• Unit-4

 Optics And Electromagnetics---7 hours

 Principles of optical fiber technology, characteristics of

active and adaptive optical system and components,

 design and manufacturing principles.

1
Refraction & Total Internal Reflection

2
 Total Internal Reflection

 Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal

reflection
 With light, the refractive index is listed

 The angle of refraction at the interface between two media

is governed by Snell’s law:

n1 sin1  n2 sin 2
3
 Refractive index
A ray of light being refracted in a plastic block.
In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of an optical
medium is a dimensionless number that describes how light, or any
other radiation, propagates through that medium. It is defined as

n= c/v
Where, c is the speed of light, in vacuum and
v is the phase velocity of light in the medium.
The refractive index determines how much light is bent, or
refracted, when entering a material. 4
Optical Fiber & Communications System

5
 Optical Fiber
 Optical fiber is made from thin strands of either glass or plastic.

 It has little mechanical strength, so it must be enclosed in a protective jacket.

 Often, two or more fibers are enclosed in the same cable for increased

bandwidth and redundancy in case one of the fibers breaks.

 It is also easier to build a full-duplex system using two fibers, one for

transmission in each direction.

6
 An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light

 It consists of a core and cladding (Covering)that surrounds the core

 The index of refraction of the cladding is less than that of the core, causing
rays of light leaving the core to be refracted back into the core
 A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser diode (LD) can be used for the source
• Advantages of optical fiber include:
 Greater bandwidth than copper, Lower loss, Immunity to crosstalk

 No electrical hazard

7
 Numerical Aperture
 The numerical aperture of the fiber is closely related to the critical angle and is
often used in the specification for optical fiber and the components that work with
it

 The numerical aperture is given by the formula: N . A.  n12  n22

 The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical aperture

8
 Modes and Materials
 Since optical fiber is a waveguide, light can propagate in a number of modes.

 If a fiber is of large diameter, light entering at different angles will excite

different modes while narrow fiber may only excite one mode.
 Multimode propagation will cause dispersion, which results in the spreading
of pulses and limits the usable bandwidth.
 Single-mode fiber has much less dispersion but is more expensive to
produce. Its small size, together with the fact that its numerical aperture is
smaller than that of multimode fiber, makes it more difficult to couple to
light sources.

9
 Types of Fiber
 Both types of fiber described earlier are known as step-index fibers because the index of refraction
changes radially between the core and the cladding.
 Graded-index fiber is a compromise multimode fiber, but the index of refraction gradually
decreases away from the center of the core.
 Graded-index fiber has less dispersion than a multimode step-index fiber.

10
 Dispersion
 Dispersion in fiber optics results from the fact that in multimode propagation,
the signal travels faster in some modes than it would in others
 Single-mode fibers are relatively free from dispersion except for intramodal
dispersion
 Graded-index fibers reduce dispersion by taking advantage of higher-order
modes
 One form of intramodal dispersion is called material dispersion because it
depends upon the material of the core
 Another form of dispersion is called waveguide dispersion

 Dispersion increases with the bandwidth of the light source

11
Examples of Dispersion

12
 Losses
 Losses in optical fiber result from attenuation in the material itself and from scattering, which causes
some light to strike the cladding at less than the critical angle
 Bending the optical fiber too sharply can also cause losses by causing some of the light to meet the
cladding at less than the critical angle
 Losses vary greatly depending upon the type of fiber

 Plastic fiber may have losses of several hundred dB per kilometer

 Graded-index multimode glass fiber has a loss of about 2–4 dB

per kilometer
 Single-mode fiber has a loss of 0.4 dB/km or less

13
Types of Losses

14
 Fiber-Optic Cables
 There are two basic types of fiber-optic cable

– The difference is whether the fiber is free to move inside a tube with a
diameter much larger than the fiber or is inside a relatively tight-fitting jacket
 They are referred to as loose-tube and tight-buffer cables

 Both methods of construction have advantages

– Loose-tube cables—all the stress of cable pulling is taken up by the cable’s

strength members and the fiber is free to expand and contract with
temperature
– Tight-buffer cables are cheaper and generally easier to use

15
Fiber-Optic Cable Construction

16
 Splices and Connectors
 In fiber-optic systems, the losses from splices and connections can be more than in the
cable itself
 Losses result from:
– Axial or angular misalignment
– Air gaps between the fibers
– Rough surfaces at the ends of the fibers

17
 Fiber-Optic Connectors
 Coupling the fiber to sources and detectors creates losses as well, especially when it
involves mismatches in numerical aperture or in the size of optical fibers
 Good connections are more critical with single-mode fiber, due to its smaller
diameter and numerical aperture
 A splice is a permanent connection and a connector is removable

18
 Optical Couplers and Switches
 As with coaxial cable and
microwave waveguides, it is
possible to build power splitters
and directional couplers for fiber-
optic systems

 It is more complex and expensive

to do this with fiber than with
copper wire

19
 Coupler Construction
 Optical couplers can be made in many different ways:

– A number of fibers can be fused together to make a transmissive

coupler
– A reflective coupler allows a signal entering on any fiber to exit on
all other fibers, so the coupler is bidirectional

20
 Optical Switches and Relays
 Occasionally, it is necessary to switch optical
signals from one fiber to another.
 The simplest type of optical switch moves
fibers so that an input fiber can be positioned
next to the appropriate output fiber.
 Another approach is direct the incoming light
into a prism, which reflects it into the outgoing
fiber. By moving the prism, the light can be
switched between different output fibers.
 Lenses are necessary with this approach to
avoid excessive loss of light.

21
 Optical Emitters
 Optical emitters operate on the idea that electromagnetic energy can
only appear in a discrete amount known as a quantum. These quanta
are called photons when the energy is radiated
 Energy in one photon varies directly with the frequency

 Typical optical emitters include:

– Light-Emitting Diodes

– Laser Diodes

22
 Light-Emitting Diodes
• An LED is form of junction diode that is operated with forward bias

• Instead of generating heat at the PN junction, light is generated and passes through an opening or lens

• LEDs can be visible spectrum or infrared

23
 Laser Diodes
 Laser diodes generate coherent, intense light of a very narrow

bandwidth.

 A laser diode has an emission linewidth of about 2 nm, compared to

50 nm for a common LED.

 Laser diodes are constructed much like LEDs but operate at higher

current levels.

24
Laser Diode Construction

25
 Optical Detectors
• The most common optical detector used with fiber-optic systems is
the PIN diode.
• The PIN diode is operated in the reverse-bias mode.
• As a photodetector, the PIN diode takes advantage of its wide depletion region, in which electrons can create
electron-hole pairs.
• The low junction capacitance of the PIN diode allows for very fast switching.

26
 Avalanche Photodiode
 The avalanche photodiode (APD) is also operated in the reverse-
bias mode
 The creation of electron-hole pairs due to the absorption of a photon
of incoming light may set off avalanche breakdown, creating up to
100 more pairs
 This multiplying effect gives an APD very high sensitivity

27
Optical fiber vs Copper
 Challenges: Connectivity and Interoperability
Newer technologies involving higher datarates, smaller form factors,
higher port densities, pluggability, and parallel links are showing an
increased need to focus on connectivity and interoperability issues
Transceiver Fiber Optic Cable
Transceiver

Electrical
Connector Electrical
Optical Optical Optical Connector
Optical
Port Connector Connector Port

A failure anywhere along this link will cause the entire link to fail
Starin measurement by using optical
fibrers

Microbent and macrobent

Extrinsic fabry perot sensor

Crack detection by using optical fibre

Chemical sensing by using optical fibre

30
Microbending & Macrobending
Power Losses in Optical Fibres
 By severely bending an optical fibre will incur an optical power loss,

and the received signal power will be reduced.

 The deformation of the structure embedded with fiber optic sensors

imparts strain to the elastic fiber.

 As a result changes occur in certain optical characteristics such as

optical intensity and phase.

A measurement of phase change is the common approach and provides a

measure of deformation.

In a sense, one could visualize changes in the length of the fiber resulting

from deformation, which in turn changes the distance of “ flow” of light.

The phase changes are measured between a reference signal through a

fiber and another signal coming through a similar fiber that contains

microbends along its length.

The microbends which are intensionally built along the fiber at

periodical intervals, allow light to radiate out.

The behavior of light signal through the fiber with microbends is

influenced by temperature, acceleration and strain.

Thus a comparison between ref. signal and signal from fiber with

microbends provides a measure of strain.

GRIN :
In another measurement mechanism, sensing strain using graded index

(GRIN) multimode fibers reduces the problem from phase detection to

intensity detection.

 These types of fibers exhibit substantial microbending losses.

This is desirable because intensity detection is easier than phase

detection.
A GRIN fiber that is periodically microbent attenuates light
transmitted through it.
GRIN fibers embedded in composites undergo microbending when
transverse stress is applied and therefore detect applied stress on the
composite.

•GRIN fibers are expensive compared to step index(SI) fibers.

•But step index fibers are less sensitive to applied stress relatively as in

fig …..
Macrobending:
One way to observe the effect of bending losses
is to use a Visual Fault Locator (VFL) where the
visible red light glow seen at the point of bend
indicates light escaping from the fibre core,
passing through the cladding and fibre coatings
before escaping into the environment.
Macrobending:

A second way to observe bending losses is to use an OTDR in “real

time” mode where a severe induced bend causes a noticeable drop in the

backscattered power level beyond the point of bending.

The leaked signal is not visible to the naked eye at the point of bending

as networks and optical testing instruments operate in the infra red (heat)

portion of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.

Extrinsic Fabry-Perot Sensors

39
 Crack detection by using optical fibre

• Embedded optical fibres are used

• Along with structure fibre will also fails

• It measures the strain but not the distance of crack

• Distance of crack can be measured by using Optical time

domain reflectometry (OTDR). 40
Chemical sensing by using optical fibre

41