2006/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/45

Background paper prepared for the

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006
Literacy for Life

Increasing literacy in Indonesia

Fasli Jalal
Nina Sardjunani
2005

This paper was commissioned by the Education for All Global Monitoring Report as
background information to assist in drafting the 2006 report. It has not been edited by the
team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not
be attributed to the EFA Global Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited
with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report
2006, Literacy for Life”. For further information, please contact efareport@unesco.org

1
 INCREASING LITERACY
IN INDONESIA

By
Fasli Jalal
Nina Sardjunani

A. Introduction

Essentially, the Dakar Convention refers to “the attainment of a 50 percent increase in

adult literacy, particularly in women, by the year 2015”. Since Indonesia’s literacy rate had
reached about 89.51 percent in 2002, the target had been modified to become “the
attainment of a 50 percent decrease in adult illiteracy aged 15 and above by in 2015”. That
means the target in 2015 was 5.0 percent illiteracy rate. However, the new Government
insists this country to fasten the decrease of adult illiteracy rate from 10.12 percent in
2003 to become 5.0 percent in 2009. The Government believes that literacy plays an
essential role in improving the lives of individuals by enabling economic security and good
health and enriches societies by building human capital, fostering cultural identity and
tolerance, and promoting civic participation.

Increasing adult literacy rate is a way to increase the quality of Indonesia’s human
resources which internationally can be measured by human development index (HDI). Even
though HDI of Indonesia had increased from 0,619 in 1990 to 0,692 in 2002, it is still lower
compared to what other neighboring counties had achieved (Figure 1). By increasing adult
literacy rate to become 95 percent in 2009, Indonesia’s HDI will increase significantly. In
2002 Indonesia’s adult literacy rate was remained at with 87.9 percent which was lower
compared to what had been achieved by Thailand, Malaysia, Philippine, and Vietnam.

Figure 1. Trend of HDI among Countries, 1990 - 2002

1,000

0,900

0,800

0,700

0,600

0,500

0,400

0,300

0,200

0,100

0,000
J apan Singapore M alays ia T hailand P hilippine C hina I ndones ia V iet N am I ndia

1990 1995 2001 2002

Sources : Human Development Report, 2004

To accelerate the country in achieving the target, President of Indonesia launched

“LITERACY MOVEMENT” in December 2, 2004 in order to promote the important of literacy
and to gain commitment from all stakeholders including local government, parliament at
central, provincial and district levels, community organization, community leaders, and
religious leaders. Achieving 5 percent illiteracy in 2009 requires a significant decrease in
number of illiterate people from about 15.4 million in 2003 to 8.23 million in 2009.

2
Therefore all stakeholders need to work together to make sure the achievement of the
target.

Table 1. Human Development Index among Countries, 2002

Combined Gross
Purchasing
Life Expectancy Adult Literacy Rate (15 Enrollment Rate from
Country Power Parity HDI
(years) years and above) (%) Primary to Higher
(US$)
Education (%)
Japan 81,5 99,0 84,0 26.940 0,938
Singapore 78,0 92,5 87,0 24.040 0,902
Malaysia 73,0 88,7 70,0 9.120 0,793
Thailand 69,1 92,6 73,0 7.010 0,768
Philippine 69,8 92,6 81,0 4.170 0,753
China 70,9 90,9 68,0 4.580 0,745
Indonesia 66,6 87,9 65,0 3.230 0,692
Viet Nam 69,0 90,3 64,0 2.300 0,691
India 63,7 61,3 55,0 2.670 0,595
Sources : Human Development Report, 2004

Accordingly, literacy program becomes one of education development priorities and is

clearly mentioned in the National Medium Term Development Plan (2004-2009). Poverty
Reduction Strategic Plan also considers the important of literacy reduce poverty. In the
context of Indonesia, literacy is defined as ability to read and write simple sentences of
Indonesian language in Latin scripts.

To evaluate the implementation of literacy education, a literacy indicator is used. The

indicator is ratio of those aged 15 and over who are literate to the total adult population
(aged 15 and over).

Literacy rate Number of literates aged 15 and over

of population = --------------------------------------------------------- x 100%
aged 15 and above Total population aged 15 and over

Another indicator used is the illiteracy rate, which refers to the ratio of illiterates among
the total population falling into a certain age group. The Illiteracy rate can be calculated
by subtracting the literacy rate (from 100 percent).

Illiteracy rate Number of illiterates aged 15 and over

of population = --------------------------------------------------------- x 100%
aged 15 and above Total population aged 15 and over

Before 1993 the achievement of literacy is evaluated every 10 years through census. After
1993 literacy data is collected annually in the form of National Social Economic Survey
(SUSENAS). The survey is done by Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) which is mandated to
provide data on human resources particularly that is related to socio-economy
characteristics. In 2003 the survey covered 229.120 households throughout the country. To
investigate the respondents’ ability to read and write, the survey interviewers ask the
respondent to demonstrate his/her ability to read a simple paragraph and to write simple
sentences in Indonesian language.

The survey provides not only national but also provincial data. For core data, the survey
even provides data at district level. This survey is done regularly in January – March, so that
data can be used to observe trend over years. The data can also be categorized by rural
and urban, sex, age groups, and family expenditure. These make it possible for the country
to observe any discrepancy on literacy level among groups.

3
B. The important of literacy in increasing quality of life

Cross-section data among provinces in 2002 indicates that literacy level had positive
correlation with economic status of the community measured by per capita expenditure
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. Positive Correlation between Adult Literacy Rate and Per Capita Expenditure
among Provinces, 2000

620,0 Jakarta
Per Capita Expenditure (Thousand Rupiah)

610,0 Yogyakarta

600,0
Jawa Timur Bali
590,0
NTB
580,0 Papua
Maluku
570,0
NTT
560,0
NAD

550,0
70,0 75,0 80,0 85,0 90,0 95,0 100,0
Lite racy Rate (%)

Sources : data processed from National Human Development Report, 2003

Besides, increase in literacy rate among adults also has significant impact to the increase of
life expectancy (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Positive Correlation between Adult Literacy Rate and Life Expectancy among
Provinces

75

70
Life Expectancy (Years)

65

60

55

50
70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Adult Literacy Rate (%)

4
C. The Rise of Literacy Rates over Time

To explain the improvement of literacy education implementation up to the year 2002, we

can refer to literacy rates of the population aged 10 and over to the total population of
that group. The data can be used to illustrate that the rise of literacy rates was also due to
schooling programs, such as the implementation of Presidential Assistance Program for
Elementary School in 1974 and the Six-Year Compulsory Education Program in 1984.

The decrease in illiteracy rates among the population aged 10 and above can be seen in
more detail in Figure 4. If we divide the time into three periods, namely 1971-1980, 1980-
1990 and 1990-2003, we can see that literacy rates rose significantly in 1971-1980 and
1980-1990. The increase was presumably due to the implementation of the Presidential
Assistance Program for Primary School (6 years), which started in 1973/74—the time when
the government provided educational facilities and infrastructure on a massive scale,
which was then followed by the Six-Year Compulsory Education Program in 1984. In 1968,
the participation rate of elementary schools was only 41.4 per cent. However, in 1973/74
(the end of the 1st Five Year Development Plan), it climbed to 66.6 percent, and in 1978/79
(the end of the 2nd Five Year Development Plan), along with the implementation of the
Presidential Assistance Program for Elementary Schools, the rate had risen to 79.3 percent.

Figure 4. Illiteracy Rates among Population Aged 10 and above, 1971 - 2003

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1971 1980 1990 1993 1995 1998 2000 2003

Male Female Male + Female

Considering that reading and writing skills are largely acquired by children in elementary
school, it is obvious that increase in the participation rate of elementary education played
an important role in enhancing literacy among people aged 10 and above. This fact is
proven by the dramatic decrease in illiteracy rates among youth between 10-14 years of
age (Figure 5). The Figure shows that illiteracy rates decreased significantly until the late
1980s, when the participation rate of elementary schools reached almost 100 percent. In
addition, the difference in literacy rates between males and females continued to
decrease, which among other reasons was due to the increasing number of females
participating in the educational a system, particularly in elementary schools.

Based on the information above, it is assumed that the sluggish decline of the illiteracy rate
since 1990 was due to the existence of hard core groups within the society. The hard core
groups consist of middle-aged and the 45 years old and above, the disabled, and people
residing in remote areas. It is difficult to provide educational services to these people. The
difficulty arises from both internal factors, such as lack of motivation and ability to learn,
and external factors, such as the inefficiency of formal and non-formal education as well as

5
limited literacy education services. It is difficult to provide literacy education, which is
usually done in learning groups, to illiterates living in dispersed, remote areas. Another
hard core group consists of people who are not yet aware of the importance of education as
the doorway to basic competence to gain added value in daily life, including enhanced
productivity. Until 2003 there were 14.7 million people aged 10 years and above who had
never/not yet attended school. Even though this numbers was much lower compared to
data in 1990 (21.9 million), the numbers is still very high considering that these people are
potential to become illiterate. This group mostly does not properly speak Indonesian
Language as the official language used at schools and official communication.

Indonesia consists of 824 ethnic groups1 which most of them have different local languages.
Therefore teaching literacy to them who do not speak Indonesian Languages is a challenging
task. Translation of teaching and learning materials and acquirement of local languages
among teachers are required. What is more, up to now the provision of translated
materials is still inadequate.

Figure 5. Illiteracy Rates among Population Aged 10-14 year old, 1961 - 1994

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1961 1971 1980 1990 1994
Female Male

Table 2. Number and Percentage of Population Aged

10 years and above who never/not yet
attended school

Population 10 years and above

Year
Never/not yet
Total population %
attended school
1971 80.507.076 32.515.992 40,39
1980 104.352.570 31.341.974 30,03
1990 135.039.581 21.952.791 16,26
2000 159.032.694 15.362.558 9,66
2003 172.978.229 14.703.149 8,50

D. Current Situation

The National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS) data reveals an improvement in the

population literacy rate in Indonesia. The literacy rate at the national level for population

1
Indonesia’s Ethnic Map. Bakosultanal Indonesia. 2001

6
aged 15-24 years and above had increased from 96.2 percent in 1990 to 98.7 percent in
2002. However the literacy rate of this group became stagnant in 1998 due to the already
very high literacy rate of this age group. Those who remain illiterate are presumed to be
disabled or residing in remote places where educational services are unavailable. The
literacy rate of the young aged group improved as their enrolment in basic education and
proportion of students who completed grade V of public/Islamic primary schools improved.
The proportion of grade I students who later on succeeded in completing grade V increased
from 74.7 percent in 1991 to 82.2 percent in 2002.

Figure 6. Trend of the Literacy Rate of the Population Aged 15-24 Years, 1990 – 2003

100

99
98,6
98

97
96,2
96

95
1990 1992 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Furthermore, literacy data derived from the 1995, 1998, and 2002 National Socio-
Economic Surveys that have been detailed based on groups of family expenditure and
residence, reveal that although the literacy rate of each group have increased,
discrepancies are still apparent between urban and rural areas, between male and
female, and between the rich and the poor.

a. Discrepancies between urban and rural

Figure 7 shows that literacy rates in urban areas are generally higher than those in rural
areas. Nevertheless, literary rates of people in urban and rural areas increased
simultaneously from 1995 until 2002. In 1995, the literacy rate of the population aged
15-24 years in urban areas reached 96.5 percent in the poorest group and 99.3 percent
in the richest group, while in rural areas reached 93.0 percent in the poorest group and
99.3 percent in the richest group. Through various endeavors, in 2002 the population
literacy rate of this age group in urban areas had increased to 97.9 percent in the
poorest group and 99.6 percent in the richest group, while in rural areas had increased
to 96.3 percent in the poorest group and 98.8 percent in the richest group.

If the age range is widened to 15 years and above, it can be seen that the population
literacy rate becomes lower. This implies that the problem of illiteracy in Indonesia
more highly persists in the adult population group. The national level of the population
aged 15 years and above increased from 84.2 percent in 1995 to 89.51 percent in 2002.
Nevertheless discrepancies in literacy rates are still evident among population groups.
The economic status of the population calculated based on family expenditure, sex,
and residence affect the population literacy rate.

7
Figure 7. Literacy Rate of the Population Aged 15-24 Years Based on Residence, 1995-
2002

%
100

80

60

40

20

0
1995 1998 2002 1995 1998 2002
Urban Rural

Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5

Source: Susenas

Figure 8 reveals that literacy rate of the urban population is generally higher than of
the rural population at all income groups. Nevertheless, the literacy rates of the urban
as well as rural populations have simultaneously increased during 1995 to 2002. If in
1995 the literacy rate of the poorest population group aged 15 years and above in urban
areas had been 78.8 percent and the richest group 95.0 percent, then in 2002 the
literacy rate increased to 83.7 percent for the poorest group and 97.2 percent for the
richest group.

Figure 8. Literacy Rate of the Population Aged 15 Years and Above Based on
Residence, 1995-2002

%
100

80

60

40

20

0
1995 1998 2002 1995 1998 2002

Urban Rural
Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5

Source: Susenas

8
b. Discrepancy between male and female

The literacy level of the female population has significantly increased across the years
in all poverty quintiles. If we compare literacy rates of the male population between
15-24 years of age to those of females falling into the same age group, we can see that
their literacy rates were not significantly different. However, measured according to
their income, it is revealed that literacy rates of the female population aged 15-24
were still much lower in comparison to those of the male population. In 1995, when the
literacy rate of the poorest male population (quintile-1) was only 80 percent, the
literacy rate of the richest male population (quintile-5) had reached 96.2 percent.
Literacy rates of all groups increased consistently over time, so that by 2002, the
poorest group reached 86.6 percent, while the wealthiest group rose to 97.9 percent.
At the same time, literacy rates for the female population (of all groups) also increased
remarkably. While the literacy rate of the poorest group increased from 64.2 percent to
75.7 percent, the wealthiest ones rose from 90.4 percent to 93.5 percent. Women in
the poorest group have the lowest literacy rate (Figure 9). If older population groups
(15 years and above) are included, then the female-male gap in literacy widens,
indicating greater female illiteracy among this older group at all level of expenditure
(Figure 10).

Figure 9. Literacy rate of male and female 15-24 years old by poverty quintile

%
100

80

60

40

20

0
1995 1998 2002 1995 1998 2002

Male Female

Quintile- 1 Quintile- 2 Quintile- 3 Quintile- 4 Quintile- 5

Sourc e: Susenas

9
 Figure 10. Literacy rate of male and female 15 years and above by poverty quintile
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1995 1998 2002 1995 1998 2002

Male Female

Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5

c. Discrepancy among Provinces

In 2003, discrepancy among provinces of the literacy rate for population aged 15-24
years old almost was not found, but in NTB, NTT, South Sulawesi (Sulsel) and Papua
provinces (Figure 11). Literacy rate in urban areas for all provinces ranged between
97,4 percent (NTB) and almost 100 percent (North Sulawesi), meanwhile in rural areas
the rate ranged between 79,3 percent (Papua) and 99,7 percent (North Maluku).

Figure 11. Literacy Rate of 15-24 Years Old by Province and Residency, 2003

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EL

IA
EL

EL
N

LO
AR

G
SU UT
I
I

T
G

A
LU

TB
AR
T

YA

G
AL R
TT
BI

RO RA
AD

G
U

KU
M

AL
K
E

U
TE
U

PU
EN
N
IA

N
N

TI
TI

ES
LS
S

AB

S
D
M

TA
N

N
B

G
KU

LT
B

AL
M

U
N

PU

TE
TE

AL
M

AN
R

AL

SU
JA

JA

JA

PA
YO

AL

LT
M

N
SU

SU

AL
B

M
SU

SU
G

JA

O
SU

K
K
B
EN

M
LA

D
K

IN
O
B

U RBA N RU RA L
G

Source : SUSENAS, 2003

The discrepancy in literacy rates of age group 15 years old and above among provinces
was even higher ranged between 80.3 percent and 99.4 percent in urban areas and
between 66.8 percent and 98.7 percent in rural areas (Figure 12). Due to these diverse
conditions, the attention given and the programs provided were, of course, different.
Therefore, effort to increase Indonesia’s literacy rates should not only based on formal
education but also non-formal education particularly in addressing adult population.

10
 Figure 12. Literacy Rate of 15 Years and Above by Province and Residency, 2003

100

90

80

70
60

50

40

30

20

10

R
L

M
BI

LI

IM
TB

U
YA

EL
AR

TT
G

T
L
U

A
T

EL

A
AD

LO
G

KI

BA

A
BE

TI

LU

LU
R
IA

SI
U

K
M

TE
N

EN

EN

PU
UL

BA

LB

LS

LT
D

LS
B

LT

TA
M

LU
TE
N

JA

JA

JA
PU

BA
R

NE
A
M

YO
M

SU
N

PA
K

LT

LT
SU

KA

KA

KA

M
SU

SU

A
NG

JA
SU

SU

BA
M

O
M
SU
KA

RO
LA

D
BE

IN
O
G
URBAN RURAL

Source : SUSENAS, 2003

E. Efforts to Decline Literacy

1. Literacy Programs in Indonesia

Literacy program in Indonesia had started before we got our independence in 1945 when
only 3 percent of the population enrolled to formal school. The program at that time was
called “ABC Course”. In 1951 the government formulated a “10 years Community Education
Plan” aimed to combat illiteracy within the next 10 years. However this target was not
achieved which was indicated by 40 percent illiteracy rate in 1960. In that year, the
President announced “President Command” to eliminate illiteracy by 1964. In December
31, 1964 it was announced to international community that Indonesia excluding West Irian
was free from illiteracy. The announcement stated that all population aged 13 – 45 had
ability to write and read with merely ability to recognize letters, to read simple sentences,
and to write his/her own name and address.

With minimum ability to read and to write and worsened by limited efforts to maintain the
literacy, many of the new literate became re-illiterate. Besides, opportunity of children 6-
11 years old to enroll formal school was also limited. Therefore the number of illiterate
people increased from time to time. Responding the need to solve that problem, the
Government created a more organized Literacy Program which covered from introduction
to letters, improving capability to read, write and calculate, and maintaining literacy
through provision of books and other reading materials.

In 1966 – 1979 Indonesia adopted “Traditional Literacy”, a new method introduced by

UNESCO. Through this method, the learners were not only taught literacy but also
vocational skill. This method was finally called ‘Functional Literacy Program”. The aimed
of the program was not to create literates as many as possible but to increase productivity
of selected illiterate groups along with their literacy. To support the program, the
government cooperated with companies that had illiterate workers and other institutions
that involved in the field of agriculture, veterinary, marine, and industry.

In 1970-1990 Indonesia implemented “Package A Program”. The program adopted the

concept of “Lingkaran Spiral” or “spiral circle” in which Teaching and learning started from
personal daily life issues and broadened to family and community issues. It used 100-books
package and supported by other printing materials such as posters, leaflets, and folders.
Package A Program decreased illiteracy rate significantly by which in 1994 the President of
Indonesia received “Avicienna Award” from UNESCO.

11
Since Package A Program also adopted “crazy wheel” concept in which 1 literate person
had to teach 10 illiterates, it was expected that all population became literate very soon.
However since there are hard core, mentioned in previous part, number of illiterates in
Indonesia are still high.

From 1990 to 2000 the Government focused on achieving Nine Years Compulsory Basic
Education. Therefore fund and forces were devoted to that program with consequences
that literacy program was slightly neglected. In addition rationalization of the cost
component of literacy program caused decrease in number of learners to around to 20.000
to 50.000 annually. Within this period that is in 1995, the quality of functional literacy
program was improved and implemented as pilot project in 9 provinces. This program
focused on discussion strategy, reading, writing, calculating and problem solving skill.

The popular use of Human Development Index in measuring the quality of human resources
brought literacy program regained new momentum. The number of program learners
significantly increased to 200.000. Up to 2005, due to the increased-capacity to implement
the program in the prioritized areas, the total number of learners was being adjusted to
350.000 per year. In the next 5 years the Central and Local Government are committed to
increase the number of learners to become 500.000 per year. It is also expected that the
community including private sectors contributes about 250.000 learners per year.

2. National Plan of Action

To attain 95 percent literacy rate of the population aged 15 years old and above in 2009,
clear strategic policy is necessary as the basis and direction for program implementation. It
covers not only non formal education that provides functional literacy program for adults
but also formal education particularly primary schooling to ensure all students acquire
literacy and supported by promotion of reading behavior.

1). Government’s Commitment

Highest political commitment to the literacy program is reflected in Education Act 20/2003
Article 26 that stipulated literacy program as part of non-formal education. Furthermore,
Presidential platform puts literacy as one of the quantitative targets and perceived as an
important element in improving HDI Indonesia in 2009. The literacy target i.e. to reduce
illiteracy rate to 5 percent in 2009 has also been accommodated in the National Medium
Term Planning 2004-2009 which is issued by Presidential Decree No. 7/2005.

The new President has also launched Literacy Movement in his first 100 days of the new
cabinet program and being the second most important target in education after nine years
compulsory basic education. It was followed by a national meeting with 9 priority
provinces which have highest illiteracy rate to increase the commitment of the local
government to accelerating the eradication of illiteracy especially the hard core. To
achieve the goal, the Government also involves NGOs that have had large program to
eradicate illiteracy and more importantly the involvement of Indonesian Teachers
Association in enhancing the commitment of teachers to deliver literacy education.

2). Four pronged Policy Strategy

Without overlooking various population tendencies, a policy was made to meet the target
set. There are four pronged policy strategies to increase literacy rate in the country i.e.:

a. Increasing literacy rate and preventing illiterate among young population. This strategy
is crucial so as to avoid the emergence of a new illiterate group. Therefore, the
illiterate population will not keep increasing. The programs implemented include
formal and non-formal education as follow:

12
 - Increasing access to quality primary education particularly to effectively deal with
unreachable community targets i.e. the poor, those who live in remote and isolated
areas and disabled children.

- Preventing children from dropping out particularly from primary education through
provision of scholarships;

- Conducting retrieval efforts to bring back the ones who drop out to school

- Providing equivalency program both academic and life skill training for either
elementary or junior secondary levels particularly for children who can not enroll
formal education.

b. Provision of equal access to elementary education for all adults through equivalent
education services in the form of Package A equivalent to primary education and
Package B equivalent to junior secondary education.

c. Widening access and quality of functional literacy education for people aged 15 years
old and above that will be accomplished by:

- Formulating innovative and specific functional literacy programs with an emphasis

on the functional aspect for each age group, hence giving them a significant added
value. For productive age groups, functional literacy programs are related to
productivity enhancement; therefore, illiterates will be more interested in joining
the programs. An example of a relevant functional topic would be child-rearing,
especially related to early childhood education programs.

- For the elderly, literacy education services are given in accordance with their
interests and needs. The learning process can be divided into several stages; for
instance, at the first stage, writing lessons are taught using the local language (the
language used in daily communication); the second stage is the introduction of
Bahasa Indonesia related to its functional education. With these stages, people are
expected to learn more easily and to apply their knowledge in daily life.

d. Retaining literacy competence

To retain learners’ literacy competence, it is intended for every village to have a

community library (Taman Bacaan Masyarakat) which has about 400 – 600 books and
magazines. Up to know only 5 percent of about 70.000 villages in Indonesia have
community libraries. In the next 5 years about 10.000 community libraries will be
established in regions with high illiteracy rates, while in areas where reading corners
are already available, the following should be done:

- The provision of reading materials relevant to the learners’ needs

The provision of relevant reading materials is intended to improve the learners’

literacy competence and functional skills. The provision and development of these
reading materials should be compiled according to topics to be learnt and further
skills to be acquired.

Updating reading materials, including exchanging books, articles and the like with
other community library, is intended to complete and improve reading materials.
Reading materials may be provided by donors. Hence, book collections in
community library will always be up-to-date, which in turn, will motivate learners
to use the centers.

Community library should be managed professionally as their function is to educate

the users. The community library is established as an educational institution which
provides various educational and recreational activities.

13
 - Training Community Library managers

Since community library managers are responsible for managing and preserving
community library and for fulfilling the public’s reading demands, they should,
therefore, receive training that will motivate them to improvise in managing the
community library. They, in turn, are expected to be able to arouse people’s
interest in reading. Eventually, it is expected that a reading culture will be
created.

Those four-pronged policies will be backed up by the following strategies:

a. Providing Communication, Education, and Information

The importance of literacy competence should be disseminated to all groups in society

including those responsible for education it self. Apart from that, establishing
continuous cooperation with various parties is necessary to improve the implementation
of literacy education. The main activities included in this strategy are as follows:

- Raising awareness on the importance of literary competence to the general public

and all stakeholders involved.

- improvement of cooperation among sectors, societies, higher education and

international institutions, including NGO’s. Cross-sector cooperation is needed in
designing functional literacy programs; hence, the services provided will be
relevant to the betterment of manpower productivity in the related sector.

b. Reforming information and management systems

To ensure successful literacy education programs, information and management

systems should be strengthened by enhancing monitoring and evaluation systems. The
activities include:

- recording various literacy education services provided by the public and

government

- locating literacy education services and mapping illiterate populations to facilitate

the formulation of the program targets.

c. Enhancing Capacity

The capacity of education organizers, especially those involved in the reduction of the
illiterate population, (whether at the central, provincial or regency/district level)
should be enhanced so that they have sufficient competence to plan and organize
literacy education programs.

d. Increasing community participation

To involve the effective participation of all community members, such as parents,

community leaders, NGOs, industrial sector, and entrepreneurs, in order to increase
literacy rate to really be undertaken as a national movement.

e. Monitoring and evaluating

Functioning as control, monitoring and evaluation have been done continuously in the
planning, implementation and follow-up stages. From time to time, monitoring and
evaluation should also be carried out to discover learners’ conditions, learning
facilities, process and content. Monitoring and evaluation should be done regularly,
hence facilitating problem-solving and improvement of the programs.

14
Note:
During 70’s to 80’s the age group for the illiterate was 10 years and above. Due to lower
enrolment rate at primary school as well as high drop out rate of the early grade at primary
school. Since 2000 we regurarly use age group 15 years old and above.

15
 REFERENCE

Bakosurtanal Indonesia. 2001. Ethnic Map.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 2003. Education Statistics.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 1971. National Census.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 1980. National Census.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 1990. National Census.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 1993. Socio Economic Survey.

Central Bureau of Statistic. 1995. Socio Economic Survey.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 1998. Socio Economic Survey.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 2000. Socio Economic Survey. 2000.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 2002. Socio Economic Survey.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 2003. Socio Economic Survey

Central Bureau of Statistics, National Development Planning Agency, and United Nation
Development Program. 2001. National Human Development Report 2001, Toward a
New Consensus: Democracy and Human Development in Indonesia. 2001.

Central Bureau of Statistics, National Development Planning Agency, and United Nation
Development Program. 2004. National Human Development Report: The Economics
of Democracy Financing Human Development in Indonesia 2004

Government of Indonesia. 2003. National Education System Law No. 20/2003.

Government of Indonesia. 2003. National Education System Law No. 20/2003.

Government of Indonesia, 2004. MediumTerm National Development Plan, 2004 – 2009.

Government of Indonesia. 2005. Annual Development Plan (RKP) 2005.

Human Development Report 2003: Millennium Development Goals: A compact among nation
to end human poverty. United Nations Development Programmes. New York.

Human Development Report 2004: Cultural Liberty in Today’s Diverse World. United Nations
Development Programs. New York.

Indonesia’s Literacy Data by Province and District. 2003. Directorate for Community
Education. Directorate General for Out-of-School Education and Youth. Ministry of
National Education.

Jalal, Fasli. 2000. “The Role of Madrasah in Basic Education in Indonesia: A Successful
Response of Religious Groups to Educate Children of Their Community”. Presented
at Workshop on Public-Private Partnership in Education, Tokyo, May 29 – June 7.

Jalal, F. and B. Musthafa. 2001. Education Reform in the Context of Regional Autonomy:
The Case of Indonesia. Ministry of National Education and National Development
Planning Agency, Republic of Indonesia, and the World Bank.

16
Jalal, Fasli and Sukarso, Ekodjatmiko (eds). 2003. Program Keaksaraan Fungsional di
Indonesia. Konsep, strategi dan implementasi. Jakarta: Mustika Aksara.

Ministry of National Education. 2003. National Plan of Action: Indonesia’s Education for All
2003-2015.

Ministry of National Education. 2003. Situational Analysis of Education in Indonesia.

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Attachement 1

The Education Delivery System in Indonesia and Its Organizational Structure

The national formal education system consists of three main levels of education; basic
education, secondary education, and higher education. Pre-school education is also
provided to a limited proportion of children (Figure 13). School-based education is provided
both by governmental and non-governmental agencies as well as by the community.

Basic education is a general education of nine years, i.e. six years of primary and three
years of junior secondary school. Basic Education is compulsory education aimed at
providing the learners with basic knowledge and skills. Junior secondary education consists
of two different types of schools; general junior secondary schools and vocational junior
secondary schools. The goal of basic education is to develop students as individuals and
responsible members of society, as well as to prepare them to pursue studies at the
secondary education level.

Secondary education is available to graduates of both primary schools and MIs. The paths of
secondary education include general secondary school, vocational secondary school,
religious secondary school, service-related secondary school, and special secondary school.
Secondary education gives priority to expanding knowledge and developing students’ skills
and preparing them to continue their studies at the higher level of education or the
preparation of students to enter the world of work and expand their professional attitude.
The length of junior secondary education is three years. The senior secondary schools take
another three years. In addition to the general secondary schools, there are also Islamic
General Senior Secondary Schools called Madrasah Aliyah (MA), equivalent to general
Secondary Schools.

Higher education is an extension of secondary education, mainly aimed at mastering arts,

humanities, sciences, technology, and research work, whereas professional education is
mainly aimed at developing knowledge and practical skills for specific professions.
Institutions involved in higher education are of several types: academic, polytechnic, school
of higher learning, institutes, and universities. The duration of higher education is three
years for diploma program (D3) and four years for under graduate program (S1). After
completing an under graduate program, students can continue to a master’s program for
two years (S2) and finally to a doctorate program for an additional three years (S3).

Pre-school education aims at stimulating physical and mental growth of children outside the
family circle before entering primary education. It can be held in a formal school system or
in out-of-school education. Among the types of pre-school education available are
kindergarten within a formal school setting and play groups and day-care centers outside of
school. Kindergarten is provided for children ages 5 to 6 years for one to two years, while
play groups and day-care centers are attended by children beginning at the age of.
Out-of-school education provides both general and religious education. Out-of-school
general education services are provided through Learning Package A at the primary school
level, Learning Package B at the junior secondary school level, and Learning Package C at
the senior secondary school level. Service-related education and vocational education
include courses, group learning such as packet A, B, Income Generating Program, or other
options such as apprenticeships. Out-of-school religious education is provided through
traditional pesantren (boarding religious education). There are also various levels of
vocational training courses provided.

18
 Figure 13
School System in Indonesia

Academic Professional
Education Education

Official
School Doctorate Professio
Islamic
Doctorate Program nal
Age Program (S3) Program

22
Islamic
Master Master Professio
21 Higher
Education Program Program nal
(S2) (S2) Program
20

19
Islamic Under
Under Graduate Diploma 4
18 Program
Graduate Degree Diploma 3
Program Program Program
17 (S1) (S1) Diploma 2
Diploma 1
Program
Program
16
Islamic General Senior Vocational Senior
Senior Senior Secon- Secondary School Secondary School
15 dary School (Sekolah Menengah (Sekolah Menengah
Secondary
Education (Madrasah Atas/SMA) Kejuruan/SMK)
14 Aliyah)

Islamic
13 Junior Secon- General Junior Secondary School/SLTP
dary School
12 (Madrasah (Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Pertama)
Tsanawiyah)
Basic
11 Education

10
Islamic
9 Primary
School
(Madrasah
Primary School
8 Ibtidaiyah) (Sekolah Dasar/SD)

6
Islamic
Kindergarten
5 Preschool (Raudhatul Kindergarten
Athfal) (Taman Kanak-kanak/TK)

19
Attachement 2

Lessons Learned from Partnership

Between the Department of Non-formal Education and SIL International
Kay Ringenberg, M.S., Ed.S.

Background

A diversity of local languages is one of Indonesia’s national treasures and expression

of the country’s individuality. Recognizing the intrinsic value of local languages to their
country, the Consultative Assembly of Indonesia has called for increased research and
development of local languages and literature.2

Although more data is needed, there are an estimated 700 living langauges3
canvassing the Indonesian archipelago. SIL International has done linguistic research in over
100 of these languages and has active literacy programs with isolated communities in five
provinces.

SIL International and the Department of Education’s cooperative non-formal

education programs empower minority communities to overcome language barriers to
functional literacy. Through this partnership, communities gain capacity to produce
literature and multilingual teaching aids that are contextually relevant and accessible
through village libraries as well as schools. Locally-authored literature records legends,
history, and other aspects of culture, ensuring that indigenous knowledge is not lost for
future generations.

Best Practices

SIL International has three approaches to improving literacy levels:

a. Transference of Technology—equipping those literate in the national language with

the skills to teach their people to read and write in both the national and local
languages.

Three workshops held in 2004 are an example of this approach, providing training in
advanced writing, desktop publishing, and bilingual education for speakers of four out
of 15 languages found in the Aru district of Southeast Maluku Province. Drawing on
critical thinking skills developed during the workshops, nine participants can author
their own literature, three participants can now operate desktop publishing software to
produce their own local language literature, three participants operate village reading
rooms, and 29 educators can now administer bilingual education programs (Mulok).

b. Multilingual Functional Literature—preformatted materials called shellbooks allow for

quick replication of basic reading materials across several languages with the help of
desktop publishing.

These materials are essential in reinforcing an emerging culture of literacy. Local

communities are able to choose topics most relevant to them from over a hundred
titles on health education, income generation or agricultural development. This
information is translated and reproduced in diglot form, with the national and local
languages side-by-side, enabling multilingual literacy.

c. Educational Materials Production—contextually appropriate educational materials are

developed for those groups preliterate in any language.

2
Decree of The Consultative Assembly of The Republic of Indonesia, 1988, p.69-70
3
Grimes, Barbara, The Ethnologue, SIL International, Dallas 2000, pages 469-527

20
 A three-year preschool for children from the Una language group in Jayawijaya,
Papua, reinforces literacy skills through community reading rooms and educational games.
In year three, teachers transition from the local language to Indonesian as the language of
instruction. The future success of the Una program is made certain through equipping local
people as literacy tutors and trainers. Two supervisors and eight tutor trainers have been
trained thus far to develop functional literacy groups in 14 villages.

Case Study—Functional Literacy in Papua

The dense jungles and steep mountain ranges of Papua are home to over two
million inhabitants and 265 languages.4 Many villages are only accessible by airplane,
canoe, or on foot. According to official estimates5 the literacy rate is approximately 80%
based on the ability to recognize letters and read a simple sentence.6 Anecdotal evidence,
however, suggests the rate of functional literacy, defined as the ability to engage in
activities requiring literacy, is much lower.

In those Papuan communities which are bilingual, teachers and learners are often
fluent in their local language as well as a regional language such as Papuan Malay.7
Standard Indonesian, which may seem foreign to the Papuan learner, is the language of
classroom instruction, though the local language may be taught as a subject four to eight
hours a week.

In semi-bilingual and monolingual communities, fluency is only in the local

language, a result of infrequent contact with outsiders. Because many people in these areas
only have an elementary school education, the local language is a strategic tool in acquiring
basic literacy. Distance that children must travel to attend school, along with high dropout
rates by adolescents returning to their home area to find work represent two significant
challenges facing these communities.

In 2002, the Indonesian government began supplying funds for tutor honorariums,
uniforms, classroom supplies, ongoing tutor training, program evaluation as well as printing
of basic primers, shellbooks, and bigbooks.8

Three hundred twenty-eight functional literacy tutors reach 6,244 students in the
language communities of Ambai, Bauzi, Edopi, Irarutu, Isirawa, Kemtuik, Ketengban, Orya,
Una, and Walak. Five of these communities are bilingual in Indonesian and the local
language; three are semi-bilingual, and two only understand the local language. Roman
scripts for all ten local languages have been created only within the last 20 years.

4
Grimes, Barbara, The Ethnologue, SIL International, Dallas 2000, pages 469-527
5
Jumlah dan Persentase Pendudk Buta Huruf per Kecamatan, Badan Pusat Statistik dan DitJen
Pendidikan Luar Sekolah dan Pemuda—Departmen Pendidikan Nasional, Indonesia, 2004
6
Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional (SUSENAS) 2004, Badan Pusat Statistik
7
Papuan Malay is a regionalized language of Indonesian
8
Bigbooks: Highly illustrated larger print books with only one or two concepts per page to reinforce
and enhance reading skills through reading in small groups or classrooms.

21