Hermitian operators

Observables in quantum
mechanics
Hermitian transformations in Hilbert
space
; ; T T T T T T =
Abstract definition of a Hermitian transformation can be given in
the form
In a finite dimensional space it can be represented with the help
of matrices as
( ) ( )

= b Ta Tb a
In a Hilbert space of square integrable functions the Hermitian
transformations can be presented as
*
*

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x Tf x dx T x f x dx

=


Examples of Hermitian
transformations. Finite dimension.
( ) ( )
( )

* * * * * *
* *
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 ; 2 ; 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 1 2 1 2 3
1 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 2 3
1 2 1 2 3 2 1
i i i
i i i i i i
i i i
i a a ia a
b b b i i a b b b ia a ia
i a a ia a
b a ia a b ia

= = = =




+ +


= = + + =


+

+ + +
T T T T
b Ta

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
*

* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * *
2 2 3 3 1 2 2 3
1
2 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 2
3
2 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 3 3
a ia b a ia a
a
b ib b ib b ib b ib b a
a
b ib b a ib b ib a b ib b a
+ + + +


= + + + + =



+ + + + + +
Tb a
Examples of Hermitian operators.
Hilbert Space
Momentum operator
*
*
*
* * *
0 for square integrable
functions
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d d
g x i f x dx i g x f x dx
dx dx
d
f x i g x dx
dx
d d
g x i f x dx g x f x f x i g x dx
dx dx

= =








= +

h h
h
h h
_
Coordinate operator
( ) [ ]
*
* *
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) g x xf x dx xg x f x dx xg x f x dx = =

Examples of Hermitian operators.
Hilbert space.
Kinetic energy
*
2 2 2 2
*
2 2
2 2 2 *
* *
2
0 for square integrable
functions
2 *
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
( )
2
d d
g x f x dx g x f x dx
m dx m dx
d df x df x dg x
g x f x dx g x dx
m dx m dx dx dx
dg x
f
m dx

=







= =









h h
h h
_
h
2 *
2
0 for square integrable
functions
( )
( ) ( )
d g x
x f x dx
dx

_
Eigen values of Hermitian
operators
Eigen values of Hermitian operators are real. Proof:
*
* *

;

;
.
Qf qf f Qf Qf f
f Qf f qf q f f Qf f qf f q f f
q f f q f f q q QED
= =
= = = =
= =
A significant element of the proof is the assumption that the
eigen functions are normalizable.
Eigenfunctions of Hermitian
operators
Eigenfunctions belonging to different eigenvalues are
orthogonal. Proof:
( )
( )
*

; ;

;
0 , if 0
Qf qf Qg q g g Qf Qg f
g Qf g qf q g f Qg f q g f
q g f q g f
q g f q g f
q q g f g f q q
QED

= = =

= = = =

=

=

=
Completeness of the eigenfunctions
In a vector space with a finite dimension, it can be proven
rigorously that eigen functions of a hermitian transformation
span a space, so that any vector can be presented as a
linear combination of the basis.
In Hilbert space such a proof exists only for several particular
cases. Thus, we postulate that only those Hermitian
operators may represent physical observables, whose eigen
functions form a complete basis, so that
1
( ) ( )
n n
n
x c x

=
=

Since this is an infinite sum there

appear a lot of mathematical issues
such as convergence of the sum, its
uniformity, etc.
Hermitian operators with
continuous spectra
Lets find eigenfunctions of momentum operator. We
showed that it was a Hermitian operator on the class of
normalizable functions. What are its eigen functions?
( ) ( ) ( )
p
i x
d
i f x pf x f x Ae
dx
= =
h
h
These functions do not belong to Hilbert space, and there is
no restriction on the eigen number. We can, however,
require that we will only consider real p. In this case we have
something like orthonormality:
( )
2 2
*
( ) ( ) 2
p p
i x
p p
f x f x dx A e dx A p p

= =

h
h
Hermitian operators with
continuous spectra. Continue.
Choosing
1
2
A

=
h
We get an expression very much
resembling orthonormality condition
( )
p p
f f p p

=
It is also important that these
eigenfunctions are complete
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
( ) ( )
2
p
i x
p
p
i x
f x c p f x dp c p e dp
c p f x e dx

= =
=

h
h
h
h
Coordinate operator
What are the eigenfunctions of the coordinate
operator?

( ) ( ) ( )
y y y
xg x xg x yg x = =
y here is a fixed number (for a given function), while x is a
variable. The equality above can only hold if the eigen
function is zero everywhere, except of x=y.
*
2 2
*
( ) ( ); ( ) ( ) ( )
For 1 ( ) ( ) ( )
y y y
y y
g x A x y A g x g x dx A y y
A g x g x dx y y

= =


= =

Completeness of these functions trivially follows from

properties of the delta-function.
Matrix representation of operators
Similar to the case of finite vector spaces, operators acting on functions
from Hilbert space allows for matrix representation. Assume that we
have a complete orthonormal system of functions Consider an
operator Q.
( )
n
x
1

( ) ( ); ( ) ( )
n mn m mn m n
m
Q x Q x Q x Q x

=
= =

The knowledge of the matrix allows to calculate the result of applying this operator
to any function:
1 1 1 1
1 1 1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( );
m m m m m nm n
m m m n
nm m n n nm m
n m m
Qf x Q c x c Q x c Q x
Q c x c Q c

= = = =

= = =
= = = =

=

Matrix representation for

continuous spectrum

( ) ( , ) ( ); ( , ) ( ) ( )
p p p p
Q x Q p p x Q p p x Q x


= =

( ) ( ) ( ) ( , ) ( )
( , )
p p p p p p
p p
Qf x Q c x dp c Q x dp dpdp c Q p p x
c dp Q p p c

= = =

=

In this form the operator Q appears as an integral operator

with a kernel Q(p,t). Knowledge of this kernel allows to
determine the results of applying the operator to any
function.
Basis of the eigen functions
Let
n
(x) be a set of eigenfunctions of the operator
Q. What is its matrix in this basis?
1
1
2
3

( ) ( );

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
0 0
0 0
n mn m
m
mn m n n m n n mn
mn
Q x Q x
Q x Q x q x x q
q
q
Q
q

=
=
= = =



=

. .
Its diagonal!
Diagonalization
A matrix, which is not diagonal in some basis can be made to be diagonal by the
change of the basis. Obviously that the new basis vectors must be eigenvectors of
the matrix.
( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1
old basis new basis (eigen vectors of Q presented in the basis )
The transformation matrix is defined as
multiply this expression by and sum over :

i i i
i ji j
ik
j
i ji j jk
ik ik
i j i
e f e
e S f S i
S e S S f

=
= =

( )
1

j k
j
k i
ik
i
f f
f S e

=
=

For the given k, the k-th column of matrix S

-1
represent the components of the eigen vectors of
the operator in the old basis.
Diagonalization. II
( )
1
1
Let represent an operator in the original basis.
Let a k column for a given

consists of components of repsective eigenvector of .

Then, the matrix in a new basis is:
;
mn
ik
mn
mn
Q
th S k
Q
Q
Q S

= = Q SQS

( )
( )
( )
1
,
1
1
Components of the eigen vectors in the new basis are
, which is natural for basis vectors.
mi ik
kn
i k
mi n n mn
in
i
ik i j ik
jk
Q S
S q S q
f S S

=
=
= =

Diagonalization of two matrices

Consider two operators, Q, and T, represented in a certain basis by
matrices Q and T. When is it possible to diagonalize both of them using
the same basis? Answer: if and only if they commute.
n n
1. Assume that matrices can be diagonalized simultaneously.
Then if is a set of eigenvectors of one operator, it is also a set
of eigen vectors of the other operator: ;
n
n n n n
n n n
f
q t
g g
= =
= =

Qf f Tf f
QTg QT f
n n n n n
n n n n n n n n
q t g
g g t q g
=
= = =
= =


QTf f
TQg TQ f TQf f
Q Q g TQg T T TQ
Diagonalization of two matrices

2. Assume that operators and commute: .

Let be the set of eigenvectors of :

. This means that is also

an eigenvector of with the same eigenvalue.

n n n n
n n n n n
Q T QT TQ
f Q Q f q f
QT f TQ f q T f T f
Q
=
=
= =
Thus,

n n n
T f t f =