ANIMAL RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

In Fulfillment of BIO 2202L General Physiology Laboratory Requirement

Presented to the Biology Department
University of San Carlos

Presented by:
Abato, Liezyl Jane

Presented to:
Val B. Salares

March 2024
 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page …………………………………………………………………………….…………… i

Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………………….………… 1

List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………….………… 2

List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………….……………… 2

Introduction ………………………………………………………….…………………………….. 3

Materials and Methods ……………………….……………………………………………………………… 4

Results and Discussion ………………………………………………….……………………………….…… 7

References ………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

Documentation ………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
 2

List of Tables

Table 1. Factors for RV and TLC Determinations

List of Figures

Figure 1. Fish’s Gill System

Figure 2. Insect’s Tracheal System

Figure 3. Human Lung System

Figure 4. Size of the Thoracic Region During Regular Breathing

Figure 5. Size of the Thoracic Region During Forced Breathing

Figure 6. Variations in Breaths Per Minute

Figure 7. Comparison of the Tidal Volume of Males and Females

Figure 8. Comparison of the ERV and IRV of Males and Females

Figure 9. Comparison of the VC, RV, and TLC in Males and Females

Figure 10. Mechanics of Breathing

Figure 11. Respiratory Sounds

Figure 12. Factors Related to Breathing

Figure 13. Spirometry

 3

INTRODUCTION

The respiratory system works with the circulatory system to provide oxygen and remove

the waste products of metabolism. Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the gas

exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells. Cells need

oxygen and at the same time, release carbon dioxide as a metabolic waste product (Tortora &

Derrickson 2019). For small multicellular organisms, direct diffusion across the outer membrane

is sufficient to meet their oxygen needs e.g. flatworms, roundworms, sponges, cnidarians, and

protozoans. They have no anatomical specialization for respiration and gases simply pass to and

from the environment through their surface layers (Molnar & Gair, 2015). For larger organisms,

they had to develop specialized respiratory surfaces accompanied by complex circulatory

systems to transport oxygen throughout their entire body. Fishes and marine animals have gills

instead of lungs to breathe and acquire oxygen, although some species of fish such as lungfish

have both. Gills are featherlike surfaces that allow the body fluids to circulate in a closed network

that is separated by only a cell layer from the water in the environment (Willmer et al., 2005).

Moreover, terrestrial organisms have tracheal systems as are found in insects or lung systems as

are found in most vertebrates. They have evolved specialized respiratory surfaces that provide

efficient entry of oxygen-rich air through a network of tubes that bring the air close to the tissues

or blood where gas exchange takes place (Molnar & Gair, 2015). In this exercise, we delved into

the realm of animal respiratory physiology of aquatic and terrestrial animals as well as the human

respiratory system and learned the different factors related to breathing which gave us a

profound understanding of the respiratory mechanisms.

 4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This experiment has two parts: Part A: Aquatic and Terrestrial Respiratory Systems, and

Part B: Factors Related to Breathing and Spirometry. The experiments were performed at the

Botany Laboratory, Room ES231 of Arnoldus Science Building, University of San Carlos - Talamban

Campus.

Part A. Aquatic and Terrestrial Respiratory Systems

This paper will provide a discussion of the aquatic and terrestrial respiratory systems as

well as considerations of air and water as respiratory media. There were no laboratory

procedures made for this part of the exercise and no materials were used.

Part B.

Exercise A. Factors Related to Breathing

Activity 1: Mechanisms of Breathing

To observe the movement of air from regions of higher pressure to lower pressure as the

person inhales or exhales, we measured the circumference of the thorax of each member with a

tape measure and placed it around the chest at the axillary level. This was held in position while

the person breathes. The circumference of the thorax was recorded during normal and forced

breathing.

Activity 2: Respiratory Sounds

To observe the different respiratory sounds, we located the larynx of our lab partner,

placed the bell of the stethoscope just inferior to it, and listened to the tracheal sounds as he/she

inhaled and exhaled. Similarly, we placed the bell of the stethoscope in the triangle of

auscultation and listened for the bronchial sounds as the person respires. This is ideal for listening
 5

to respiratory sounds because the thoracic cage is not covered by muscles. Observations were

then recorded.

Activity 3: Factors Related to Breathing

A. Variations in respiratory rate

This experiment was performed with a partner and recorded the number of breaths an

individual took for a total of two (2) minutes while sitting quietly. An average number of breaths

was taken by dividing the recorded number of breaths by two (2) to calculate the average number

of breaths per minute. Subsequently, the person ran for two (2) minutes and as soon as finished,

the lab partner recorded the number of breaths per minute.

B. Breath-holding Baseline Rate

To perform this experiment, the person is seated in a comfortable position. He inhaled

maximally and held his breath for as long as possible. Mobile phones were set with stopwatches

to record the duration of time the person held his breath under normal conditions. The person

then rested for five minutes before performing the next experiment.

C. Carbon Dioxide Levels and Breath-Holding

In this experiment, a medium-sized brown paper bag was used and placed over the

mouth. The person breathed into the paper bag over the mouth and nose for one minute. At the

end of one minute, he removed the bag and inhaled maximally, holding his breath. The lab

partner then placed his/her hand on his shoulder and recorded the amount of time (in seconds)

the person could hold his breath.

D. Hyperventilation and Breath-holding

 6

The individual was given a five-minute break after the previous breathing exercise.

Subsequently, the individual took fifteen (15) deep breaths while seated and then inhaled

maximally. He held his breath similar to the previous exercise and recorded the amount of time

(in seconds) that person could hold his breath.

Part C.

V. Spirometry: Lung Capacities

Spirometry is a physiological test that measures the ability to inhale and exhale air relative

to time (Ponce et al., 2023). A spirometer is a special device that registers the amount of air a

subject inhales or exhales and the rate at which the air is moved into or out of the lungs. This

exercise was performed using a handheld spirometer to determine individual respiratory

volumes. The group was able to measure the tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory

reserve volume, and vital capacity, as well as calculate the predicted residual volume and total

lung capacity. The following formulas were used:

Table 1. Factors for RV and TLC Determinations

Formula:
Vital Capacity (VC) = TV + ERV + IRV
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) = VC - ERV
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) = VC - (ERV + TV)

Predicted Residual Volume (RV) = Factor from Table 8 x V.C

Predicted Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = Factor from Table 8 x V.C
 7

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Part A. Aquatic and Terrestrial Respiratory Systems

Figure 1. Fish’s Gill System

Figure 2. Insect’s Tracheal System

Figure 3. Human Lung System

 8

Organisms have developed different respiratory surfaces to have efficient gas exchange

and respiration. Oxygen concentrations are much higher in air, about 21% oxygen, than in water,

a tiny fraction of 1 percent oxygen (Kutty, 1987). Oxygen dissolves in water but at a lower

concentration than in the atmosphere. Fish and many other aquatic organisms have evolved gills

to take up the dissolved oxygen from water. Gills are thin tissue filaments that are highly

branched and folded. When water passes over the gills, the dissolved oxygen in water rapidly

diffuses across the gills into the bloodstream. The circulatory system can then carry the

oxygenated blood to the other parts of the body.

In animals that contain coelomic fluid instead of blood, oxygen diffuses across the gill

surfaces into the coelomic fluid. Gills are found in mollusks, annelids, and crustaceans. The folded

surfaces of the gills provide a large surface area to ensure that the fish gets sufficient oxygen. In

this case, blood with a low concentration of oxygen molecules circulates through the gills. The

concentration of oxygen molecules in water is higher than the concentration of oxygen molecules

in gills. As a result, oxygen molecules diffuse from water (high concentration) to blood (low

concentration).

Mammals and insects have developed specialized respiratory systems. Mammals have

developed a lung system for respiration. Oxygen is inhaled and extracted from the atmospheric

air in the lungs and carried by the bloodstream through the circulation to the tissue (Popel, 1989).

All red blood cells contain a red pigment known as hemoglobin. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin and

is transported around the body in that way. In tiny blood vessels in the lung, the red blood cells

pick up oxygen from inhaled (breathed-in) air and carry it through the bloodstream to all parts of

the body (Informed Health, 2006).

 9

On the other hand, insects have a tracheal system for respiration. It is present in insects,

invertebrates, and terrestrial arthropods and they breathe by diffusion through the skin. Insect

respiration is independent of its circulatory system; therefore, the blood does not play a direct

role in oxygen transport. It consists of a network of small tubes that carry oxygen to the entire

body and is considered the most direct and efficient respiratory system in active animals Insects

have spiracles on their exoskeletons to allow air to enter the tracheoles and then to the trachea.

In insects, the tracheal tubes primarily deliver oxygen directly into the insects' tissues. The

spiracles can be opened and closed efficiently to reduce water loss. This is done by contracting

closer muscles surrounding the spiracle (Solomon et al., 2002).

Part B.

Exercise A. Factors Related to Breathing

Activity 1: Mechanisms of Breathing

Figure 4. Size of the Thoracic Region During Regular Breathing

 10

Figure 5. Size of the Thoracic Region During Forced Breathing

In the data presented in Figure 4. Size of the thoracic region during regular breathing,

most of the data presented a similar trend of increasing circumference of the thorax during

normal breathing as the person inhales and decreases as we exhale. According to Donley et al.

(2022), the increasing volume of the thoracic cavity during inspiration causes a decrease in the

intrathoracic pressure and an influx of air. Meanwhile, the decreasing volume of the thoracic

cavity, which generally occurs by the relaxation of the muscles from inspiration, causes an

increase in intrathoracic pressure and results in expiration. Moreover, inhalation is the act of

drawing air into the lungs, while exhalation is the expulsion of that air out of the lungs. Breathing

involves Boyle’s law, which states that the pressure of a gas decreases as the volume increases if

the temperature is held constant. This means as we inhale, the volume of the thoracic region

increases as there’s an influx of air entering the lungs and pressure in the diaphragm decreases,

and vice versa. In addition, a similar trend is observed in the size of the thoracic region during

forced breathing. The circumference of the thoracic activity increases as the person inhales and

there is a more observable decrease in the thoracic volume during exhalation. Following maximal
 11

inspiration, the volume of air that leaves the lungs during a maximal force expiration is known as

the vital capacity (VC) (Lofrese et al., 2023). Forced breathing is an active mode of breathing that

utilizes additional muscles to rapidly expand and contract the thoracic cavity volume therefore,

there were more observable trends and changes in the size of the thoracic region during forced

breathing than in normal breathing. Moreover, the vital capacity of an individual varies on age,

gender, body composition, and ethnicity, affecting the different ranges of lung capacity among

individuals (Delgado et al., 2023).

Activity 2: Respiratory Sounds

Normal Breathing Sound

During normal breathing, respiratory sounds are quiet and rhythmic, consisting of inhalation and

exhalation without any abnormal noise or disruption. Sounds are a result of the airflow through

the airways and lungs during the breathing process (Mason et al., 2015).

Forced Breathing Sound

Forced breathing sounds are louder and more pronounced than normal breathing sounds. These

can occur during physical exertion, respiratory distress, or medical conditions affecting the

respiratory system. This can include wheezing, stridor, diminished or increased breath sounds,

and other abnormal noises associated with breathing (Mason et al., 2015).

Coughing Sound

Sudden and often repetitive expulsion of air from the lungs, maybe due to irritation or

obstruction in the airways. Coughing may produce varying sounds, such as dry or wet coughs,

which can indicate different underlying conditions (Albert, 2008).

 12

Activity 3: Factors Related to Breathing

A. Variations in respiratory rate

B. Breath-holding Baseline Rate

C. Carbon Dioxide Levels and Breath-Holding

D. Hyperventilation and Breath-holding

Figure 6. Variations in Breaths Per Minute

When you exercise, and your muscles work harder, your body uses more oxygen and

produces more carbon dioxide. To cope with this extra demand, your breathing must increase

from about 15 times a minute (12 liters of air) when you are resting to about 40–60 times a

minute (100 liters of air) during exercise. Your circulation also speeds up to take oxygen to the

muscles so that they can keep moving (National Library of Medicine, 2016). The respiratory rate

increases from sitting to running due to the body's heightened demand for oxygen during

physical exertion. When running, the muscles require more oxygen to support the increased

activity, causing the respiratory system to work harder, resulting in a higher breathing rate.
 13

Additionally, an increase in carbon dioxide production during exercise stimulates the need for

increased breathing. These factors collectively contribute to the rise in respiratory rate during

running compared to sitting (National Library of Medicine, 2016). The variations in breath-

holding baseline rates may be influenced by several factors, such as individual lung capacity,

fitness levels, and oxygen consumption. Additionally, variables like age, gender, and health

conditions can also contribute to the differences in baseline rates. These factors can impact how

long an individual can hold their breath and their baseline breath-holding rate (Ponce et al.,

2023). In the data presented in Table 5, the number of breath-holding seconds differs from

person to person. When holding your breath, oxygen levels decrease, and carbon dioxide levels

increase in the body. Elevated carbon dioxide levels increase breath-holding tolerance and affect

cerebral blood flow. Increased CO2 tolerance leads to the dilation of blood vessels, playing a

significant role in breath-holding and the body's response to changing oxygen levels (Brinkman

et al., 2023). Hyperventilation leads to decreased carbon dioxide levels in the blood, causing

symptoms such as Lightheadedness, tingling, and muscle spasms. On the other hand, breath-

holding can lead to increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood, triggering the body's urge to

breathe and potentially causing a blackout if prolonged. Several studies have suggested that

males generally have a higher ability for breath-holding after hyperventilation than females. Roca

et al. (2014) found that males exhibited a higher breath-holding time after hyperventilation than

females in their study on respiratory physiology and breath-holding capabilities. The researchers

attributed this difference to various physiological factors, including lung volume and hemoglobin

levels. However, similar to the previous factors, results vary for every person, for many factors

could affect/ influence respiratory rates.

 14

Part C.

V. Spirometry: Lung Capacities

Figure 7. Comparison of the Tidal Volume of Males and Females

Figure 8. Comparison of the ERV and IRV of Males and Females

 15

Figure 9. Comparison of the VC, RV, and TLC in Males and Females

The average normal lung capacity and volume for RV in men is 1200mL and a TLC of 6000mL.

Moreover, in women, the average healthy normal lung capacity and volume is RV = 1100 mL and

TLC = 4200 mL (Morris, 2010). In a healthy individual, there is typically a positive correlation

between Vital Capacity (VC) and Inspiratory Capacity (IC), as both are influenced by Tidal Volume

(TV) and Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV). Higher VC and IC values indicate good respiratory

muscle function and lung compliance. However, individual variations may occur due to age,

gender, and physical fitness (Delgado and Bajaj, 2023).

REFERENCES

Delgado BJ, Bajaj T. Physiology, Lung Capacity. [Updated 2023 Jul 24]. In: StatPearls [Internet].
Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541029/
InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health
Care (IQWiG); 2006-. What does blood do? [Updated 2019 Aug 29]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279392/
Kutty M.N. (1987). Chemical Feature of Water. African Regional Aquaculture Centre Port
Harcourt, Nigeria.
 16

https://www.fao.org/3/AC183E/AC183E04.htm#:~:text=4.2%20Solubility%20of%20oxyg
en,2).
Lofrese JJ, Tupper C, Denault D, et al. Physiology, Residual Volume. [Updated 2023 Feb 27]. In:
StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available
from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493170/
Molnar C. & Gair J. (2015). Concepts of Biology - 1st Canadian Edition. Biology, Life Sciences.
BCampus. Accessed through https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/20-1-systems-of-
gas-exchange/.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Sleep Apnea. Updated 2022 March 24. Accessed from
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/sleep-apnea
Ponce MC, Sankari A, Sharma S. Pulmonary Function Tests. [Updated 2023 Aug 28]. In: StatPearls
[Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482339/
Popel A. S. (1989). Theory of oxygen transport to tissue. Critical reviews in biomedical
engineering, 17(3), 257–321.
Solomon, Eldra, Linda Berg, Diana Martin (2002). Biology. Brooks/Cole. International Edition.
ISBN-13: 978-1-285-42358-6, ISBN: 1-285-42358-5.
Tortora G. & Derrickson B. (2019). Introduction to Human Body, 11th Edition. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN: 1119585465, 9781119585466.
Willmer P., Stone G. & Johnston I. (2005). Environmental Physiology of Animals 2nd Ed. Blackwell
Science Ltd. from
https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/5553645/mod_resource/content/1/Willmer%
2C%20Stone%20%20Johsnton_Environmental-physiology-of-animals.pdf.

Image Sources
Gill System:
https://med.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/5299/Figure_39_01_04-1024x464.jpg?revision=1
Tracheal System:
https://338373gasexchange.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/0/9/11096275/657758270.gif
Lung System: https://api.www.labxchange.org/api/v1/xblocks/lb:LabXchange:d1117dea-e24c-
3036-9ba1-53dc8e3c03fa:html:1/storage/Figure_B39_02_02-
dba3865e02ebfd0a292148f00d90aee8.png

Documentation
 17

Figure 10. Mechanics of Breathing

Figure 11. Respiratory Sounds

 18

Figure 12. Factors Related to Breathing

Figure 13. Spirometry