SAFM 5 (1) pp.

11–23 Intellect Limited 2013

Studies in South Asian Film & Media

Volume 5 Number 1
© 2013 Intellect Ltd Article. English language. doi: 10.1386/safm.5.1.11_1

Maria Kapsali
University of Leeds

The ‘ancient’ body of modern

Yoga: The influence of
Ramanuja on Iyengar
Yoga and the use of Yoga
in actor training

Abstract Keywords
Yoga is one of the most popular leisure activities that flourish in contemporary Yoga
western societies and also one of the most common non-theatrical disciplines used in Iyengar Yoga
performer training. This article focuses on the pedagogy that underlies the practice of Ramanuja
yoga and poses and outlines two different ways of practising: the active and passive. standing poses
It draws links between the pedagogy of modern yoga and the conceptualization resting poses
of the human body in the pre-modern religious doctrine of Ramanuja. Based
on this account, it presents the ways in which yoga can inform the actor’s work with
different dramaturgies. In this manner, this article aims to examine modern yoga
from a perspective that has been neglected so far and also proposes additional ways
in which yoga may be used in actor training.

11
Maria Kapsali

1. Yoga has been Introduction

recognized by Sport
England, the official The practice of yoga has become a widespread activity in western(ized) soci-
body for sports and eties and millions of people either engage or would like to engage with the
leisure in the United
Kingdom, and placed in discipline. The promotion and dissemination of yoga is primarily taking place
the ‘Health and Fitness’ within health and fitness environments and the practice of the discipline is
category. (http://www.
sportengland.org/
pursued for similar reasons.1 In view of the sites and the ways in which yoga
about_us/recognised_ has been acculturated, recent studies (De Michelis 2004; Buehneman 2007;
sports/how_we_ Singleton 2010) point out that modern forms of yoga have greatly departed
recognise_sports.aspx).
from Hinduist traditions both in terms of the ideology that underpins contem-
porary practices and the physical activities that comprise the syllabi of the most
popular yoga schools. To begin with, Elizabeth De Michelis (2004) supports
that modern yoga has lost the theistic and devotional outlook that charac-
terized previous configurations while it has incorporated elements of west-
ern esotericism and New Age ideologies. Gudrun Buehneman further notes a
shift in the importance accorded to physical practices; whereas in pre-modern
traditions the practice of yoga postures/asanas was secondary to the devo-
tional and meditative aspects of the discipline, today the practice of the asanas
is the main focus of the majority of yoga schools (2007a: 21). Contemporary
yoga, therefore, is considered to have departed to such an extent from its
origins that Geoffrey Samuel argues, ‘it should be judged in its own terms, not
in terms of its closeness to some presumably more authentic Indian practice’
(2007: 178, as quoted in Singleton 2010: 14). The modernization and secu-
larization of yoga practices is also evident in the way yoga has been used in
actor training. Since contemporary yoga lacks an explicit religious orientation
and is rather pursued on the grounds of the psychosomatic benefits of the
asanas, the use of yoga in actor training is secular in character and focuses on
the ways in which yoga may develop the actor’s physical and vocal abilities.
Moreover, J. Grotowski’s observation that yoga develops a kind of introspec-
tive concentration that ‘destroys all expression’ ([1968] 1991: 208) has engen-
dered a negative attitude towards the meditative character of the discipline.
As such, within actor training contexts, introspection is often treated as an
adverse effect of yoga practice – one that should be avoided.
In light of the above, this article focuses on Iyengar Yoga and discusses
the active and passive modes of practice. On the one hand, my aim is to
draw links between the pedagogy of Iyengar Yoga and a certain strand of
the discipline’s pre-modern, religious origins. In particular, I will present the
thought of thirteenth-century theologian, Ramanuja, and examine the way in
which Ramanuja’s configuration of the body is realized through the practice
of Iyengar Yoga. I will argue that an appreciation of the centrality of the
passive mode within Iyengar’s system renders inaccurate a historical analysis
of yoga that takes into account only the modern influences of the discipline.
On the other hand, my intention is to outline the ways in which the active and
passive aspects of the Iyengar pedagogy can be beneficial to the actor. I will
argue that the interplay between active and passive can develop the actor’s
‘will’, as the latter is configured in C. Stanislavski’s System, without compro-
mising the collaborative nature of the theatrical endeavour. Accordingly, I will
contend that the practice of resting poses may enable the actor to gain an
understanding of the radical reformulation of subjectivity that characterizes
postdramatic texts. Taking as an example the dramaturgy of Samuel Beckett,
I will argue – contra Grotowski – that the cultivation of passivity does not
‘destroy’ the actor’s expression, but rather enables the actor to embody an

12
 The ‘ancient’ body of modern Yoga

alternative acting paradigm. By focusing on elements of pedagogy, this article 2. I began studying
Iyengar Yoga in 2003
aims to both foreground a hitherto neglected strand of yoga’s pre-modern, with Silvia Prescott,
religious background and also expand the application of the discipline as an who is a direct student
actor training tool. of Iyengar, and in 2007 I
qualified as an Iyengar
Yoga teacher.
The characteristics of Iyengar Yoga
My choice to limit the scope of this article to Iyengar Yoga has been deter-
mined by several factors. First, Iyengar Yoga is considered as ‘arguably the
most influential school of Postural Yoga to date’ (De Michelis 2004: 4). The
founder of the method, B. K. S. Iyengar (1918–), was first taught yoga by
T. Krishnamacharya (1888–1989), who is regarded as the ‘architect’ of modern
yoga practices. Accordingly, Iyengar’s technical mastery of the asanas has
been unprecedented, whereas the focus of the school is on the practice of
the poses. Iyengar Yoga, therefore, can be considered to be the most paradig-
matic manifestation of modern yoga both in terms of influence and lineage.
In addition to the above, Iyengar was born into a Sri Vaisnava family of
Brahmins and still upholds his original religious beliefs. De Michelis traces
the influence that his personal religious convictions have exerted on his think-
ing and argues that one of the features that characterize Iyengar’s formula-
tion is a ‘“devotionalization” of yoga’ (2004: 244). De Michelis points out the
devotional attitude that Iyengar exhibits towards the practice of the poses and
suggests that the rigour with which Iyengar approaches the physical aspect of
yoga may be seen as a form of devotional activity. Nevertheless, De Michelis’s
study is based on an examination of Iyengar’s books, but does not consider
Iyengar’s pedagogy. This is a shortcoming, since it can be safely presumed
that Iyengar’s influence as a teacher has been considerably greater than his
impact as an author. Furthermore, an appreciation of ‘modern postural yoga’
(De Michelis 2004: 4) – which as the name suggests is all about the prac-
tice of the postures – seems incomplete without an examination of the peda-
gogy that underpins the daily interactions that take place in the yoga studio.
For this reason, this article draws on both scholarly sources and my own expe-
rience of practising and using Iyengar Yoga with actors.2
One of the most salient characteristics of Iyengar Yoga is the pragmatic
and technical tone of the class. The sessions consist exclusively of asana prac-
tice that takes place in an orderly and repetitive fashion: the teacher calls and
demonstrates the pose and then instructs the students in the pose. While the
students are in the pose, the teacher provides further instructions or physically
adjusts the students’ position, and finally instructs the students to come out of
the pose. The same pose may be repeated two or three times. Often repetition
features a slight variation that may also be accompanied by the use of one of
the numerous props that characterize the method. In relation to other schools,
such as Bikram or Ashtanga Yoga, Iyengar Yoga is distinguished by a slower
pace and by a tendency to ‘hold’ the pose for longer. Moreover, the student’s
progression is measured according to one’s ability to follow instructions, which
tend to become more detailed as the student advances, rather than athletic
accomplishment. As such, instructions for beginners aim to achieve a general
organization of the body’s limbs and position in the space. For example, in
Downward Dog the student will be invited to keep the legs straight and
extend the heels to the floor. At a more advanced level, the instructions
become more complicated and address smaller body parts. In the same pose,
for instance, whereas a beginner is simply asked to extend the heels down, an

13
Maria Kapsali

intermediate student will be directed to ‘stretch the foot from the metatarsals
to the ankle’ and ‘draw the front shinbone away from the skin’. Both sets of
instructions aim to enable the extension of the Achilles tendon, but the second
set not only figures a more precise anatomical knowledge, it also presupposes
that the practitioner has gained access to, i.e. has become conscious of and
can deliberately move, smaller body segments. In this manner, Iyengar has
devised a way of doing and teaching the poses that accomplishes not only the
athletic and aesthetic potential of the asanas. More crucially, it treats the form
of the asanas as a ‘container’ for the practitioner’s flow of attention. In other
words, the practice of the poses aims at teaching and engaging the student
in a ‘quiet, unbiased’ observation of the spatial and temporal embodiment of
the form. For this reason, as the student’s physical capacities develop, verbal
instructions, use of props and physical adjustments are employed in order to
direct the student’s attention to more refined and less accessible parts of the
body and thus prevent one from doing the pose absentmindedly.
The reflexive and proprioceptive nature of Iyengar Yoga becomes more
pronounced in the practice of resting poses. A session may exclusively
consist of resting poses or they can be used as a transition between the
beginning or the end of the session and the course of daily life; as a pause
between poses that are physically more demanding; and as preparation for
pranayama, i.e. the breathing exercises. As such, the practice of one resting
pose may last over twenty minutes and no less than five. Most resting poses
are practised with the eyes closed and lying in a supine position either on the
floor or on bolsters. The use of the props aims to support and ‘mould’ the
practitioner’s body into the shape of the pose, without the practitioner exert-
ing any muscular effort. Although resting poses feature the same attention
to alignment that characterizes the rest of the syllabus, the student attends
to the precise placement of the body while she goes in the pose. Once the
student settles, there is a minimum amount of deliberate physical movement.
Resting poses, therefore, are practised in a way that radically minimizes the
channels that would otherwise direct and concentrate the student’s attention.
The objective is no longer to embody the shape of the pose by bringing
movement and awareness to specific body parts. Rather the students’ task is
to let go, to refrain from ‘doing’ the pose and rather let the pose ‘do them’.
The two ways of practising feature significant differences in terms of the
physical demands placed on the practitioner and the ensuing state of one’s
body–mind. In an essay that examines mysticism from a cognitive perspective,
Arthur Deikman supports that there are two kinds of consciousness: the
instrumental and the receptive (2000: 80–81). The first one is intentional and
enables the subject to ‘act on the environment’ (Deikman 2000). The second
one allows the subject to ‘receive the environment’ (Deikman 2000). Following
Deikman’s distinction, it could be said that the practice of standing poses has
a more intentional character, whereas resting poses cultivate a more recep-
tive attitude. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to equate the active mode of
practice with instrumental consciousness and, respectively, the passive mode
of practice with receptive consciousness. In fact, it could be argued that yoga
fosters a constant interplay between these two modes so that they blend into
each other; familiarization with both manners may enable the practitioner to
be ‘passive’ when following a goal or striving for an end result (for instance
to stretch the heels to the floor) and accordingly remain ‘active’ when she
engages with a moment-to-moment observation of a specific process (e.g. not
go to sleep during the practice of resting poses).

14
 The ‘ancient’ body of modern Yoga

In relation to the above it is interesting to note that, although Deikman 3. Sri Vaisnavism is
one of the various
acknowledges the importance of ‘instrumental consciousness’ for the purposes schools that comprise
of individual survival, he privileges the cultivation of ‘receptive consciousness’ Vaisnavism. Its
on the grounds that it engenders a more sociable and humanistic outlook. main characteristic
is the devotion
Deikman argues that as the cultivation of receptive consciousness leads to and soteriological
a blurring of boundaries and an openness of the self to the world, the indi- significance it accords
vidual becomes more sensitive and responsive towards one’s environment to Visnu’s entourage
(Sri). Ramanuja is
and other human beings. Correspondingly, because instrumental conscious- particularly connected
ness highlights the distinction between the subject and the world, it may lead with the Sri Vaisnava
tradition.
to individualistic behaviours. However, Deikman also acknowledges that
the ‘spiritual self’, which assumedly derives from the practice of ‘receptive 4. The philosophical
school of Vedanta has
consciousness’, may have a ‘tendency to passivity’ and be ‘ineffective towards evolved three branches
defending and acquiring’ (2000: 82). If we view Deikman’s observations in that, respectively,
relation to the use of yoga in actor training, it becomes evident that they view the relationship
with Brahman in a
bear a close resemblance to Grotowski’s criticism of yogic introspection. The non dualistic manner
dangers that Deikman identifies in the realization of receptive consciousness (Advaita), qualified
echo Grotowski’s caution about the introspective character of yoga and its non dualistic manner
(visista-advaita) and
unsuitability as an actor training tool. However, as I will discuss in the last dualistic manner
section of this article these modes of consciousness have no inherent value in (dvaita) (De Michelis
2004: 131–32).
themselves. Their value and efficacy rather depend on the way these modes
inform and are used within a larger pedagogy.
Finally, it is worth observing that both ways of practising have been histori-
cally traced to two distinct forms of physical education. In relation to the active
mode, Mark Singleton argues that the standing asanas originate from regimes
of physical culture that were popular in nineteenth-century Europe and India
and are thus ‘late additions to the yoga canon’ (2010: 161). Accordingly,
Singleton posits that the ‘gentle’ way of practising originates from nineteenth-
century Harmonial Gymnastics and now manifests in ‘Hatha Yoga’, which
denotes a form of ‘generic practice’ and is distinct from the ‘“named” brands’
(2010: 152). Although Singleton points out that the distinction between
the two modes is heuristic and aims at outlining the currents that under-
pin modern forms of the discipline, it clearly equates Iyengar’s system with
the active/athletic mode and Hatha Yoga with the gentle one. However, this
distinction is problematic; it both seems oblivious to Iyengar’s own religious
convictions and upbringing and fails to account for the ‘gentle’ dimension
of Iyengar’s pedagogy. As I will argue in the following section, however, if
Iyengar’s system is viewed through the lens of his own religion then both
aspects of his system emerge as part of a wider understanding of the role of
the body and the practice of yoga.

The thought of Ramanuja

Ramanuja (1017–1137) was a South Indian theologian who formulated his ideas
within the religious tradition of Vaisnavism (or Sri Vaisnavism).3 Vaisnavism
has its roots in pre-medieval practices of Hinduism and is pertained by the
dogma of visista-advaita, i.e. the doctrine of qualified non-dualism accord-
ing to which the world and Brahman (i.e. the Supreme Being in Indian
metaphysical thought) are the same, but Brahman is more than the world.4
Ramanuja’s formulation was based on the already widespread perception that
the material world, including human beings, is part of the body of Brahman.
As several scholars note, however, Ramanuja developed this concept further
and made it central to his theological formulation. In order to appreciate

15
Maria Kapsali

the innovative nature of Ramanuja’s doctrine, it is important to examine the

context in which it developed. As Jon Paul Sydnor explains, Ramanuja’s aim
was to accord to the basic tenets and practices of Vaisnavism the respect
and influence enjoyed by the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. According to
Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), Brahman and the world are the same and
‘all difference within the cosmos and among human beings is finally illusory’
(Sydnor 2011: 9). As such, the inability to recognize the true state of the world
is regarded as a fault of human perception, which misidentifies with material
reality and fails to see human nature and the world as part of Brahman. For
this reason, Advaita Vedanta regarded devotional practices and rituals as infe-
rior ways of gaining knowledge of the Supreme Being; devotion to the Lord
aims at developing a relationship with the divine, but all manifestations of
the world are an illusion. Therefore, the relationship developed between the
devotee and the Lord through rituals and devotional practices must be illu-
sory too. For this reason, Advaita Vedanta regarded meditation and the study
of the scriptures as a more efficacious way to gain enlightenment. On the
other hand, Vaisnava traditions lay more importance on devotional and ritual-
istic practices. In order to elevate Vaisnavism to the orthodoxy of the Advaita,
Ramanuja had to prove that human beings are ‘not only agents of ritual’ but
also capable of attaining ‘consciousness and bliss’ (Sydnor 2011: 13). As a
result, Ramanuja had a more positive outlook towards material reality and,
consequently, the human body. According to the theologian, the material-
ity of the human body is not a problem in itself; rather the body becomes an
obstacle when the devotee fails to regulate and control its needs. Instead of
dismissing the human body as an impediment that has to be mortified and
treating its needs as illusory, Ramanuja finds value in ‘utiliz[ing] our embod-
ied activities as a means of voyaging towards the divine’ (Barua 2009: 77). In
Ramanuja’s formulation, therefore, ‘the human body becomes more valuable
than a lump of prakrtic [material] stuff and indeed becomes the jivatman’s [the
self’s] intimate companion on its journey towards its Lord’ (Barua 2009: 73).
In view of the above, it bears noting that Iyengar’s attitude towards the
human body bears remarkable resemblance to Ramanuja’s configuration.
Similar to Ramanuja, Iyengar treats the human body as a key factor in the
aspirant’s quest, claiming that ‘to be spiritual, one must not deny or forget
the body. Throughout the journey to the spiritual goal, the body must be kept
active’ (2005: 21). Iyengar further maintains that the engagement of the body
through the practice of the asanas may result in ‘understand[ing] the true
nature of our embodiment, of our being, and of the divinity that animates us’
(2005: 22). This statement not only expresses the central visista-advaita posi-
tion, according to which the self and the Lord are part of the same continuum,
but clearly regards the body, and the practice of yoga poses in particular, as a
means of realization. It is not surprising, therefore, that Ramanuja’s influence
is evident not only in Iyengar’s world-view but also in his pedagogy.
As part of this theological innovation, Ramanuja formulated a relationship
between body and self that permeates human experience. According to this
relationship, the human body is the ‘field of consciousness’ since it ‘enables
the senses to function, and pleasure, pain or even the final bliss to be experi-
enced (Overzee 1992: 71). Respectively, ‘the embodied self is the “observer”
of the various activities of the bodily organs that are performed through its
will, and the “experiencer” of the pain or pleasure that results from such
activities’ (Barua 2009: 69). Similar to Ramanuja’s formulation Iyengar Yoga
provides the practitioner with ‘activities’ that trigger a range of psychophysical

16
 The ‘ancient’ body of modern Yoga

responses that the practitioner both ‘experiences’ and ‘observes’. Of course, 5. Such sensations may
include a ‘burning’ in
the sensations that the students may experience during an Iyengar Yoga class the thigh muscle, as
depend on personal contingencies and idiosyncrasies. However, it is often the the upper leg attempts
case that poses give rise to certain sensations that the majority of students will to form a right angle
with the shin in
experience at some point in their process. 5 In fact, the articulation of these Virabhadrasana II; a
sensations is one of the tools often used by teachers in order to check the effi- release in Downward
cacy of the pose. The teacher may feed back to the student what she does or Dog, as the weight
of the head pulls
does not see ‘happening’ in the student’s body and the student may equally the upper vertebrae
alert the teacher to a particular sensation generated by the pose. It is also a towards the floor;
‘warmth’ in Supta
common occurrence that the student may remain unaware of all the ways Badokonasana, as
in which the posture has conditioned her body. In such cases, the teacher the knees spread
may direct the student’s attention to the neglected body part. As such, in an apart and the lower
abdomen sinks into
Iyengar Yoga class both students and teacher engage in a constant interplay the pelvis; an intense
between experience and observation; the student experiences the pose and stretch in Uttanasana
is directed by the teacher to observe specific aspects of her embodiment that as the lifting of the
knees opens up the
may lead to the emergence of a new experience. In this manner, the body hamstrings; ‘space’ in
becomes a field that can be ‘known’ by the self. the ribcage, as the arms
extend over the head in
In addition to the emphasis on experience and observation that charac- Urdva Hastasana.
terizes the work of both men, it is also worth noting that they convey the
6. It is interesting to
development of psychophysical awareness by resorting to a similar metaphor. note that a similar
Psychophysical awareness is an important aspect of Ramanuja’s model as it expression, ‘the body
enables him to propose a plausible solution to a theological problem. As we becomes all eyes’, is
being used in South
have seen, Ramanuja’s intention was to show that the self is of the body of Indian Martial Art,
Brahman. Such stipulation would entail that the self is ‘uncircumscribed, infi- kalarippayttu (Zarrilli
nite and undivided’ (Overzee 1992: 71). However, since the self is material it 2009: 1). Zarrilli also
draws links between
cannot physically extend, ‘stretch out over its body’ (Barua 2009: 55). In other kalarippayattu and pre-
words, Ramanuja is faced with the problem of the prakrtik, i.e. the material, modern yoga traditions
but does not examine
nature of the self, and had to show that the self is capable of surpassing its the relationship
material confines. In order to settle the aforementioned paradox, Ramanuja between this metaphor
suggests that an act of ‘spreading’ may take place by the self’s ‘property of and specific religious
doctrines (2009: 66–72).
being conscious of all the individual parts of its body’ (Barua 2009: 55). In The encounter of
this way, Ramanuja can posit that, although the self is finite and physically the aforementioned
circumscribed, it can reach beyond its physical limits, ‘since a particular sensa- metaphor in
kalarippayattu
tion extends over the entire body’ (Barua 2009: 55). To explicate this point further reinforces
further, the theologian also draws parallels with the behaviour of sandalwood my argument that
modern yoga is
oil: in the same way that a drop of oil is applied on one spot but its fragrance underpinned by South
spreads over the whole body, ‘so too the infinite self in spite of being “atomic” Indian indigenous
is aware of sensations taking place in any part of the body’ (Barua 2009). It is understandings of the
body.
quite telling that we find a similar understanding of awareness in Iyengar’s
teaching. The shape of the asanas and Iyengar’s emphasis on pursuing an
accurate and precise embodiment of that shape could be seen as a way of
literally circumscribing one’s finite and material nature. Correspondingly, the
ability to remain present to the sensations generated by the shape of the pose
gives rise to a sense of contained but unlimited awareness, i.e. as the body
maintains the same position, the student can become aware of and observe
the emergence of ever more minute sensations. Echoing Ramanuja, Iyengar
calls his students to ‘spread’ their awareness, to allow it to ‘reach each and
every part of the body’, so that ‘each pore of the skin become[s] an eye’
(Iyengar 2005: 28).6
In view of the above, one could argue that Iyengar’s pedagogy comprises
a physical expression of Ramanuja’s doctrine; not only it views the body as
a vehicle of transcendence but most crucially offers the tools according to

17
Maria Kapsali

7. It is relevant to note which the body can be actively engaged in the spiritual pursuit. In this manner,
that in the last few
years Iyengar has been
Iyengar manages to both remain true to his own personal religious convictions
more explicit about and embrace a secular and atheistic understanding of spirituality.7 Furthermore,
his personal religious an examination of Iyengar’s system through the lens of Ramanuja’s doctrine
convictions. Quite
characteristically, an makes clear that, although the historicization of yoga reveals modern and west-
article on Ramanuja’s ern influences, the genealogical profile of the asanas is not the same and should
life appeared in not be confused with the world-view and attitude of the practitioners who
2009 in Iyengar Yoga
News, the quarterly formulated the discipline. In other words, the modern and western roots of the
magazine published by poses do not obliterate the religious and indigenous culture of the practitioners
the UK Iyengar Yoga
Association, see Agar-
who incorporated these poses into the ‘yoga canon’. In fact, if we accept that
Ward (2009). ‘corporal postures become “floating signifiers” whose meaning is determined
according to context’ (Singleton 2010: 161), then the religious convictions of
the practitioners is a key factor in determining the character of these poses.
Furthermore, an examination of Iyengar Yoga through the lens of Ramanuja’s
thought shows that the interplay of active and passive that characterizes the
teaching of the asanas is part of a wider endeavour to heighten the students’
sense of embodiment and sharpen their awareness. As I will discuss in the
following section, these modes can not only inform the actor’s pre-performa-
tive training but may be used directly in work with different dramaturgies.

The use of active and passive modes in yoga and

actor training
The interplay between active and passive is a theme that underlies the peda-
gogy of various methods of performer training. E. Barba and N. Savarese
have identified the combination of the two opposing qualities of ‘hard’ and
‘soft’ in a number of traditional training disciplines. Accordingly, in his own
work with the Odin Theatre, Barba has experimented with the manipu-
lation of the performer’s energy through the mastery of a ‘well-articulated
distinction between soft and strong tensions’ (Barba and Savarese 1991: 83).
Furthermore, in The Intimate Act of Choreography (1989), L. A. Blom and
L. Train Chaplin treat the performer’s ability to activate or pacify one’s energy
as a choreographing tool. In an observation, which could be also used to
describe the practice of standing and resting poses, Blom and Chaplin explain:
‘when active, we are employing force, whether against gravity, self, an object,
or another body. When passive, we are foregoing our energy potential, choos-
ing to give ourselves over to nature or man-made forces acting upon us’
(1989: 74). Nevertheless, it has to be stressed that despite the attention that
the modes of active-passive have received in performer training, they have
been neither examined in relation to yoga nor connected to the different ways
in which dramatic texts (re)present human subjectivity. As I will discuss in
this section, attention to the interplay of these modes can both foreground
additional ways in which yoga can be used in actor training and offer a model
according to which postdramatic texts may be approached.
To begin with, I would claim that the active mode of asana practice can
enable the actor to gain a psychophysical understanding of the concept of
will. Will has a significant place in Stanislavski’s System both in terms of
the actor’s resources and the role’s constituent parts. Alongside ‘Mind’ and
‘Creative Feeling’, Stanislavski identifies ‘Will’ as one of the actor’s psycho-
logical inner drives (2008: 277). As such, the actor is expected to activate his
will in order to both develop one’s concentration (Stanislavski 2008: 114) and
be able to ‘experience’ the role onstage (Stanislavski 2008: 274). In addition

18
 The ‘ancient’ body of modern Yoga

to the above, the actor also needs to gain an understanding of the character’s 8. Physical exertion is
often used in actor
will so that he/she can recognize what drives the character’s actions in the training as a way to
play and accordingly perform the character’s ‘superobjective’. In view of this develop the actor’s
configuration, training in standing poses may not only develop the actor’s endurance and
abilities. Prominent
physical resources, such as strength, flexibility, stamina and breath capacity, examples are
it can also provide the actor with a psychophysical understanding of effort Suzuki Training and
and resistance. Especially since some of the standing poses are physically Grotowski’s work with
the Theatre Laboratory
demanding, the actor will have to enlist one’s resolve and endurance in order (see, respectively,
to stay in the pose and engage with the necessary actions. By practising stand- Whitworth 2003;
Grotowski [1968] 1991).
ing poses, therefore, the actor may both confront and asked to stretch his/her
limits further. In this manner, the poses can become a site where the actor
observes and trains her will power.8
Nevertheless, as I have already mentioned the active way of practising yoga
should be accompanied by a quiet attitude that ensures that the practitioner
does not get ‘caught up’ (mentally or emotionally) in the body’s struggle.
If, therefore, the practice of standing poses is used as a tool to cultivate the
actor’s creative will, then the asana practice can teach the actor to distinguish
between effort and ambition. Quite interestingly, the concept of will figures
prominently in Method Acting. David Krasner, for example, claims that
‘Method acting, particularly Strasberg’s version of it, is rooted in ideas of free
will’ (2000: 18). Indeed, in a statement, which resembles Stanislavsky’s concept,
Lee Strasberg contends that the will ‘enters every phase of training from the
beginning. Nothing is allowed to happen without the actor’s will being thereby
strengthened’ (Strasberg in SS 153 as quoted in Krasner 2000: 18). Unlike
Stanislavski, however, who was aware of the reciprocal and collaborative
nature of the theatrical endeavour, Method actors ‘must impose their “stamp”
upon their role’ (Krasner 2000: 18). Whereas Stanislavski views the creation of
character as a holistic endeavour that should involve all of the actor’s resources,
in Method Acting it is regarded as ‘an assertion of the will’ (Krasner 2000).
In view of Strasberg’s configuration and the prominence of Method Acting
within the North American star system, it could be argued that undue emphasis
on the actor’s will may result in individualistic attitudes, which may hinder the
actor’s ability to function within a team and thus undermine the collaborative
nature of the theatrical endeavour. In other words, an actor training system
that prioritizes the ‘strengthening of the actor’s will’ may produce actors who
are individually strong but unable to work within a collaborative process. In
this respect, the practice of yoga can be useful in preventing the individualistic
attitudes that may result from instrumental consciousness. In particular, the
use of both active and passive modes of practice can strengthen the actor’s
resolve and render the actor porous and receptive towards one’s colleagues.
It is quite telling that Dorinda Hulton, who has been using Iyengar Yoga with
trainee actors for over forty years, reached a similar conclusion.

I think also, above all […] all the different things that go towards good
group work, good ensemble work, such as reliability, trust, honesty,
directness, not ‘beating about the bush’, they all improve through the
practice of yoga. Equally ego, or wish to be competitive or needing reas-
surance all the time, all this sort of things gradually became less. So
I think that the elusive qualities that make up for good ensemble work
are developed through Iyengar Yoga in a way that other methods of
psycho physical practice I’ve been engaged in don’t develop it.
(Hulton 2008)

19
Maria Kapsali

9. It is important to The practice of yoga therefore can foster the development of a working ethos
mention that although
Zarrilli has extensively
and enable the actor to distinguish between the individualistic notions of
explored Beckett’s will that drive many theatrical characters and the collaborative nature of the
plays through the use collective will that should underpin the creative process.
of psychophysical
disciplines, including In respect to the above, it also bears noting that Stanislavski’s formulation
yoga, he has neither derives from his work with dramatic characters, which were constructed by
used Iyengar Yoga the playwright and approached by the director with the aim to create the
nor has he discussed
Beckett’s work illusion of subjectivity. As such the characters that Stanislavski has in mind
in relation to the are situated in space and time, have emotional ‘depth’ and desires that may
introspective aspect
of yoga practices (for a
or may not be realized in the world of the play. According to Stanislavski
detailed discussion see therefore the concept of will is a component of both the actor’s and the
Zarrilli 2009). character’s constructed subjectivity, and as such Stanislavski can, without
problems, ask the actor to engage his/her ‘real’ will in order to realize the
character’s fictional will. The contemporary actor, however, needs to be able
to embody dramaturgies that challenge the dominant conception of theatrical
character as an individual with an autonomous will. In her prologue to
Lehman’s seminal Postdramatic Theatre (2006), Karen Jurs Munby points out
that a number of contemporary dramatic texts feature a radical reformula-
tion of subjectivity. Instead of attempting to create the illusion of depth and
affirm the character’s intentionality, ‘postdramatic’ texts ‘changed perspective
on human subjectivity’ and ‘articulat[e] … less intentionality – characteristic
of the subject – than its failure, less conscious will than desire, less the “I”
than the subject of the unconscious’ (2006: 18). It could be argued therefore
that these dramaturgies would resist an acting approach that views the crea-
tion of character as an act of will.
The difficulties that postdramatic texts pose for the contemporary actor are
exemplified in the work of Samuel Beckett. Beckett’s dramaturgy pushes the
notion of subjectivity to its limits by depriving the characters of a meaning-
making language and a full body and also by posing strict restrictions on the
actor’s interpretative range. As such, his protagonists are placed in unusual and
physically extraordinary situations/positions, and are often reduced to frag-
ments and disembodied voices. As Beckett deliberately strips his characters off
those dramatic features traditionally associated with human subjectivity, they
cannot be ‘stamped’ by the actor’s wilful interpretation. Reflecting on his work
on staging and performing in various plays of Beckett, Phillip Zarrilli indicates
that ‘what Beckett’s plays demand of the actor is not the creation of characters
nor the realization of conventional dramatic action, but an embodied actuali-
zation of thought as perceiving consciousness in action’ (2009: 115).9
In view of the above, I would argue that the practice of resting poses
may enable the actor to address the peculiarities of Beckett’s work, and
consequently gain an understanding of the different model of subjectivity
that underlies postdramatic texts. To begin with, resting poses can prepare
the actor to hold the same position for a long amount of time. Although they
are admittedly far more comfortable than the position of some of Beckett’s
characters, their practice requires that the practitioner refrains from extrane-
ous and superfluous movement. In this manner, they can teach the actor to
remain immobile without becoming lifeless. Similar to Ramanuja’s configura-
tion that juxtaposed to the confines of one’s material existence the unlimited
spreading of one’s awareness, resting poses can enable the actor to reside
in the immobility and/or awkward positions of the Beckettian mise-en-scène
by maintaining a conscious awareness of the process of their embodiment.
Resting poses can thus teach the actor to find a way to work with and not

20
 The ‘ancient’ body of modern Yoga

against the restricted position of the body. In addition, resting poses may 10. For a discussion on the
relationship between
enable the actor to follow the playwright’s strict stage instructions. Billie the development
Whitelaw, who has acted in numerous of Beckett’s plays and collaborated of ‘receptive
with the author, characteristically notes that ‘the words I’ ve got scribbled consciousness’ through
psychophysical
all over my texts are: “no color”, “don’t act”, “no emotion”, “just say it”’ systems of training
(Kalb 1989: 234). In other words, Beckett is asking the actor ‘not to do’ and and spirituality
rather ‘be done’ by the text. The practice of resting poses by encouraging see, Middleton and
Chamberlain (2012).
the development of receptivity may enable the actor to experience a state of
surrender that can then be accessed and applied in rehearsal. In this manner,
they can familiarize the actor with a different notion and embodiment of
expressivity and thus offer a point of entry to dramatic characters that do
not operate according to ‘instrumental consciousness’. Indeed, it is worth
mentioning that the process of performing Beckett has often been described
in terms that are similar to the ones used in the practice of resting poses. For
example, Herbert Blau points out that the actor’s task is to ‘le[t] it happen
rather than mak[e] it happen’ (1982a: 123–24 as quoted in Zarrilli 2009: 118)
and Billie Whitelaw equally emphasizes the importance of ‘not getting in the
way’ (Kalb 1989: 238). We see therefore that resting poses need not lead to a
loss of the actor’s expressivity, as feared by Grotowski, but teach the actor a
different way of being (expressive), which can be particularly suitable to the
demands of postdramatic texts.

Conclusion
This article presented the pedagogy that underlies Iyengar Yoga with a
particular focus on the active and passive way of practising yoga poses and
their respective effect on the practitioner’s consciousness. It argued that the
emphasis on observation and awareness that characterizes the practice of
the asanas reflects the thought of Ramanuja and particularly his metaphor
of the body as a field of consciousness. In view of the similarities between
Iyengar’s pedagogy and Ramanuja’s doctrine, this article supported that the
practice of Iyengar Yoga is underpinned by the founder’s personal religious
convictions and as such foregrounded an aspect of yoga’s pre-modern indig-
enous origins. Based on the different modes of embodiment and different
states of consciousness that standing and resting asanas, respectively, cultivate,
I further supported that the inclusion of yoga in actor training may alert the
actor to different ways of working with dramatic texts: the quiet-active and
the alert-passive. This article therefore argued that yoga not only can be used
as a preparatory activity practised before rehearsal or performance; it may also
enable the actor to embody different ways of being that can be applied directly
into work on different dramaturgies.
Most importantly, attention to the religious and/or pre-modern under-
pinnings of the practice can facilitate an understanding of the transformative
effect of the discipline. An examination of Iyengar Yoga through Ramanuja’s
doctrine, in particular, makes it clear that the orthoperformative character of
the method does not only serve athletic and aesthetic purposes but rather
strives to enrich/broaden/reconfigure the practitioner’s self-definition. If we
understand the practice of the poses as an attempt to realize the relationship
between body and self advanced by Ramanuja, then it becomes possi-
ble to theorize the spiritual dimension of the practice both in terms of the
practitioner’s phenomenological experience and the discipline’s religious
roots.10 A foregrounding of the spiritual possibilities that may be rendered

21
Maria Kapsali

possible through the practice of yoga can, furthermore, correct attitudes that
tend to view the discipline as an exclusively capitalist enterprise and promote
new ways in which the actor’s training and work can be conceived. As various
scholars note, actor training does not only furnish the actor with professional
skills; it ‘can have profound effects on the student’s whole life’ (Evans 2009: 5).
However, there is little discussion as to how such effects are achieved and
in what ways self-transformation may inform the actor’s creative work. An
appreciation of the ‘ancient’ character of modern yoga can offer the basis on
which such explorations can take place.

References
Agar-Ward, R. (2009), ‘Sri Ramanajucharya’, Iyengar Yoga News, 15, pp. 18–21.
Barba, E. and Savarese, N. (1991), A Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology: The
Secret Art of the Performer, London: Routledge.
Barua, A. (2009), The Divine Body in History, Bern: Peter Lang.
Blom, L. A. and Train Chaplin, L. (1989), The Intimate Act of Choreography,
London: Dance Books.
Buehneman, G. (2007), Eighty-Four Asanas in Yoga: A Survey of Traditions,
New Delhi: D.K.Printworld (P) Ltd.
Deikman, J. A. (2000), ‘A functional approach to mysticism’, Journal of
Consciousness Studies, 7: 11–12, pp. 75–91.
Evans, M. (2009), Movement Training for the Modern Actor, New York:
Routledge.
Grotowski, J.([1968] 1991), Towards a Poor Theatre, London: Methuen Drama.
Hulton, D. (2008), ‘Interview with Author’, University of Exeter.
Jurs Munby, K. (2006), ‘Introduction’, in H. T. Lehman (ed.), Postdramatic
Theatre, Oxon: Routledge.
Iyengar, B. K. S. (2005), Light on Life, London: Rodale.
Kalb, J. (1989), Beckett in Performance, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Krasner, D. (ed.) (2000), Method Acting Reconsidered, New York: St Martin’s
Press.
De Michelis, E. (2004), A History of Modern Yoga, New York: Continuum.
Middleton, D. and Chamberlain, F. (2012), ‘Entering the heart of experience:
First person accounts in performance and spirituality’, Performance and
Spirituality, 3: 1, pp. 95–112.
Overzee, A. (1992), The Body Divine: The Symbol of the Body in the Works of
Teilhard de Chardin and Ramanuja, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Singleton, M. (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Yoga Practice,
New York: Oxford University Press.
Sport England, http://www.sportengland.org/about_us/recognised_sports/
how_we_recognise_sports.aspx. Accessed 29 December 2011.
Stanislavski, C. (2008), An Actor’s Work (trans. Jean Benedetti), London:
Routledge.
Sydnor, J. P. (2011), Ramanuja and Schleiermacher, Eugene, OR: Pickwick
Publication.
Whitworth, J. (2003), ‘Translating theologies of the body: SITI’s physical
theatre training and corporeal ideology’, Performance Research, 8: 2,
pp. 21–27.
Zarrilli, P.(2009), Psychophysical Acting, London: Routledge Press.

22
 The ‘ancient’ body of modern Yoga

Suggested citation
Kapsali, M. (2013), ‘The “ancient” body of modern Yoga: The influence of
Ramanuja on Iyengar Yoga and the use of Yoga in actor training’, Studies
in South Asian Film and Media 5: 1, pp. 11–23, doi: 10.1386/safm.5.1.11_1

Contributor details
The author is a Lecturer in Physical Performance in the School of Performance
and Cultural Industries at the University of Leeds and a qualified teacher
of Iyengar Yoga. The subject of her research is the use of yoga in performer
training and theatre making. Her work examines the ideological contexts in
which psychophysical techniques operate and the ways in which the practice
of yoga can extend beyond its use as a warmup, and inform the performer’s
process in relation to specific performative and preperformative demands.
Maria is currently working on a co-authored DVD-booklet on Yoga and Actor
Training, due to be published by Routledge in 2015.
Contact: School of Performance & Cultural Industries, The University of
Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
E-mail: M.Kapsali@leeds.ac.uk

Maria Kapsali has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work in the format that was
submitted to Intellect Ltd.

23
 intellect
www.intellectbooks.com publishers
of original
thinking

Applied Theatre Research

ISSN 20493010 | Online 20493029
2 issues per volume | Volume 1, 2013

Applied Theatre Research is the worldwide journal for theatre and drama in non-tradi- Editors
tional contexts. It focuses on drama, theatre and performance with specific audiences Penny Bundy
or participants in a range of social contexts and locations. Contexts include education, Griffith University
developing countries, business and industry, political debate and social action, with p.bundy@griffith.edu.au
children and young people, and in the past, present or future; locations include thea-
tre which happens in places such as streets, conferences, war zones, refugee camps, John O’Toole
prisons, hospitals and village squares as well as on purpose-built stages. Melbourne University
j.otoole@unimelb.edu.au
The primary audience consists of practitioners and scholars of drama, theatre and
allied arts, as well as educationists, teachers, social workers and community leaders Reviews Editor
with an awareness of the significance of theatre and drama, and an interest in inno- Michael Balfour
vative and holistic approaches to theatrical and dramatic production, learning and m.balfour@griffith.edu.au
community development. Contributors include eminent and experienced workers and
scholars in the field, but cutting-edge contemporary and experimental work from new
or little-known practitioners is also encouraged.

The journal has a global focus and representation, with an explicit policy of ensuring
that the best and most exciting work in all continents and as many countries as pos-
sible is represented and featured. Cultural, geographical, gender and socio-economic
equity are recognised where possible, including in the Review Board.

Intellect is an independent academic publisher of books and journals, to view our catalogue or order our titles visit
www.intellectbooks.com or E-mail: journals@intellectbooks.com. Intellect, The Mill, Parnall Road, Fishponds, Bristol, UK, BS16 3JG.