8 The Roman

Heritage
(509 B.C-476 A.D.)

Chapter Outline

1 Greco-Roman Civilization

2 Rise of Christian-

3 Breakdown of Unity

4 Collapse of the Empire

For six years, the general Constantine had fought many

rivals for control of the western part of the Roman Em-
pire. In 312 Constantine was master of most of Italy.
a.d.,

But he had to capture the city of Rome, which was

still

the stronghold of another general. As Constantine

marched on Rome, he knew his forces were badly out-
numbered.
Years later, Eusebius (u SEE bee uhs), a Christian
bishop and friend of Constantine, described the day be-
fore the crucial battle. "About noon, when the day was
already beginning to decline, Constantine saw with his
own eyes .... a cross of light in the heavens, above the
The Apostle Andrew in sun, bearing the inscription, 'Conquer by he was struck with
this.' At this sight,
a mosaic from Ravenna, amazement, and his whole army also witnessed this miracle.. . .

ltal\.
"And while he continued to ponder ... its meaning, night suddenly came
on; then in his sleep the Christ appeared to him with the same sign
. . . and . . .

commanded him to make a likeness of the sign that he had seen in the heavens
and to use it as a safeguard against his enemies."
At dawn, Constantine prepared for the upcoming battle. He called in arti-

sans and described the sign dream. According to Eusebius, they shaped
in his

"a long spear, overlaid with gold" into a cross. Above the cross was a "wreath
of gold and precious stones," which encircled two Greek letters, the first two
letters of Christ's name. Constantine ordered his soldiers to inscribe the same
two letters on their shields and had the jeweled cross carried into battle.
Constantine triumphed in the battle for Rome and became the Roman
128 emperor. A year later, in 313 a.d., he proclaimed freedom of worship for every-
one in the Roman Empire, including < hristians, Before his death in J37 -\.i>.,

Constantine was baptized .) ( hristian.

rhe conversion of ( onstantine to Christianity changed the course ot his-

tory Foi. enturies,ihristians had struggled to survive in the iac e of severe per-
(

se< ut ion. In 112 \i)., ( hristiantty had won many ( onverts, bul ( hristians were
still a minority in the Roman Empire. In embracing Christianity, ( onstantine
not onl\ ended the persec ution but also opened the way for Christianity to be-

( ome the offit ial religion of the empire.

was only part of the heritage Rome transmitted to the peoples
Christianity
ol its empire. Through Rome, Western urope was introdiu ed to the advanced
I

learning ol the <wu ienl Mediterranean world, in< luding Greek art, sc ience, and
philosophy. In addition, Rome made its own contributions, especially in gov-
ernment, law, and engineering. Yet even while Roman civilization flourished,
internal and external forces were weakening the ties that bound the empire
together.

1 Greco-Roman Civilization

"Greece has conquered her rude con- Roman produced beautiful paint-
artists
queror," observed the Roman poet Horace ings to decorate the walls of private homes.
early in the PaxRomana. Everywhere Hor- Although few Roman paintings have sur-
ace looked, he saw evidence ol Greek in- vived, peaceful landscapes and scenes based
fluence. Romans studied Greek art and ar- on the Iliad or Odyssey were preserved in
chitecture as well as Greek theories of Pompeii (pahm PAY'), a city buried by a vol-
government. Romans who traveled to cano in 79 a.D. Romans also designed mag-
Athens and to Alexandria in Egypt absorbed nificent mosaics, pictures formed of chips of
the ideas of Hellenistic civilization. homes of wealthy Ro-
colored stone. In the
Romans preserved much of Greek cul- mans, mosaic pavements covered parts of
ture, but they also retained their own tradi- the floor.
tions. The result was a blend of Greek and While Romans borrowed many ideas in
Roman traditions. Through Roman con- architecture, they also made important ad-
quest, Greco-Roman civilization was carried vances. From the Etruscans and Greeks,
to every corner of the empire. they learned how to use columns and arches.
Then they improved on the arch by invent-
ing the dome, a roof formed by rounded
Art and Architecture
arches. The Romans also introduced new-
When Romans conquered Greece, they
the building materials such as concrete, a mix-
shipped home thousands of Greek statues. ture of lime and earth. New building tech-
Roman sculptors did a brisk business copy- niques allowed architects to design massive
ing Greek works, and talented Greek artists structures. For example, the Colosseum had
found rich patrons in Rome. In time, how- three stories of arches and columns.
ever, Roman sculptors developed their own Roman architecture was more ornate
style. Greek sculptors, you will recall, ideal- than the simple, elegant temples of classical
ized the human form, using athletes as mod- Greece. Emperors erected solid, richly deco-
els of perfection. Romans created more real- rated monuments, such as huge public sta-
istic portraits. diums, to symbolize Roman strength. 129
 Technology and Science (PLIHN ee) the Elder produced the 37-
volume work Natural History, a storehouse
The Romans applied their technical knowl- of information on subjects ranging from as-
edge to many practical concerns. They built tronomy to medicine, geography, and bot-
strong bridges, supported by arches, to span any. Pliny's curiosity about natural occur-
turbulent rivers. Romans designed roads to rences proved to be his downfall. In 79 a.d.,
last forever. They made them of heavy he visited Pompeii to observe the erupting
blocks set in layers of crushed stones and Mount Vesuvius (vuh SOO vee uhs) and was
pebbles. Roman roads were still in use as re- killed by the poisonous gases from the
cently as 100 years ago, and the stone foun- volcano.
dations can be seen in parts of Europe Scientific works produced during Ro-
today. man times were studied for centuries. The
Romans constructed aqueducts (AK Greek physician Galen (GAY luhn) wrote a
wuh duhkts) to carry water from reservoirs medical encyclopedia that was used in Eu-
in the country to the cities. Roman aque- rope until the 1400s. The ideas of the as-
ducts, some of which have survived, were tronomer Ptolemy also influenced scholars
canal-like stone structures that tunneled for hundreds of years. Ptolemy taught that
through mountains and spanned valleys. the earth was at the center of the universe
The major Roman contributions to sci- and that the sun and planets revolved
ence and medicine were collections of infor- around it. Those theories were not disproved
mation similar to encyclopedias. Pliny until the 1500s.

Roman engineers were proud of their practical achievements. Aqueducts like this
one carried water from the countr\side to the cities of the empire. "Who will
\enture to compare these mighty aqueducts with the idle pyramids or the famous
but useless works of the Greeks?" boasted one Roman engineer. The Roman
aqueduct in Segovia, Spain, is still used as part of the public water system.

130
Roman I iterature

Roman writers adapted Greek literary forms

such .is lyric poetry and drama to the Latin
language. Romans also developed new styles
ol writing thai were influenced bj ( rreek i »i .1

tory, the an oi persuading an audience.

Some statesmen, such as Caesar and
Cicero, were fine writers. When Caesai was
away on campaigns, he kept his
military
name before the public by writing the Com
mentaries on the Gallic Wars. In this work.
he skillfully combined a history of the- wars
with reminders ol his own military suc-
cesses. Cicero developed a clear, logical style
ol writing that became a model for othci
writers. In essays on government, morality,
and philosophy, he expressed his admiration
\/jm Rom. in women w ere well educated in
tor the Roman Republic and lor the Roman histor) and literature. \ few wrote poetry. With
idea ol justice. s/,nrs to do the housework, well-to-do women
Poets. Under the emperor Augustus, like the one pit tured here had the li'isure to take
Roman literature nourished. Augustus sup an ,h five part in the intellectual and political Hie of
ported writers, especially those who praised Rome.
Roman achievements. The poet Horace was
famous for his odes praising Rome and the perors. But he seemed resigned to the pre-
Pax Romana. sent. "I may regard with admiration an ear-
The poet Virgil admired the early Re- lier period," wrote Tacitus, "but I accept the
public. When Augustus commissioned him present, and while I pray for good emperors,
to write a poem celebrating the rise of Rome,
I can endure whomever we may have."
Virgil composed the Aeneid, which you read
about in Chapter 7. (See page 1 10.) Although
the Aeneid imitated the heroic epics of Roman Law
Homer, it emphasized Roman justice, prac-
To deal with the practical problems of gov-
wisdom, and power:
tical
ernment, Romans developed a system of
You, O Roman, remember to rule the nations law, today considered one of Rome's great-
with might. This will be your genius— to im- est achievements. Roman law established a
pose the way of peace, to spare the conquered
common standard of justice for the entire
and crush the proud.
empire. Under Roman law, an accused per-
Historians. During the Pax Romana, son was considered innocent until proven
Rome produced many historians. Livy, a guilty. Judges based their decisions on evi-
contemporary of Virgil, wrote the lengthy dence presented in court. They also followed
History of Rome. Unlike the Greek historian standard procedures to ensure a fair hearing
Thucydides, who tried to be impartial, Livy for both sides in a dispute.
admitted that his goal was to glorify Rome. Roman law evolved during the Republic
"I do honestly believe that no country has and was suited to the needs of a simple
ever been greater or purer than ours or farming society. The Twelve Tables of Law,
richer in good citizens and noble deeds," he for example, had applied only to Roman citi-
claimed. zens. (See page 114.) As Rome expanded,
Another well-known historian, Tacitus two systems of law developed: civil law and
(TAS uh tuhs), wrote the Annals, a history of the law of nations. Civil law dealt with claims
Rome from the death of Augustus to 70 a.d. of Roman citizens. The law of nations dealt
Unlike Livy, he was critical of Roman em- with the claims of foreigners and took local 131
 customs into account. Eventually, the two She stands holding a scale in each hand as a
codes were merged into a single law system svmbol of balanced judgment.
that applied everywhere in the empire.
n
During the Pax Romana, punishments
SECTION REVIEW
were less severe than they had been during
1. Identity; Pliny the Elder, Galen, Ptolemy. Vir-
the Republic. Furthermore, the law code gil.Livy, Tacitus.
provided some protection tor slaves and 2. Define: aqueduct.
women. It set limits on the absolute rights of 3. How did Roman sculpture differ from Greek
fathers and husbands. Also, women and sculpture?
slaves were given the right to own property. What
4. contributions did the Romans make to
Roman law was the foundation for the science and medicine?
law codes that developed in Europe and 5. What was Livy's opinion of Rome?
were carried to other parts of the world. To- 6. What two systems of law developed as Rome
day, in some American courthouses, you can expanded?
see statues of the Roman goddess of justice. c 3

2 Rise of Christianity

During the Pax Romana, a new religion. Roman Rule in Palestine

Christianity, spread across the Greco-Roman
world. At first, Christianity was just one of The Hebrews, or Jews, were among the peo-
themanv religions practiced within the Ro- ples in the empire whose religions were tol-
man Empire. But by 395 a.d., it had become erated. Roman officials in Palestine re-
the official religion of the empire. The suc- spected the Hebrew one God and
belief in
cess of Christianity was due in part to the re- excused Jews from worshipping the em-
ligious climate of the Roman world. peror. For example, the face of the emperor
was not imprinted on coins issued in Pales-
tine because Hebrew law forbade Jews to
The Religious Climate
worship images.
Roman emperors tolerated different reli- Although Rome allowed Jewish leaders
gious practices. Officially, Romans were re- to enforce their traditional laws, many Jews
quired to offer sacrifices to the emperor, resented foreign rule. Some Jews believed
who was thought to have divine power. that a messiah, a savior chosen by God,
These ceremonies had little religious mean- would lead the Hebrews to freedom from
ing, however. They merely symbolized a per- Roman rule. One group, the Zealots, sought
son's loyalty to Rome. As long as people political freedom through armed resistance
made formal sacrifices, they could worship to Rome. But Rome responded to criticism
as they chose. and violence with severe punishment.
Many Romans continued to worship the In 66 a.d., the Jews in Palestine rose in
old gods, such as Jupiter and Mars. Others revolt. Rome sent an army to destroy Jerusa-
turned to mystery religions similar to those lem. In 70 a.d., Rome abolished the Jewish
that had developed in ancient Greece. (See state, which had existed since ancient times.
page 97.) People who believed in mystery re- The Jews were enslaved and dispersed
ligions used magical signs and secret pass- throughout the empire. But scattered Jewish
words hoping to win immortality. Mystery communities survived elsewhere in the em-
religions gave people in the huge impersonal pire. In these communities, the Jews pre-

132 Roman Empire a sense of belonging. served their religion and culture.