urbanisation an increasing percentage of a ocean bed
country's population moving from the countryside Ridge push when gravity causes the mid-ocean
to towns and cities ridge to sink down and spread out
Voluntary migrants people who choose to move Slab pull when the weight of the descending
from one place to another oceanic plate pulls the whole plate along and
down
Unit 12
Berlin Conference where fourteen European
nations met in 1884-85 to divide the continent of
Africa among themselves
Desertification the process by which land
becomes drier and degraded
Imperialist imposing influence through military
force, economic dominance or diplomacy
Migrate move from one place/country to
another in order to live there
Unit 13
Arete a sharp, knife-like ridge formed between
two carries cutting back by processes of erosion
and freeze-thaw
Corrie armchair-shaped hollow in the
mountainside formed by glacial erosion, rotational
slip and freeze-thaw weathering
Crevasses deep cracks in glaciers
Glacial till unsorted glacial sediment
Hanging valley a tributary valley to the main
glacier, too cold and high up for ice to move easily
Ice Age a glacial episode characterised by lower
than average global temperatures and during
which ice covers more of the Earth's surface
Ice core a core sample which is removed from
an ice sheet or high mountain glacier
Lateral moraine material deposited at the edges
of a glacier
Medial moraine material that is built up where
two glaciers meet
Meltwater freshwater that comes from melting
snow or ice
Misfit river river that is either too large or too
small to have eroded the valley in which it flows
Moraine frost-shattered rock debris and material
eroded from the valley floor and sides, transported
and deposited by glaciers
Plucking a type of erosion where melt water in
the glacier freezes onto rocks, and as the ice
moves forward it pulls out large pieces along the
rock joints
Pyramidal peak where several carries cut back to
meet at a central point
Ribbon lake a long, narrow lake found in
glaciated valleys, formed in locations where the
glacier had more erosive power
Snout end of a glacier
Snow and ice precipitation made of ice crystals
and water in its solid form
Striation small straight groove left in rock from
sediment trapped in a moving glacier
Tarn a small mountain lake in a corrie
Terminal moraine deposit of rocks found at the
furthest (end) point reached by a glacier
Truncated spur a former river valley spur that has
been sliced off by a valley glacier
U-shaped valley a valley formed by a glacier,
with straight sides and a flat or rounded bottom
Zone of ablation the zone where the ablation
(the amount of ice melting) is greater than the
accumulation (the amount of ice gained)
Zone of accumulation the zone where the
accumulation (the amount of ice gained) is greater
than the ablation (the amount of ice melting)
Unit 14
Crude oil naturally occurring and unrefined
petroleum that can be refined into diesel, petrol,
gasoline, kerosene, and other petrochemicals
Diversifying the creation of a much wider variety
of new business opportunities and jobs in a region
Forced migration movement of people away
from their homes due to political conflict, natural
disaster or environmental hazard
Mediterranean climate region that experiences
mild winters and warm summers
Region an area within a country
Unit 15
Climate change a long-term change in the
Earth's climate, especially a change due to an
increase in the average atmospheric temperature
Greenhouse effect natural warming of the
atmosphere as heat given off from the Earth is
absorbed by liquids and gases, such as carbon
dioxide
ablation 245 and the climate 76, 285-6 and interdependence 196-7
abrasion 106, 166,246 pollution 37 population 148, 149, 190
Addis Ababa 236-7,238 and rainforests 30 and tourism 50
Afghanistan 190-1 scientific study 66 and trade 56-7,59
Africa 6, 132, 133, 222-41 water 68, 104 choropleth maps 90, 124
agriculture 52,232-3 and the weather 62, 76 cities 16, 26,93, 154-6, 158, 192
biomes 230-1 attrition 106, 166 clay 25, 26, 28, 164
challenges 222, 234-7, 240-1 backwash 170 cliffs 18,174, 178-9
and China 218-19 Bangalore 192-4 climate 62-81, 132
climate 230-1 Bangladesh 133, 134, 186-7 African 230-1
and development 228-9, 233, barometers 64 continental 86
236,238-9 barrages 37 definition 76
European exploitation 226-7 bars 172, 173 factors affecting 78-9
natural resources 225 bauxite 225 Mediterranean 266
opportunities 222, 234-7,240-1 beaches 19, 170-3,177 Middle Eastern 266-7
physical landscape 224-5 bedloads 106,107 monsoon 184-5
population trends 143, 234-5 bedrock 246 Russian 86-7,100
agriculture 132,218 'Belt and Road' strategy 21, 197 UK 76-7
African 52, 232-3 Berlin Conference 1884-85 226-7 and weather 76, 289
Asian 185-6, 189, 192 biomass 37, 88 climate change 244, 282-99
and climate change 293 biomes 30, 88-9, 188-9, 230-1 causes 286-7, 296
and water supplies 296 combatting 296-7
biosphere 22-3, 28, 30-1, 41
see also farming birth control 190 consequences 288-91, 292-3
aid 136-7 evidence for 284-5
birth rates 142, 146, 148, 190
air 23 climate graphs 76
Bolivia 140-1
air masses 70 climate zones 77, 78
borders 82,226, 276
air pressure 62, 64, 70-1 clouds 68-9, 72, 74, 104
bottom-up approaches 195
altitude 79 co-ordinates 8
boundaries 82
Amazon 6,30 coal 23, 25-� 3� 39
Bradshaw's model 12
anemometers 65 coastal defences 162-3,173-80
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China
Antarctica 243,285,294-5 and South Africa) 129, 196 coastal erosion 162-4, 166-70, 174-5,
anticyclones 70-1 Britain 68, 70-2, 76-7, 128,244 178-80, 293
aquifers 267 see also United Kingdom coastal landforms 168-9, 172-3
Arab Spring 276 Campbell Stokes Sunshine recorder coastlines 85, 162-81
arches 168 64 cocoa 52-3
Arctic 85,89, 96-7, 285 carbon cycle 286, 287 cohorts 147
aretes 249 carbon dioxide 37, 286, 296 cold fronts 72
Asia 6,56-7, 59, 83-4, 101, 182-201, cash crops 227 colonialism/colonisation 132, 226,
291 caves 168 227,229
Southern 186 Celsius (Centigrade) 64, 76 compass points 15
Southwest 262 censuses 142, 146 concentric zone model 158
see also Middle East chalk 25,26, 164 condensation 68, 69, 104
atmosphere 22-3, 41 China 48, 98, 129, 183, 200 conflict 132,227,229, 262,272,
air 70, 78 274-81
and Africa 218-19
confluences 8, 117 240 Equator 8, 52, 70, 78-9, 230-1
containerisation 58-9 drainage basins 105, 117 Eritrea 33, 151
continental drift 204-5, 208 drought 62, 132, 232, 285 erosion 166
continental plates 209, 210 drumlins 254 glacial 246, 248-51, 252
continental shelfs 96 DTM see Demographic Transition and rainfall 189
continents 6, 82, 101, 182-3, 202-3 Model river 106, 108
contour lines 14-15 Dubai 272-3 soil 232
convection 69, 211 Earth see also coastal erosion
core (Earth's) 208 age of the 24 erratics 254
carries 249, 250 circumference 4 estuaries 102
corrosion 106, 166 geological timescale 24 Ethiopia 33, 132, 236, 238
costs 46, 176 human impact on the 39 ethnic conflict 227, 229
crevasses 245 structure of the 208 Europe 6-7, 182
crops 44, 227 systems 23, 31 and Africa 226-7
cross-sections 109 use as a natural resource 22-3 and the Industrial Revolution 26
crust, the 208, 211 see also spheres (of the Earth) population 143
earthquakes 85, 133, 202-21, 265 and Russia 83, 84, 101
crystals 25
causes 212 and tourism 50
cumulonimbus 68, 69
epicentres 212 and trade 59
dams 37, 114, 256
resistant buildings 214-15, 221 evaporation 104, 285
data 18, 113
risk management 214-15 exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 96
death rate 146, 148
seismic focus 212 exports 54, 129, 225, 227, 238, 274
see also infant mortality rate
world distribution 206 factories 26, 46-9
deforestation 188-9
eastings 13 famine 132, 232
Degree Confluence Project 8, 94
ecological footprint 127 farming 44-5
demographers 146-7, 149
economic growth 196-7, 198, 238, 291 arable farms 44, 189
Demographic Transition Model
(DTM) 146, 148 economy 42-61 in arid areas 267
Department for International Devel­ Asian 196-200 cocoa 52, 53
opment (DflD) 136 Bolivian 140 commercial 44, 45
deportation 153 diversification 273 dairy 44
deposition 107, 164, 172-3, 246, and globalisation 56-9 mixed farms 44
254-5 Middle Eastern 270-1, 272-3 pastoral farms 44
depressions 70, 72-3 Nepal's 133 subsistence 44, 133
desalination 267 Russian 92-3 see also agriculture
desertification 232-3 UK 43 faults 166, 168
deserts 266, 294 education 126, 128, 130, 133-4, 140, feedback 45
development 122-41 193
fertilisers, chemical 29
African 228-9, 233, 236, 238-9 EEZs see exclusive economic zones
fieldwork 18-19, 112-13
and climate change 296 elder care 190-1
fjords 251, 257
definition 122-3 electricity 34, 36-7, 39
flags 96
measurement 124-7 embankments 118
Flamborough Head 164-5, 167-8, 174
and population 142, 146 employment 128, 153, 193, 194
flood plains 111
support for 136-7 sectors 42-3, 48, 50-1
floods 133, 285, 290
uneven nature 125, 130 energy 26, 36-9, 197
Asian 186-7, 188
Development Compass Rose 123, 126 engineering, hard/soft 176, 177, 178
and climate change 292-3
dew 68, 71 Environment Agency (EA) 116, 118-19,
coastal 162, 163, 178
diamond 25, 225 173-4, 176-7, 292
management 116, 118-19
diversity 182, 268-9 environmental impact 98-9, 127
rivers 116-19
Dollar Street website 122, 161, 182, environmental world 3, 282
fog 71, 87
food 31,293,296 gorges 110 Industrial Revolution 26,50,128,156,
forces 211 granite 25,26 226,256

forests 30-1,52,83,88-9,225 gravity 106,211 industrialised societies 146

Foss River 116,117,118 grazing 232 industry 46,56

fossil fuels 34,37,282,287,291 greenhouse effect 286 inequality 125,130,134-5,138

see also coal; gas (natural); oil greenhouse gases 37,286-7 infant mortality rate 192,235
fossils 25,225 Greenpeace 98 infrastructure 93,196,236,274

frames of reference 8 Greenwich Observatory 8 inputs 45,46

fronts 72 grid references 13 interdependence 56,196-7

frost 71 Gross National Income (GNI) per interglacials 286

fuel 26,34 capita 124-5 International Standards Organisation
groundwater flow 105 58
gabions 177
groynes 18,177,178 invention/innovation 128
gas (natural) 37,39
Hawaii 24,217 investment 48,196
African supplies 225
health 31,126,128, 130 Iran 269,270,276
Arctic supplies 97-9
healthcare 133,235 Iraq War 276
formation 34
heatwaves 71 iron ore 25,26
liquified 98
height 14-15 irrigation 267
Middle Eastern supplies 270,272,
274 Hess, Harry 206 Islam 190,269
Russian supplies 83,92 high pressure systems 70 see also Muslims
gases 32,37,68,286-7 high-income countries 214-15 isobars 70
gender inequality 33,132-5,139,274 Holderness 164-5,171,174-5,178-9 isotherms 77,86
generators 37 household surveys 131 Japan 190-1,217,218-19
geographers 2-21, 298,300-1 housing 26,156,194-5,215,236-7 jobs 43,45,50
Geographical Information System Howard, Luke 68 Karnataka 192-5
(GIS) 94-5 Human Development Index (HDI) Kathmandu 212-13
geography,aims of GCSE 301 126,228,272 kerosene (coal oil) 34
geologists 24,34 human features 16, 18-19 keys,map 12
geology 26,164-5 human world 3,39, 282 knots 65
geomorphology 164 and climate change 127, 287,291, knowledge
geothermal energy 37 296 locational 6-9
glacial till 164,179,254 humidity 62,285 of the world 4-5,6-7
glacial-interglacial cycles 244 hydraulic action 106,166,168-9 Koppen, Wladimir 78
glaciers 32, 242-61,285 hydroelectric power 37,256 labour 42, 48,55,196,235
and erosion 246,248-51,252 hydrologists 105,112 labour intensive 58
formation 244-5 hydrosphere 22-3, 30,32-3,41,104 Lake District 251-3,256
glacial processes 246 ice 25,68,85,96,242-61,285,294 lakes 32
global distribution 242,244 ice ages 205,244-5,248,252,286 ox-bow 111
and landscapes 246-7 ice caps 32,248,290 ribbon 251,256
movement 244-5, 246 ice cores 294 land 44-5, 48,55,79
types of 243 ice sheets 242-4,254,285,290 land use 16,117,158
zone of ablation 245 immigrants 150,152 landforms
zone of accumulation 244 impermeable 28 coastal 168-9,172-3
glaciologists 242,244,258,286 imports 54,238,274 and contours 15
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 8, income 124,161 and glaciers 248-51,252,254-7
94 disposable 50 protective 114
global warming 282,284-5, 290 total household 130 and rivers 108,110-11
globalisation 56-9,58-9 India 183-6,190,192-5,198,200,290 landlocked countries 132-3,236,238
Google Earth 5,16,94-5 indigenous populations 98-9 landmarks 8
landscapes 84-5, 224-5,246-7 meltwater 246 rocks 24-7
latitude 9,10, 78, 94 Meteorological Office 66,74 Russian 83, 92, 93, 100
lava 24, 202, 216, 217 meteorologists 74, 204 sustainability 38-9
least developed countries 214 meteorology 66 navigation 8-9
Lee, E. S. 150 methane 286,298 Nenet people 98-9
life expectancy 126,130, 142,190, Mexico/Mexicans 6,153 Nepal 133, 186,188-9,212-13,215,221
235 mid-ocean ridges 206,210 Nissan 48-9,56
lighting 34 Middle East 6, 262-81 nitrous oxide 286,287
lightning 69 climate 266-7 NOAA see National Oceanic and
limestone 25, 26 economy 270-1, 272-3 Atmospheric Administration
liquids 32,68 physical geography 264-5 non-governmental organisations
literacy 133, 274 (NGOs) 136-7,186
population 268-9,273, 274
lithosphere 6,22-5, 28,30,41,104, non-renewable resources 23, 37-9
migrants 150,151, 192-5
202,204,207-9 see also fossil fuels
migration 99, 150-5,160
lithospheric plates 209, 210,211 North America 6
Millennium Development Goals 138
livestock 44,189 North Atlantic Drift 79
millibars 64
living standards 122, 126,148 North Pole 70,96-9
mind maps 180
living things 23 northings 13
minerals 24-6, 28-9, 37,56-7,97, 225
local level initiatives 38 notches 169
mining 26,225
location 46-7, 56, 112,132,197 nuclear energy 37,39
mobile phones 94
locational knowledge 6-9 observation 18
models 112
longitude 9-10,94 occluded fronts 72
money 124-5
longshore drift 170-2,178 ocean currents 79
monsoon climate 184-5, 189,290
loss 45 ocean floor 206-7
moon landings 5
low pressure systems 73 ocean trenches 206
moraines 246,254-5
low-income countries 214-15 oceanic crust 208
Moscow 82-3,86-7, 100
machinery 45 oceanic plates 209-11
mountain belts 207,210
magma 208,210,216 oceans 285
mountains 6, 133
Manchester 26,256 oil 23,32, 34-5
biomes 188-9
mantle 208, 209,210,211 African sources 225
fold 265
manufactured goods 54, 129,197 Arctic sources 97,98
and glaciers 248-50
manufacturing 42-3,46-50,52, crude 34, 92,270-1
ocean floor 206
128-9,198 and electricity production 37
Muslims 276-7
mapmaking (cartography) 4 formation 34
see also Islam
Mappleton 11,170, 175,178-9 global production 38,92
National Grid 36,39
maps Middle Eastern sources 262,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
choropleth 90,124 270-4,276
Administration (NOAA) 289
keysl2 products made from 35
natives 52
Ordnance Survey (OS) 2,10-21, Russian sources 92, 98
natural disasters 133,202
112 sustainability 38
see also earthquakes; volcanoes
world 4-5, 8-9 oil refineries 34
natural resources 22-41,52-4,160,
marble 25 oil spills 98
284
market gardens 44 Ordnance Survey (OS) maps 2,
African 225
markets 46,56 10-21, 112
Arctic 96,97
marriage, early 134 organic matter 28, 37
Chinese 197
marshland 84 Ouse River 116-18
consumption 127
meanders 111, 114 outputs 45,46
and electricity generation 36-7
Mediterranean climate 266 outwash plains 254
and job locations 43
megacities 192 overgrazing 232
and population distribution 144
overpopulated 148 population pyramids 147-8,234,273, 54,92-3,229
Pacific 85,291 275 real-time images 5
Pakistan 136 ports 54-5,59,115, 257 refugees 132,150,279-81
Pangea (supercontinent) 204 poverty 33,274-5 regions 46,262
Paris Agreement 2016 297 African 227, 228-9,240 religion 269,276
permafrost 87,89,285 causes of 132-3 renewable resources 23,37,39
petroleum 34 extreme 122 reservoirs 114,256
photography fighting 129,137-8,197 ridge push 211
aerial 16-17,48,94 measurement 131 risk management 214-15,218-19
as fieldwork record 18 poverty line 122,140,192 river basins 6,105,117,121
repeat 258 precipitation 62,68-9,86, 105,184 river cliffs 111
vertical 16-17 and climate change 288 river fieldwork enquiries 112-13
weather 62-3,74 and the water cycle 104 rivers 102-21
physical world 3, 16,18,24,84-5, see also rainfall; snow Bradshaw's model 12
224-5,264-5,282 pressure groups,environmental 98 cross profiles 108-9
plains 84 price 46 and deposition 107,110
plantations 52 primary sector economy 42-5,52-3, depth 113
plate boundaries 209,210-11 128-9
erosion 106, 108,110-11
conservative/transform 210,211 Prime Meridian 8
flooding 116-19
convergent/destructive 210,212, processes 45,46,53
functions 102
216 profit 44-6,54,197
gradients 106, 108
divergent/constructive 210,216 pull/push factors 150
how water gets into 104-5
plate movement 209-13,265,270 pyramidal peaks 249
importance 102-3,114-15
plate tectonics 204,209,212 quality of life 122
long profiles 108
plucking 246 quarries 27
meanders 111
plunge pools 110 quaternary sector 42
measurements 113
polar areas 32,70, 78,96-9,290 radiation 37
misfit 250
politics 132,197 railways 50,93,238
mouths 102-3,105,108-9,115
pollution 37,99 rain shadow 69
and settlements 114
population 128, 142-61 rainfall 28, 31,232,266
and shaping land 110-11
African 234-5 annual 76,77
sources 102,105,108-9
Asian 190-3 and anticyclones 71
speed 106,113
control 148-9 average monthly 76
and transportation 106,110
decline 148 and climate change 285,290,291
and water 32,104-5,114
densely populated areas 90 and climate zones 78
width 113
density 90-1,144,160,190-1,193, and clouds 68-9
work 106-7
234,268 convectional 69
roads 93
distribution 90-1,144-5,160, and flooding 117
190-1 robots 48,191
frontal 69
explosions 142 rock armour 177,178
intensity 68
global 39,142,143,190 rocks 24-8,110
monsoon 185
growth 142,160,234-5,267,284, and earthquakes 212
patterns 68
287,296 erosion 166,168-9
relief 69
measurement 142 and glaciers 246,254-5
tropical 30,52
Middle Eastern 268-9,273,274 igneous 25,27
and weathering 25
natural increase/decrease 146 metamorphic 25
rainfall gauges 65
Russian 83,93,101 of the ocean floor 206
rainforests 30-1,52
size 148-9 sedimentary 25,164,207
ratios 10
sparsely populated areas 90 weathering 25,28
raw materials 22,25, 34,42-3,46,
structure 146-7,160 roots,buttress 31
Roslings 161,200 soil 28-31,104,232 cold 83,87,242
rubber 227 solar energy 37,39 and distance from the sea 79
rural areas 16,154,192 solids 68 and latitude 78
Russia 6,82-101 South America 6,52, 140 Middle Eastern 266
area 83,92-3, 100,101 Southampton 16-17,54,156-9 and rainfall 68
biomes 88-9 space travel 5 Russian 86,100
climate 86-7 speed 113 tertiary (service) sector 42-3' 50-1'
economy 92-3 spheres (of the Earth) 22-6,28,30, 128-9

location 82 41 thermometers 64

physical landscape 84-5 see also atmosphere; biosphere; throughflow 105

lithosphere thunder 69,71
population 90-1,93,101,144,148
spits 172, 173 tidal energy 37
Sahel,the 231,232-3
Spurn Point 173,174 timber 31
St Petersburg 82,100
spurs 108 time zones 83
salt marshes 177
interlocking 108,110 tombolos 172,173
saltwater 32
truncated 250 tourism 50,256,257,274
sanitation 122-3,156,194,281
stacks 168 towns 16,26
satellites 5,16,103
steam-power 26, 37 trade
and coastal erosion 175,178
Stevenson Screen 64 balance of trade 54,198
and glaciers 258,259
storms 71,117,289 colonial 227
and Google Earth 94
stratocumulus cloud 68' 7 1 international 54-5,58-9,132,
and the weather 66, 72, 74-5
striations 246 198-9,238
Saudi Arabia 262-3, 267, 274,276
stumps 168 transnational (multinational) compa­
Savanna biome 230
subduction zones 210,211 nies 56
scales 10
Sun 23,32,37,62,7 8 transport links 46,48,50,54-5,93
Scarborough 20-1,50,51
transportation
Sunderland 48-9,56
sea 6, 79, 162
sustainability 38-9, 127,296 by rivers 106
sea ice 96,285
Sustainable Development Goals coastal 164,170-1
sea walls 177
138-9,141,297 and glaciers 246
sea-floor spreading 206
swash 170 travel 50,128
sea-level rise 175,285,290-3
symbols 12,14,67 triangulation pillars 14
secondary sector 42-3,46-50,52,
synoptic code 67 tributaries 117,250
128-9,198
Syria 132,278-81 tropical cyclones 289
sediment 25
systems 23,38,46, 288 tundra 88,89
settlements 114,144
systems diagrams 104 turbines 37
shelter 26
taiga 88-9 Turkey 203, 265,267, 280,281
shipbuilding 156
tarns 249 underpopulated 148
shipping 54-5,58-9,98
technology,new 48 unemployment 48
Siberia 83-4,87,92-3,98
Tees River 102-3,107-8, 110, 114-15 UNESCO 133
Silk Road 197
temperate climates 7 7 UNICEF 40,186
situation 82
temperature 62,64 United Arab Emirates 272-3
slab pull 211
and altitude 79 United Kingdom 48-9,83
slate 25,26
annual average .242 climate 76-7,292-3
slave trade 226
and anticyclones 71 economic structure 43
slopes 14-15
Arctic 96 and the Industrial Revolution 26
slip-off 111
average monthly 76,7 7,184 and inequality 130,134
slum settlements 194-5,215,236-7
and climate change 282,284-5, and international trade 54-5
snouts (glacial) 245,246,255
288, 290-1,293 and tourism 50-1
snow 70,79,244,294
and climate zones 78 and water management 32
Snowdonia, Wales 248,250
 see also Britain collection duties 33,192 weather instruments 64
United Nations (UN) 96, 138, 143, demand for 32-3, 256 weather stations 64-7, 74
234,290 fresh 32-3,83,242, 285 data logging 66
United States 6, 26,34,50,56-7, groundwater flow 105 weathering 25,28, 162, 164
152-3, 198
human uses 32 biological 25
United States Geological Survey
and hydroelectric power 37 chemical 25
(USGS) 202
infiltration 104,117 coastal 168
Ural Mountains 82, 83,84
intercepted 104 freeze-thaw 25,246
urban areas 16
as natural resource 32-3 Wegener, Alfred 204-5, 206
Urban Ultra Poor Program (UUPP)
195 and precipitation 68-9 wind 23,62, 70-1
urbanisation 154-9, 192-5,234, and rivers 32,104-5, 114 direction 65, 79
236-7 scarcity 32-3, 266-7,274, 293 prevailing 79,170
valleys in soil 28 speed 65
fjords 251,257 sources 32 wind power 37
formation 248, 250-1 states 32 wind roses 65
hanging 250 surface run-off 104,105,117 wind turbines 37
u-shaped 250-1 surface storage 104 wind vanes 65
v-shaped 108, 110 throughflow 105 winter 84,87
Van,Turkey 203,265 UK management 32 women 33, 135,137,196
vegetation,decayed 26,28, 30 unsafe 33 workforce, capacity 46, 48
villages 195 and weathering 25 World Bank 122, 124, 132, 140
Vladivostok 82,83,86 water cycle 32, 104-5 world maps 4-5,8-9
'volcanic threat' 218 water transference schemes 256 Yakutsk 86, 87, 95
volcanoes 85, 202-21,286 water vapour 68, 7 1, 104 Yamal peninsula 98-9
composite/stratovolcanoes 217 waterfalls 110, 250 Yarm 114-15
extinct 84 watershed 105 Yemen 274-5, 276-7
risk management 218-19 wave energy 17 7 York 116-17,118-19
and rock 24,25 wave-cut platforms 168, 169
shield 217 waves 170-1, 172
stages of development 217 wealth 125,198, 229
world distribution 206 weather 62-81
voting 128 and climate 76, 289
wages 42, 50, 197-8 data 66-7, 74-5
war 132,229 extreme 289, 290, 293
warm fronts 72 measurement 64-5
warm sectors 72 weather enquiries 74-5
water 23, 40,156 weather charts 67
and agriculture 296 weather forecasts 66, 74-5
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library/ paul ridsdale/ Alamy Stock Photo,© Arterra Picture
Library/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.63 clockwise from top left:© james
meijer - stock.adobe.com,© Saskia Massink - Fotolia,© Lisa
Werner/ Alamy Stock Photo, Public Health Liverpool,© Paul
Ridsdale/ LGPL / Alamy Stock Photo; p.64 tl David Gardner, cl©
Doug Mccutcheon/ LGPL/ Alamy Stock Photo, er© Nigel Cattlin
/ Alamy Stock Photo, bl pattarastock - stock.adobe.com, br©
donvictori0 - stock.adobe.com; p.65 tr© Stringer Image - stock.
adobe.com, cl© Kruwt - stock.adobe.com; p.66 t© Paul Glendell
/ Alamy Stock Photo, b© Ryan McGinnis/ Alamy Stock Photo;
p.71 t© lena_zajchikova - stock.adobe.com, c© NASA/ SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY; p.73© University of Dundee; p.75 all©
University of Dundee; pp.82-83© ITAR-TASS News Agency/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.82 anti-clockwise from top left:© Onbra
Kon6aKoBa/ 123rf,© romanevgenev - stock.adobe.com, sborisov
- stock.adobe.com,© Panther Media GmbH/ Alamy Stock Photo,
© Victoria - stock.adobe.com,© Andrey Podkorytov/ Alamy
Stock Photo; p.84 bl© tinyakov - stock.adobe.com, br© Pavel
Filatov/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.85 tl© Zoonar GmbH/ Alamy Stock
Photo, c© Olga Kolos/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.89 t© Andrey
Podkorytov/ Alamy Stock Photo, bl© Steve Morgan/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.90 anti-clockwise from bottom left: © Doctorbest -
stock.adobe.com,© Stanislav Zaburdaev/ Alamy Stock Photo,©
elcovalana - stock.adobe.com,© ID1974 - stock.adobe.com,©
Steve Morgan/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.94 tl US Geological Survey,
bl and br Glenn A. Richard/ Science Education Resource Center
- SERC; p.95 Google Earth© 2018 Google; pp.96-97© Rowan
Romeyn/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.96© ITAR-TASS News Agency/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.97© Kevin KAL Kallaugher, The Economist,
Kaltoons.com; p.98© Jenny Matthews/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.99
© Gerner Thomsen/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.100 anti-clockwise
from centre left: leptospira/ 123RF,© dimbar76 - stock.adobe.com,
© Evgeniy Kleymenov/ Alamy Stock Photo,© lena_pausa - stock.
adobe.com, dbrus - stock.adobe.com; p.102 t Google Earth, data
SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO, b© Shutterstock/ Paul
Gregory; p.103 t© Paul White North East England/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.104© Catherine Owen p.105© Hum Images/ Alamy
Stock Photo; p.107 t© Seaphotoart/ Alamy Stock Photo, b©
geographyphotos/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.108© David Moore/
South Australia/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.110© robertharding/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.111 t© Geogphotos/ Alamy Stock Photo, b
© Nature Picture Library/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.113© Catherine
Owen; p.114 t© geogphotos / Alamy Stock Photo, b© Paul White
North East England/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.115© Air Images Ltd;
p.116 t© Shutterstock/ PhilMacDPhoto, b© Andrew Calverle/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.118© Environment Agency; p.122© Dollar
Street, used under Creative Commons (CC) Atribution 4.0
International Public License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/legalcode) $27 Burundi: Johan Eriksson for Dollar
Street; £125 Bangladesh: Gmb Akash for Dollar Street; $308
Indonesia: Luc Forsyth for Dollar Street; $859 United Kingdom:
Chris Dade for Dollar Street; $10 098 China: Jonathan Taylor for
Dollar Street; p.122 b https://www.linkedin.com/in/
annaroslingronnlund/; p.125© Oxfam (2015); p.130 t© Lloyd
Fudge - stock.adobe.com; b© andreshka - stock.adobe.com;
p.131© Shutterstock/ Costa Fernandes; p.132 t© Mike Goldwater
/ Alamy Stock Photo, c© Graham Prentice/ Alamy Stock Photo, b
© PACIFIC PRESS/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.134© National
Geographic Creative/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.135© Women
Deliver; p.136 DFID - UK Department for International
Development/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:lnfographic-_Pakistan_-_UK_aid_development_results_
for_2011_-_2016_(20570481241).jpg/https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.0/; p.138© Margreet de Heer; p.139 t© Xinhua
/ Alamy Stock Photo, b© United Nations Division for Sustainable
Development; p.140 t© age fotostock/ Alamy Stock Photo, b©
Andrean Information Network/ ain-bolivia.org; p.141© Dollar
Street, used under Creative Commons (CC) Atribution 4.0
International Public License (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/legalcode) Zoriah Miller for Dollar Street ; p.144 l ©
Ben Pipe/ Alamy Stock Photo, c ©Tim Gainey/ Alamy Stock
Photo, r ©blickwinkel/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.145 t ©Sean Pavone
/ Alamy Stock Photo,c © CWIS/ Alamy Stock Photo,b ©Horizon
Images/ Motion/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.148 ©Inna Leykin; p.149
©Sally and Richard Greenhill/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.151 ©Jenny
Fitzgerald; p.152 Sipa Press/ REX/ Shutterstock; p.157 Reproduced
by permission of the National Library of Scotland; p.160 tl ©lxpert
/ 123RF.com,c ©Rawpixel.com - Shutterstock, bl© ton koene/
Alamy Stock Photo; tr© Sally and Richard Greenhill/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.162 ©Simon Brooke-Webb/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.163 ©
vincent scothern/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.164 ©David Gardner;
p.165 all© David Gardner; p.166 clockwise from left: ©Darren
Thompson,©David Gardner,©krsprs - stock.adobe.com,©
linjerry - stock.adobe.com; p.167 t ©David Gardner,b ©Darren
Thompson; p.168 ©Jo Coles; p.169 l ©David Gardner,r ©David
Gardner; p.170 ©David Gardner; p.173 ©A.P.S. (UK)/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.174 ©David Gardner; p.175 Google Earth ©lnfoterra &
Bluesky. Image NASA; p.176 ©KBlmages/ Alamy Stock Photo;
p.177 top to bottom: ©David Gardner,©Darren Thompson,©
Darren Thompson,©Jo Coles,©Jo Coles,©Jo Coles; p.178 t
Google Earth ©Google, b ©David Gardner; p.179 clockwise from
left: ©graham bate/ Alamy Stock Photo,© David Gardner, ©
David Gardner; p.181 ©David Gardner; p.182 from left to right:
Zoriah Miller for Dollar Street/https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/,Victrixia Montes for Dollar Street/https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,Swapan Banik for Dollar
Street/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Jonathan
Taylor for Dollar Street/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/4.0/; p.185 ©Partha Pal/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.187 ©
Shutterstock/ Thampitakkull Jakkree; p.188 ©paul prescott -
stock.adobe.com; p.190 ©beeboys - stock.adobe.com; p.192
clockwise from left: © Maria Heyens / Alamy Stock Photo, Jan-Dirk
- stock.adobe.com,©Purepix/ Alamy Stock Photo,©hecke71
- stock.adobe.com; p.193 clockwise from left: ©Shutterstock/
Abhishek Bagrodia©Dinodia Photos/ Alamy Stock Photo, ©
Thomas Imo/ Alamy Stock Photo,©james Cheadle/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.194 l ©BonkersAboutTravel/ Alamy Stock Photo,r ©
Shutterstock / Pagespics; p.197 ©Xinhua/ Alamy Stock Photo;
p.200 top photos clockwise from left: ©Shutterstock/
Thampitakkull Jakkree,©Vixit/ Shutterstock,©Partha Pal/ Alamy
Stock Photo,©Alex Segre/ Alamy Stock Photo,NASA Goddard
Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stockli (land surface, shallow
water,clouds). Enhancements by Robert Simmon (ocean color,
compositing, 3D globes,animation). Data and technical support:
MODIS Land Group; MODIS Science Data Support Team; MODIS
Atmosphere Group; MODIS Ocean Group Additional data: USGS
EROS Data Center/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Asia_
satellite_orthographic.jpg (topography); USGS Terrestrial Remote
Sensing Flagstaff Field Center (Antarctica); Defense Meteorological
Satellite Program (city lights); ©Roland Nagy/ Alamy Stock Photo,
bl Matthew Lloyd/ Getty Images for Resource 2012); p.201 br
VisionsOfAmerica LLC/ 123RF.com, r ©Xinhua/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.202 ©Westend61 GmbH/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.203
Shutterstock/ Prometheus72; p.207 Marie Tharp,Bruce Heezen
and Heinrich Berann/ Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory; p.213 ©
GeoPic/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.214 l ©B Christopher/ Alamy
Stock Photo, r Kelly Shea/ The Seattle Times; p.216 JustinRayboun
- stock.adobe.com; p.218 ©Martyn Evans/ Alamy Stock Photo;
p.219 TOKYO METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT Management
Section,Disaster Prevention Division,Bureau of General Affairs;
p.220 t ©carles - stock.adobe.com,b ©Stocktrek Images, Inc./
Alamy Stock Photo; p.221 ©US Marines Photo/ Alamy Stock
Photo; pp.222-23 ©Barbara von Hoffmann/ Alamy Stock Photo;
p.222 ©Geraint Lewis/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.224 t ©Barbara von
Hoffmann/ Alamy Stock Photo,c ©Ben Pipe/ Alamy Stock Photo,
b ©imageBROKER/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.227 tl ©lanDagnall
Computing/ Alamy Stock Photo,b ©Phillip Harrington/ Alamy
Stock Photo, tr www.polyp.org.uk; p.228 l ©Jeff Gilbert/ Alamy
Stock Photo,r john wollwerth/ 123rf; p.229 l ©Mikael Damkier/
Alamy Stock Photo, tc ©dpa picture alliance/ Alamy Stock Photo,
tr© Shutterstock / Kiki Dohmeier; p.231 ©Lev Dolgachov/ Alamy
Stock Photo; pp.232-33 ©Oyvind Martinsen/ Alamy Stock Photo;
p.234 l ©sebra - stock.adobe.com, r ©moodboard/ Alamy Stock
Photo; p.235 l ©javiindy - stock.adobe.com,c ©sixdays - stock.
adobe.com,r Mat Hayward - stock.adobe.com; p.237 ©
Shutterstock/ John Wollwerth; p.239 C ©SPUTNIK/ Alamy Stock
Photo, 0 ©WENN Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo, E ©Shutterstock/
photocosmosl,F ©Vadym Drobot/ Alamy Stock Photo, G ©
Vadym Drobot/ Alamy Stock Photo, H ©Shutterstock/ serkan
senturk; p.240 Zoriah Miller for Dollar Street/ https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/; p.243 t ©marktucan/
Shutterstock,b ©Vaakim/ Shutterstock; p.245 © Tom Bean/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.246 ©Pawel - stock.adobe.com; p.248 ©
radnorimages/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.250 t ©robertharding/
Alamy Stock Photo, b ©Dave Ellison/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.251 t
©James Osmond/ Alamy Stock Photo, b David Gardner; p.252
Google Earth; p.253 land r Simon Hind; p.254 tl marktucan/
Shutterstock,c ©Martin Shields/ Alamy Stock Photo, tr© Ashley
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Stock Photo; p.256 SSPL/ NRM/ Pictorial Collection/ Getty
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Jesse Allen,Earth Observatory; based on data provided by the
ASTER Science Team; glacier retreat boundaries courtesy the Land
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lvelin Ivanov/ Fotolia,b ©RJ Matson,Portland, ME/ Cagle
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adobe.com,0 Shutterstock/ rasoulali; p.267 E ©PhotoStock­
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- stock.adobe.com.
Progress in Geography: Key Stage 3: Boost
Unlock all of the planning, teaching and assessment resources that you need to
deliver an outstanding Progress in Geography: Key Stage 3 course, now in a fully
updated Boost edition, updated annually.
These time-saving editable resources include 150 ready-to-go lessons and additional
online materials that support you and your pupils.
Plan for progress with ease: ready-made editable course plans for each unit
focus on pupil progression, detailing prior knowledge, future learning and key
performance indicators.
• Pick up and teach the course whatever your level of expertise: each lesson plan
includes teacher guidance, starter and plenary ideas and answers to the Student
Book activities, and is accompanied by a lesson PowerPoint with resources, text
and activities from the book.
• Enhance your students' geographical experience with a vast collection of
embedded weblinks relevant for each lesson to video clips, news stories, GiS, satellite
images, organisation websites and five new video interviews - integrated into lesson
plans and schemes of work, and embedded into the lesson PowerPoints.
• Save time creating resources: each lesson has four activity worksheets with extra
scaffolding or stretch, an interactive knowledge test, links to online materials and
an additional set of quizzes for each chapter.
• Successfully track progress throughout KS3: a baseline assessment, 1 Lt end-of­
unit assessments and an end-of-KS3 assessment support Assessment for Learning
at every stage of the course.

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for recap and revision.
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improve comprehension and pronunciation.
• Switch. Seamlessly move between the printed view for front-of-class teaching and
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To subscribe or register for a free trial, visit

hoddereducation.co.uk/geography/progress-in-geography
••• •••
B00St
 «�
HIGHLY
COMMENDED

Lesson enquiry questions encourage

Every double-page you to start thinking straight away
spread represents a How do you investigate a locality by . ....
lesson conducting fieldwork?
Activities
A good geographer investigates places by conducting fieldwork. 1 look carelully at the I: 50 000 OS map of the fieldwork
Learning objectives Read the route taken by the stude nts. and stucty area aoo follow the route the students followed.
When visit ing a location you can use maps and observation to answer the questions that follow.
► To locate photographs on an OS map.
collect record and present data. A group or students conducted 2 Rewrite the dcsctiption of the route followe d , adding
► To compare ground level photos with fieldwork at Seaford. a seaside resort on the tast Sussex coast. the six-figure gtid refe<ence and the d irection they
1 lhe group waUced from Seafo,d seafront,. wa[kcd at each point.
an OS map. They used a 1: SO 000 OS map or the area {Map D). and took along the footpath up to Seaford Head,
► To follow a route on an OS map. photographs to rec0<d physical and human features they saw berlg careful to keep away from the edge 3 Photograph n was taken at 491982. Compare this view
{photos E.-K). Photos 8 and C show the group observing and of the cliff, ha\lTlg seen the warning sign with the OS map. The students drew a field-sketch to

Learning objectives recording features as a field-sketch . 2 They then folowed the ciff top path
down South Hill, Sl:opping to marvel at the
Q Location map of Seaford Q
outline what you will
fantastic view of the diffs to the east,. and
on to the groynes at Cuckmere Haven.
3 The group recorded their ob&etvations
learn in each lesson
at the beach before reSUY1ing their walk
along the path, Vanguard Way, following
the valley of the River Cuckmere.
4 They comple(ed the walk at the public
house next to the bridge across the river
carryrlg the A259.
'-
record the view and key featu res.
a} In v,,,t'lich direction 'Were they look ing at the vi<:!W?
b) What two towns will they label on their sketch. at
points 1 and 2 shown on the photo?
4 Look carefully at photos E-K and read the clues to
identify where each one is on the OS map. In each case.
give a six-figure grid reference for the feature shown.
5 You could conduct fieldwork like this for the locality
of yoor new sec
map, plan a r01
Activities help you
field-sketch to

Rich geographical
data is included on
every page for you
to interpret, analyse
and evaluate
-
The group began the
fieldwork along
Seaford seafront,
walking in a south,..
ea.ste rl y direction
� OS map extract of
Seaford, scale 1: 50000
to make sense of the
data, improving your
•
01
geographical skills
00
'1 and understanding
'l
• 99

t
towards the Martello
Tower, and beyond 98
that, Seaford Head

Key terms are 46 47 48 49 so ss

highlighted and 0 View looking down South,--------­

Hill footpath towards

explained to boost
famous chalk cliffs

your geographical ..6. � View of man•made groyne at the end

of Seaford beac looking, towards cliff

vocabulary
�

Future learning shows the

connections between Key
Stage 3 topics, as well as
topics studied at GCSE

• • ••
• B00st
•••
••• and digital teaching and
This series includes an eBook

••• learning support .

• Visit hoddereducation.co.uk/boost
The world's trusted geospatial partner
to find out more.

11 1 1 1111
ISBN 978-1-510-42800-3
HODDER DUCATION
t: 01 235 827827 /j
FSC
e: education@hachette.co.uk 781510 428003

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