Q . 1 Define Operation Research.?

Ans. :- operations research (OR) - Operations research (OR) is an

analytical method of problem-solving and decision-making that is useful in the
management of organizations. In operations research, problems are broken down
into basic components and then solved in defined steps by mathematical
analysis.The process of operations research can be broadly broken down into the
following steps:

1. Identifying a problem that needs to be solved.

Constructing a model around the problem that resembles the real world and
variables.
2. Using the model to derive solutions to the problem.
3. Testing each solution on the model and analyzing its success.
4. Implementing the solution to the actual problem.

Disciplines that are similar to, or overlap with, operations research

include statistical analysis, management science, game theory, optimization
theory, artificial intelligence and network analysis. All of these techniques have
the goal of solving complex problems and improving quantitative decisions.

The concept of operations research arose during World War II by military

planners. After the war, the techniques used in their operations research were
applied to addressing problems in business, the government and society.

The operation research can be defined as: Definitions:-

(i) It is the application of scientific methods, techniques and tools to problems
involving the operations of a system so as to provide those in the control of the
system with optimum solutions to the problems. (ii) Operation Research is a tool
for taking decisions which searches for the optimum results in parity with the
overall objectives and constraints of the organization. (iii) O.R. is a scientific
method of providing executive department with a quantitative basis of decisions
regarding the operations under their control. (iv) O.R. is a scientific approach to
problem solving for management. (v) O.R. is an aid for executive in making his
decisions by providing him with the needed quantitative information’s based on
the scientific method of analysis. (vi) O.R. is the application of modern methods of
mathematical science to complex problems involving management of large
systems of men, machines, materials, and money in industry, business,
government and defense. The distinctive approach is to develop a scientific model
of the system incorporating measurement of factors such as chance and risk, to
predict and compare the outcome of alternative decisions, strategies or controls.
(vii) It is the application of the scientific methods by scientists and subject
specialists to the study of the given operation. Its purpose is to give
administration, a basis for predicting quantitatively the most effective results of
an operation under given set of variable conditions and thereby to provide a
sound basis for “decision-making”. In fact in Operation Research, research
techniques and scientific methods are employed for the analysis and also for
studying the current or future problems. Thus, Operation Research offers
alternative plans for a problem to the management for decisions. Although it is
very clear that operation research never make decisions for the management,
instead the method presents management with a careful scientific and
quantitative analysis of problem so that the management will be in a better
position to make sounder decisions.

Characteristics of operations research

There are three primary characteristics of all operations research efforts:

1. Optimization- The purpose of operations research is to achieve the best

performance under the given circumstances. Optimization also involves
comparing and narrowing down potential options.
2. Simulation- This involves building models or replications in order to try out and
test solutions before applying them.
3. Probability and statistics- This includes using mathematical algorithms and
data to uncover helpful insights and risks, make reliable predictions and test
possible solutions.

Importance of operations research

The field of operations research provides a more powerful approach to decision
making than ordinary software and data analytics tools. Employing operations
research professionals can help companies achieve more complete datasets,
consider all available options, predict all possible outcomes and estimate risk.
Additionally, operations research can be tailored to specific business processes or
use cases to determine which techniques are most appropriate to solve the
problem.

Uses of operations research

Operations research can be applied to a variety of use cases, including:

 Scheduling and time management.

 Urban and agricultural planning.
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) and supply chain management (SCM).
 Inventory management.
 Network optimization and engineering.
 Packet routing optimization.
Q. 2 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
Operation Research?
Ans.:- Advantages of Operation Research

o Better Systems

An O.R. technique is frequently adopted to examine a specific decision-making

issue, such as the best factory site or whether to construct a new warehouse.
Additionally, it helps select cost-effective transportation methods, work
sequencing, production planning, replacement of outdated machinery, etc.

o Enhanced Productivity
Operations research contributes to boosting an organization's production. Before
making a critical choice, operations controls provide managers with valuable
information. It helps a business make small decisions that build up to big ones.
Many businesses employ simulation operations research techniques to increase
productivity by combining them in various ways.

Daily duties like inventory management, personnel planning, business

development, installation, and technological upgrades are also made easier with
its aid. Making correct and effective decisions aids in increasing an organization's
productivity.

o Best Control

The management of big firms understands how hard and expensive it is to

supervise every regular task continuously. An O.R. method could give the
executive a quantitative and analytical foundation to pinpoint the issue.
Applications in this area that are implemented most commonly deal with
inventory replenishment and production schedule.

o Provides many alternatives

Management is in charge of making critical organizational choices. Operations
research offers several solutions to a single issue, assisting management in
selecting the best option and putting it into practice to achieve the desired result.

Managers can assess the risks connected to each option and then choose whether
or not to implement it.

o Improved Coordination
The coordination between a company's many departments and employees is
improved by operations research because operations research concentrates not
on a single department but the entire organization.

As a result, managers in each area know what must be done to advance the
organization's overall goal. As a result, when solutions are implemented across all
departments, managers of various departments may collaborate better.

o Better Decision making

O.R. models increase decision-making and lower the possibility of making bad
decisions. The O.R. technique improves the executive's understanding of his
decision-making process.

o Reduce chances of failure

Operations and research managers discover all potential solutions for a given
problem with the aid of operations, reducing the risk of failure.

Before adopting a solution, all potential hazards are examined. As a result, until
an unforeseen event occurs, the probability of failure decreases.

Disadvantages of Operation Research

o Costly
The main drawback of operations research is its high price. Operations research
uses mathematical equations that are created using pricey technologies. In
addition, simulations require the assistance of professionals.

Even though the cost would be quite expensive, all of this may offer useful
answers. Companies with limited resources can use operations research due to
the high implementation costs.

o Dependence on a computerized system

O.R. methods look for the best solution while considering all the variables. Due to
the size of these components in contemporary society, describing them
quantitatively and developing links between them calls for extensive
computations that computers can only perform.

o Unquantifiable Elements

OR only gives a solution when all aspects of an issue can be quantified. Not all
pertinent variables are amenable to quantification. In OR studies, factors that
cannot be measured have no place. Models in OR do not consider emotional or
qualitative elements, which may be quite significant.

o Distance between Manager & Operations Researcher

O.R. specialists have to be mathematicians or statisticians who may not be
familiar with business issues. Similarly, a manager cannot comprehend the
intricate functioning of O.R. There is a gap t between the two.

o Implementation

Any decision's implementation is a sensitive task. It must account for the

intricacies of human relationships and behavior. Sometimes resistance is
presented due to psychological issues that have nothing to do with the problem
or its solution.
 o Reliance on Specialists

Operations research is required to carry out by a team of specialists. Several

factors are related to this, making operations research an undesirable choice for
management.

For instance, if there is a miscommunication between managers & OR specialists,

the solutions won't work and can't be applied. Additionally, if inaccurate
information is given to the experts, all solutions will be rendered useless and may
even result in a loss rather than an advantage.

o Not Realistic

Experts in Operation Research create extremely complex models to address

issues. These models might not be accurate. Therefore, they might not apply to
real-world circumstances.

o Complex

Operation Research is a highly complicated concept. A typical manager would find

it very challenging to comprehend. As a result, most managers avoid using OR
techniques.

The Conclusion

After discussing the advantages and disadvantages, we can conclude that, despite
its disadvantages, operations research is important since it develops effective
solutions to challenging business problems.

Q. 3 Explain the concept of dynamic programming

Ans.:- Dynamic programming is a computer programming technique where an
algorithmic problem is first broken down into sub-problems, the results are saved,
and then the sub-problems are optimized to find the overall solution — which
usually has to do with finding the maximum and minimum range of the
algorithmic query.
Signs of dynamic programming suitability
Dynamic programming solves complex problems by breaking them up into
smallerones using recursion and storing the answers so they don’t have to be
worked outagain. It isn’t practical when there aren’t any problems that overlap
because it doesn’t make sense to store solutions to the issues that won’t be
needed again. Two main signs are that one can solve a problem with dynamic
programming: subproblems that overlap and the best possible substructure.
Overlapping subproblems
When the answers to the same subproblem are needed more than once to solve
the main problem, we say that the subproblems overlap. In overlapping issues,
solutions are put into a table so developers can use them repeatedly instead of
recalculating them. The recursive program for the Fibonacci numbers has several
subproblems that overlap, but a binary search doesn’t have any subproblems that
overlap.
A binary search is solved using the divide and conquer technique. Every time, the
subproblems have a unique array to find the value. Thus, binary search lacks the
overlapping property.
For example, when finding the nth Fibonacci number, the problem F(n) is broken
down into finding F(n-1) and F. (n-2). You can break down F(n-1) even further into
a subproblem that has to do with F. (n-2).In this scenario, F(n-2) is reused, and
thus, the Fibonacci sequence can be said to exhibit overlapping properties.
Optimal substructure
The optimal substructure property of a problem says that you can find the best
answer to the problem by taking the best solutions to its subproblems and putting
them together. Most of the time, recursion explains how these optimal
substructures work.
This property is not exclusive to dynamic programming alone, as several problems
consist of optimal substructures. However, most of them lack overlapping issues.
So, they can’t be called problems with dynamic programming.
You can use it to find the shortest route between two points. For example, if a
node p is on the shortest path from a source node t to a destination node w, then
the shortest path from t to w is the sum of the shortest paths from t to p and
from p to w.
Examples of problems with optimal substructures include the longest increasing
subsequence, longest palindromic substring, and longest common subsequence
problem. Examples of problems without optimal substructures include the most
extended path problem and the addition-chain exponentiation.
Understanding the Longest Common Subsequence concept in
dynamic programming

In dynamic programming, the phrase “largest common subsequence” (LCS) refers

to the subsequence that is shared by all of the supplied sequences and is the one
that is the longest. It is different from the challenge of finding the longest
common substring in that the components of the LCS do not need to occupy
consecutive locations within the original sequences to be considered part of that
problem.
The LCS is characterized by an optimal substructure and overlapping subproblem
properties. This indicates that the issue may be split into many less complex sub-
issues and worked on individually until a solution is found. The solutions to
higher-level subproblems are often reused in lower-level subproblems, thus,
overlapping subproblems.
Therefore, when solving an LCS problem, it is more efficient to use a dynamic
algorithm than a recursive algorithm. Dynamic programming stores the results of
each function call so that it can be used in future calls, thus minimizing the need
for redundant calls.
For instance, consider the sequences (MNOP) and (MONMP). They have five
length-2 common subsequences (MN), (MO), (MP), (NP), and (OP); two length-3
common subsequences (MNP) and (MOP); MNP and no longer frequent
subsequences (MOP). Consequently, (MNP) and (MOP) are the largest shared
subsequences. LCS can be applied in bioinformatics to the process of genome
sequencing.
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Dynamic Programming Algorithms
When dynamic programming algorithms are executed, they solve a problem
bysegmenting it into smaller parts until a solution arrives. They perform these
tasks by finding the shortest path. Some of the primary dynamic programming
algorithms in use are:
1. Greedy algorithms
An example of dynamic programming algorithms, greedy algorithms are
alsooptimization tools. The method solves a challenge by searching for optimum
solutions to the subproblems and combining the findings of these subproblems to
get the most optimal answer.
Conversely, when greedy algorithms solve a problem, they look for a locally
optimum solution to find a global optimum. They make a guess that looks
optimum at the time but does not guarantee a globally optimum solution. This
could end up becoming costly down the road.
2. Floyd-Warshall algorithm

The Floyd-Warshall method uses a technique of dynamic programming to locate

the shortest pathways. It determines the shortest route across all pairings of
vertices in a graph with weights. Both directed and undirected weighted graphs
can use it. This program compares each pair of vertices’ potential routes through
the graph. It gradually optimizes an estimate of the shortest route between two
vertices to determine the shortest distance between two vertices in a chart. With
simple modifications to it, one can reconstruct the paths.