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Lecture 2 - Devices & Components

Professor Z Ghassemlooy

Northumbria Communications Laboratory

School of Informatics, Engineering and
Technology
The University of Northumbria
U.K.
http://soe.unn.ac.uk/ocr
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 1
Contents

 Connectors + Optical Splice

 Attenuators
 Coupler
 Splitter
 Filters
 Fibre Brag Grating
 Optical Isolator
 Circulators
 Optical Add/Drop
 Multiplexer & Demultiplexer

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 Introduction
 An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light
 It consists of a core and cladding that surrounds the core
 The index of refraction of the cladding is less than that of the core,
causing rays of light leaving the core to be refracted back into the core
 A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser diode (LD) can be used for the
source
 Advantages of optical fiber include:
– Greater bandwidth than copper
– Lower loss
– Immunity to crosstalk
– No electrical hazard

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Single and Multimode Fibers
-Light propagated in optical fiber in form of modes.
-Spatial distributions of EM fields do not change with time.
No of Modes?
-V number (normalized frequency) define number of
possible modes for a fiber:
V= (2*π*a*NA) / λ
where a is radius of fiber, and λis wavelength of light.
For single mode propagation, V<2.405.
Uniformly and Non-uniformly doped fibers.
Single Mode Fibers
-With the primary degrees of freedom of core cladding
diameter and the difference of refractive indices between
them they can be optimized for attenuation and dispersion.
-Light propagation can be studied using geometrical optics.
MultiModeFibers
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Different modes can exist simulatenouslyon the same
wavelength.
-Depending upon profile shape they can be: Different
Modes of Optical Fibers
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber)
Multimode Step Index
Multimode Graded Index
-The core index decreases like a parabolic-like law
from the axis to the core cladding interface.

-Designed to minimize the intermodal dispersion effect

(without significantly reducing the numerical
aperatureor the coupled power).
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Optical Fiber & Communications
System

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Optical Fiber
 Optical fiber is made from thin strands of either
glass or plastic
 It has little mechanical strength, so it must be
enclosed in a protective jacket
 Often, two or more fibers are enclosed in the same
cable for increased bandwidth and redundancy in
case one of the fibers breaks
 It is also easier to build a full-duplex system using
two fibers, one for transmission in each direction
Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Total Internal Reflection
 Optical fibers work on the principle of total
internal reflection
 With light, the refractive index is listed
 The angle of refraction at the interface between
two media is governed by Snell’s law:
n1 sin1  n2 sin 2

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Refraction & Total Internal
Reflection

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Numerical Aperture
 The numerical aperture of the
fiber is closely related to the critical
angle and is often used in the
specification for optical fiber and
the components that work with it
 The numerical aperture is given by
the formula:
2 2
N . A.  n  n 1 2
 The angle of acceptance is twice
that given by the numerical aperture

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Modes and Materials
 Since optical fiber is a waveguide, light can propagate in a number
of modes
 If a fiber is of large diameter, light entering at different angles will
excite different modes while narrow fiber may only excite one mode
 Multimode propagation will cause dispersion, which results in the
spreading of pulses and limits the usable bandwidth
 Single-mode fiber has much less dispersion but is more expensive
to produce. Its small size, together with the fact that its numerical
aperture is smaller than that of multimode fiber, makes it more
difficult to couple to light sources

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Types of Fiber
 Both types of fiber described earlier are known as step-index fibers because
the index of refraction changes radically between the core and the cladding
 Graded-index fiber is a compromise multimode fiber, but the index of
refraction gradually decreases away from the center of the core
 Graded-index fiber has less dispersion than a multimode step-index fiber

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Dispersion
 Dispersion in fiber optics results from the fact that in multimode
propagation, the signal travels faster in some modes than it would in others
 Single-mode fibers are relatively free from dispersion except for
intramodal dispersion
 Graded-index fibers reduce dispersion by taking advantage of higher-order
modes
 One form of intramodal dispersion is called material dispersion because it
depends upon the material of the core
 Another form of dispersion is called waveguide dispersion
 Dispersion increases with the bandwidth of the light source

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Examples of Dispersion

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 Losses
 Losses in optical fiber result from attenuation in the material
itself and from scattering, which causes some light to strike the
cladding at less than the critical angle
 Bending the optical fiber too sharply can also cause losses by
causing some of the light to meet the cladding at less than the
critical angle
 Losses vary greatly depending upon the type of fiber
– Plastic fiber may have losses of several hundred dB per kilometer
– Graded-index multimode glass fiber has a loss of about 2–4 dB
per kilometer
– Single-mode fiber has a loss of 0.4 dB/km or less

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Types of Losses

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Fiber-Optic Cables
 There are two basic types of fiber-optic cable
– The difference is whether the fiber is free to move inside a tube
with a diameter much larger than the fiber or is inside a relatively
tight-fitting jacket
 They are referred to as loose-tube and tight-buffer cables
 Both methods of construction have advantages
– Loose-tube cables—all the stress of cable pulling is taken up by the
cable’s strength members and the fiber is free to expand and
contract with temperature
– Tight-buffer cables are cheaper and generally easier to use

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Fiber-Optic Cable
Construction

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Splices and Connectors
 In fiber-optic systems, the losses from splices and connections can be more than in the
cable itself
 Losses result from:
– Axial or angular misalignment
– Air gaps between the fibers
– Rough surfaces at the ends of the fibers

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Fiber-Optic Connectors
 Coupling the fiber to sources and
detectors creates losses as well,
especially when it involves
mismatches in numerical aperture
or in the size of optical fibers
 Good connections are more critical
with single-mode fiber, due to its
smaller diameter and numerical
aperture
 A splice is a permanent connection
and a connector is removable

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Optical Couplers and

Switches
As with coaxial cable and
microwave waveguides, it is
possible to build power splitters
and directional couplers for fiber-
optic systems
 It is more complex and expensive
to do this with fiber than with
copper wire
 Optical couplers are categorized as
either star couples with multiple
inputs and outputs or as tees,
which have one input and two
outputs

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Coupler Construction

 Optical couplers can be made in many different ways:

– A number of fibers can be fused together to make a
transmissive coupler
– A reflective coupler allows a signal entering on any fiber to
exit on all other fibers, so the coupler is bidirectional

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Optical Switches and Relays
 Occasionally, it is necessary to switch
optical signals from one fiber to another
 The simplest type of optical switch moves
fibers so that an input fiber can be
positioned next to the appropriate output
fiber
 Another approach is direct the incoming
light into a prism, which reflects it into the
outgoing fiber. By moving the prism, the
light can be switched between different
output fibers
 Lenses are necessary with this approach to
avoid excessive loss of light

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 Optical Emitters
 Optical emitters operate on the idea that electromagnetic energy
can only appear in a discrete amount known as a quantum.
These quanta are called photons when the energy is radiated
 Energy in one photon varies directly with the frequency
 Typical optical emitters include:
– Light-Emitting Diodes
– Laser Diodes

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Light-Emitting Diodes

 An LED is form of junction diode that is operated with forward bias

 Instead of generating heat at the PN junction, light is generated and
passes through an opening or lens
 LEDs can be visible spectrum or infrared

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Laser Diodes
 Laser diodes generate coherent, intense light of a very
narrow bandwidth
 A laser diode has an emission linewidth of about 2 nm,
compared to 50 nm for a common LED
 Laser diodes are constructed much like LEDs but
operate at higher current levels

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Laser Diode Construction

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Optical Detectors
 The most common optical detector used with fiber-optic systems is
the PIN diode
 The PIN diode is operated in the reverse-bias mode
 As a photodetector, the PIN diode takes advantage of its wide depletion
region, in which electrons can create electron-hole pairs
 The low junction capacitance of the PIN diode allows for very fast switching

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Avalanche Photodiode
 The avalanche photodiode (APD) is also operated in the reverse-
bias mode
 The creation of electron-hole pairs due to the absorption of a photon
of incoming light may set off avalanche breakdown, creating up to
100 more pairs
 This multiplying effect gives an APD very high sensitivity

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Y- Couplers
Y-junctions are 1 x 2 couplers and are a key element in networking.

I1
Ii
I2

1 X 8 coupler
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Individual channels are modulated at high data rates
(Channels A-C, more would be used in an actual system).
• An Optical Pulse generator forms high-speed pulses at
rates less than the period of the transmitted data.
• The bit period for these signals is compressed to T/N,
multiplexed, and transmitted through optical fiber.
• A high-speed clock and regenerator demodulates the
signals.
• All optical 3R regeneration processes (re-amplifying,
re-shaping, and re-timing) can greatly extend the
capability of this technique beyond 100 Gb/s). A
demonstration of 1.28 Tb/s has been demonstrated
(Nakazawa, et.al., Elect. Lett. 2000).
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Multiplexing

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• One of the most promising concepts for high

capacity communication systems is wavelength
division multiplexing (WDM).
• Each communication channel is allocated to a
different frequency and multiplexed onto a single
fiber. At the destination wavelengths are spatially
separated to different receiver locations.
• In this configuration the high carrier bandwidth is
utilized to a greater extent to transmit multiple
optical signals through a single optical fiber.
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Simple MEMS switch for routing a signal from a fiber.
• Pop-Up Mirror allows signal to switch from fiber #1 to fiber
#2.
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 Basic EDF Amplifier Design

 Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) most common

– Commercially available since the early 1990’s
– Works best in the range 1530 to 1565 nm
– Gain up to 30 dB (1000 photons out per photon in!)

 Optically transparent
– “Unlimited” RF bandwidth Input Coupler Isolator
– Wavelength transparent
1480 or 980
nm Pump Output
Laser
Erbium Doped Fiber

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier

 A pump optical signal is added to an input signal by a WDM coupler

 Within a length of doped fiber part of the pump energy is transferred to the
input signal by stimulated emission
 For operation circa (approximately)1550 nm the fiber dopant is Erbium
 Pump wavelength is 980 nm or 1480 nm, pump power circa 50 mW
 Gains of 30-40 dB possible

Isolator Isolator

Input WDM Output

Erbium Doped
Fibre

Pump Source
= Fusion
Splice
Source: Master 7_5

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Interior of an Erbium Doped Fibre
Amplfier (EDFA)

Pump laser
WDM Fibre coupler

Erbium
doped fibre
loop

Fibre
input/output

Source: Master 7_5

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
 Operation of an EDFA

Power
Power level

Power level
interchange
between
pump and
980 nm 1550 nm data 980 nm 1550 nm
signal data signal signals signal data signal

Isolator Isolator
Input Output
WDM
Erbium Doped
Fibre

= Fusion Pump Source

Splice

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Signal Reshaping and Amplification

 In long distance communications, whether going

through wire, fibre or wave, the signal carrying the
information experience:
- Power loss
- Pulse broadening
which requires amplification and signal reshaping.

 In fibre optics communications, these can be done in

two ways:
– Opto-electronic conversion
– All optical

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Signal Reshaping and Amplification

Depending on its nature, a signal can also be regenerated.

 A digital signal is made of 1's and 0's: it is possible to

reconstruct the signal and amplify it at the same time.

 An analog signal however, cannot be reconstructed

because nobody knows what the original signal looked
like.

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Why the Need for Optical Amplification?

 Semiconductor devices can convert an optical signal into

an electrical signal, amplify it and reconvert the signal back
to an optical signal. However, this procedure has several
disadvantages:
– Costly
– Require a large number over long distances
– Noise is introduced after each conversion in analog signals
(which cannot be reconstructed)
– Restriction on bandwidth, wavelengths and type of optical
signals being used, due to the electronics
 By amplifying signal in the optical domain many of these
disadvantages would disappear!
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Optical Amplification

 Amplification gain: Up to a factor of 10,000 (+40 dB)

 In WDM: Several signals within the amplifier’s gain (G)
bandwidth are amplified, but not to the same extent
 It generates its own noise source known as Amplified
Spontaneous Emission (ASE) noise.

Weak signal Amplified signal

Pin Optical Pout
Amplifier
ASE ASE
(G)

Pump Source

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SLA - Principle Operation

Excited state
Pump
Pump signal signal
@ 980 nm Energy Absorption
@ 980
nm

Electrons in ground state

Excited state
Tra
nsi
tion
Pump signal Metastable
@ 980 nm state

Ground state
www.cisco.com
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SLA - Principle Operation

Excited state
Tra
ns itio
n Metastable state

Pump signal ASE Photons

Tra
@ 980 nm 1550 nm

n
sit
nio
Ground state

Excited state
Tra
n si
tion Metastable state

Pump signal Stimulated

@ 980 nm Signal photon emission
1550 nm 1550 nm
Ground state

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 Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier (EDFA)

 EDFA is an optical fibre doped with erbium.

– Erbium is a rare-earth element which has some interesting properties for fibre
optics communications.
– Photons at 1480 or 980 nm activate electrons into a metastable state
– Electrons falling back emit light at 1550 nm.
– By one of the most extraordinary coincidences, 1550 nm is a low-loss
wavelength region for silica optical fibres.
– This means that we could amplify a signal by 540
using stimulated emission. 670
820
980
 EDFA is a low noise light
Metastable
amplifier. state
1480
1550 nm
Ground state
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 EDFA - Operating Features
Amplifier length
Input signal 1-20 m typical
Amplified signal

Pump from an Cladding

Erbium doped core
external laser
1480 or 980 nm

• Available since 1990’s:

• Self-regulating amplifiers: output power remains more or less constant
even if the input power fluctuates significantly
• Output power: 10-23 dBm
• Gain: 30 dB
• Used in terrestrial and submarine links
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Optical Amplification - Spectral
Characteristics

(unamplified signal)

(amplified signal)
Single channel

Power
Power
ASE

Wavelength Wavelength
WDM channels
(unamplified signal)

(amplified signal)
Power

Power
ASE

Wavelength Wavelength
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Optical Amplification - Noise Figure

 Required figure of merit to compare amplifier noise

performance
 Defined when the input signal is coherent

Input signal  to noise ratio ( SNRi )

Noise Figure (NF) 
Output signal  to noise ratio ( SNRo )

 NF is a positive number, nearly always > 2 (I.e. 3 dB)

 Good performance: when NF ~ 3 dB
 NF is one of a number of factors that determine the
overall BER of a network.
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Optical Amplifiers - Types

There are mainly two types:

 Semiconductor Laser (optical) Amplifier (SLA) (SOA)

 Active-Fibre or Doped-Fibre
– Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier (EDFA)
– Fibre Raman Amplifier (FRA)
– Thulium Doped Fibre Amplifier (TDFA)

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SLA - Principle Operation
 Remember diode lasers?
Suppose that the diode laser has no mirrors:
- we get the diode to a population inversion condition
- we inject photons at one end of the diode
 By stimulated emission, the incident signal will be amplified!
– By stimulated emission, one photon gives rise to another photon: the total is
two photons. Each of these two photons can give rise to another photon: the
total is then four photons. And it goes on and on...
Problems:
 Poor noise performance: they add a lot of noise to the signal!
 Matching with the fibre is also a problem!
 However, they are small and cheap!

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 OPTIWAVE free software for optical communication
application:
 - course project
 -may be assignments.

Prof. Z Ghassemlooy 73
end

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