Student Review Guide Trench Ops

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to
Trench Rescue
Copyright © 2022 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, an Ascend Learning Company.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Trench Rescue
1
Knowledge Objectives
 Define the terms trench and an excavation.
Copyright © 2022 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, an Ascend Learning Company
 Describe the use of Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA) regulations for
trench rescue operations.
 Identify trench rescue references.
 Define a competent person per OSHA.
 Describe typical types of accidents at trench and excavation work sites. Identify the
levels of response for trench rescue (awareness, operations, and technician), and
describe the scope of each level.
 Recognize basic soil and collapse mechanics.
 Identify hazards frequently found at trench sites.
 Recognize and describe trench rescue terms and definitions.
 Identify the components of a trench rescue response system.
Chapter 1 Objectives:
• Define the terms trench and an excavation.

• Describe the use of Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA)
regulations for trench rescue operations.
• Identify trench rescue references.
• Define a competent person per OSHA.
• Describe typical types of accidents at trench and excavation work sites.
Identify the levels of response for trench rescue (awareness, operations,
and technician), and describe the scope of each level.
• Recognize basic soil and collapse mechanics.
• Identify hazards frequently found at trench sites.
• Recognize and describe trench rescue terms and definitions.
• Identify the components of a trench rescue response system
2
Introduction
 Excavation
 Any human-made cut, cavity,
trench, or depression in the earth’s
surface
 Formed by earth removal
 Trench © Richard Thornton/Shutterstock
 A narrow underground excavation

that is deeper than it is wide
 No wider than 15 feet (4.5 m)
Introduction
• Excavation
• Any human-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth’s
surface
• Formed by earth removal.
• Trench
• A narrow underground excavation that is deeper than it is wide
• No wider than 15 feet (4.5 m).
3
Introduction
 Exacvations and trenches are created at construction
sites.
 Most trench fatalities occur in trenches dug to install
new underground utilities.
Introduction continued:
• Trenches and excavations are built for a variety of reasons, including:

• Large construction projects
• Site balancing earthwork
• Road building projects
• Inground pools
• Septic fields
• Graves
• Sand and gravel quarries
• Most trench fatalities occur in trenches dug to install new underground utilities.
4
Incidence of Trench Collapse
 Hundreds of injuries and dozens of

fatalities caused by trench
collapses annually
 Trench work is the most hazardous
of all construction work per OSHA
 Main reason trenches collapse and
injure or kill workers
 Lack of protection
 Most fatalities occur in trenches

less than 9 feet (2.7 m) deep.
• Hundreds of injuries and dozens of fatalities are

caused by trench collapses each year.
• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has determined trench work to be the most
hazardous of all construction work.
• Lack of proper protection is the main reason that
trenches collapse and injure or kill workers.
• Most fatalities occur in trenches less than 9 feet (2.7 m)
deep.
• No protection was in place for 50% of incidents.
• Only 35% of workers were offered trench safety
training.
5
 Rescuers exposed to the same

hazards as victims
 Two categories of emergency:
 Collapse (cave-in)
 Detachment of a mass of soil in
the wall of a trench or excavation
 A hazard to any person inside or
on the trench lip
 Noncollapse
 Result of external hazards such as
falling loads, electrocutions,
medical issues, and falls
Two categories lead rescuers to execute a simple assessment of the situation:
• Collapse (cave-in) situations are more common.

• Collapse is the detachment of a mass of soil in the wall of a trench or excavation
• This sudden displacement represents a hazard to any person inside or on the trench lip
• Noncollapse situations are less common

• A result of external hazards such as falling loads, electrocutions, medical issues, and falls
6
 Rescuers must recognize and

mitigate all hazards associated with
trench and excavation sites
 Review the photo on this slide
 The hazards in this trench include
disrupted utilities and collapse
(unprotected trench walls)
© Aisyaqilumaranas/Shutterstock
• Rescuers must recognize and mitigate all hazards associated with trench
and excavation sites
• Review the photo on this slide

• The hazards in this trench include disrupted utilities and collapse
(unprotected trench walls)
7
OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P, Excavations
 OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P is federal law

 Created for the construction industry
 OSHA standards
 Contain safety requirements for excavation and trenching operations
 States may develop their own laws

 Must meet or exceed federal law
 Each excavation site required to have someone responsible for safe practices
and compliance with OSHA regulations
 Competent person
 Employee who can identify existing and predictable hazard
 Must be designated by the employer
 Authorized to take corrective measures to eliminate hazards
OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P, Excavations:
• OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P is a federal law created for

the construction industry.
• OSHA’s standards contain requirements for excavation
and trenching operations that provide safe working
practices for construction employees.
• States may develop their own laws providing that they
meet or exceed federal requirements.
• Each excavation site is required to have someone
responsible for safe practices and compliance with
OSHA regulations.
• A competent person, who can identify existing and
predictable hazards, must be designated by the
8
employer. This individual is authorized to take
corrective measures to eliminate hazards.
8
OSHA and Trench Rescue
 OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P not meant for rescue shoring operations
 Individual states apply the OSHA standard differently
 Enforcement of the standard during a rescue depends on interpretation of the
law by the local OSHA enforcement officer.
 Creates an inconsistent approach to rescue operations
 Rescuers should be familiar with state and federal OSHA standards
OSHA and Trench Rescue:
• OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P for braced (shored)

trenches is not meant for rescue shoring operations.
• Individual states apply the OSHA standard differently
from state to state.
• Enforcement of the standard during a rescue depends
on interpretation of the law by the local OSHA
enforcement officer.
• This interpretation crates an inconsistent approach to
rescue operations.
• Rescuers responding to trench emergencies should be
familiar with state and federal OSHA standards.
9
 Shoring for Construction Workers

 Shoring
 A protective method used to prevent the collapse of the trench wall
 Within the OSHA standard
 Sheeting and shoring is installed shortly after a trench is dug
 Before the soil becomes active or starts to move
 Shoring for Rescuers

 In trench rescue incidents, often the soil has collapsed
 Will likely continue to collapse as shoring is installed
 Rescuers use specialized shoring techniques
 Not included in the OSHA standard
Shoring Example: Construction Workers vs Rescuers

• Shoring is a protective method used to prevent collapse or
unravelling of the trench wall.
• Sheeting and shoring within the OSHA standard is
designed for installation occurring shortly after a trench is
dug and before the soil becomes active or starts to move.
• In most trench rescue incidents, the soil has collapsed and
likely will continue to collapse as shoring is being installed.
• Construction workers do not shore with anyone trapped
while rescuers shore trenches with people trapped in them.
• Rescuers use specialized shoring techniques not included
in the OSHA standard.
10
 Shoring guidance based on soil classifications and lateral soil forces
 The soil classifications do not represent the forces found in soil failures and
collapsing walls:
 Type A-25, Type B-45, and Type C-60/C80
 Shoring designs created by rescuers

 May not follow engineering principles necessary to ensure safety
 To ensure a safe rescue plan

 Consult a professional with geotechnical engineering and trench rescue shoring
expertise
• The shoring guidance OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P is

based on soil classifications and lateral soil forces.
• Type A-25, Type B-45, and Type C-60/C80 soil
classifications do not represent the forces found in soil
failures and collapsing walls.
• OSHA states their classifications cannot be applied to
predicted failure surfaces to develop a worst-case
scenario for shoring.
• Most shoring designs created by rescuers do not
follow engineering principles necessary to ensure
safety.
• A professional with geotechnical engineering and

trench rescue shoring expertise should be consulted.
11
NFPA 1670: Trench Rescue - Awareness Level
 All first responders sent to a trench

emergency must be trained to
awareness level
 Responsibilities of awareness level
responders:
 Understand how often trenches are
utilized in their area
 Recognize the potential site
hazards
 Setup trench lip protection © Maksim Safaniuk/Shutterstock
NFPA 1670: Trench Rescue Levels
Awareness Level
• All first responders sent to a trench emergency must be trained to awareness level.
• Responsibilities of awareness level responders:

• Understand how often trenches are utilized in their area
• Recognize the potential site hazards
• Setup trench lip protection
12
NFPA 1670: Trench Rescue - Operations Level
 Select personnel receive

operations level training
 Identify and mitigate trench and
excavation hazards
 Provide collapse protection at a
nonintersecting trench
 Collapse protection uses sheeting
and shoring (panels and struts)
© ChiccoDodiFC/Shutterstock
Operations Level
• Select personnel receive training to the operations level.
• Responsibilities of operations level responders:

• Size-up and identify unstable conditions
• Identify the location of victims
• Enter a trench safely
• Install and remove sheeting and shoring
• Obtain the assistance of utility
• Identify bell-bottom–shaped excavations
• Provide safe paths for entry and egress
• Hold a pre-entry briefing
• List the duties and responsibilities of panel, entry, and shoring teams
• Determine the mechanism of victim entrapment and provide methods for victim removal
13
NFPA 1670: Trench Rescue - Technician Level
 Select personnel receive technician

level training
 Responsibilities of technician level
responders:
 Identify trench hazards
 Perform rescue and recovery
operations
 Provide protection from collapse
 Perform atmospheric monitoring
Technician Level
• Select personnel receive training to the technician level.
• Responsibilities of technician level responders:

• Identify trench hazards
• Perform rescue and recovery operations
• Provide protection from collapse
• Perform atmospheric monitoring
14
Soil Basics and Collapse Mechanics
 Knowledge of soil mechanics and soil type helps

rescuers understand failure and collapse
 The size, shape, or combination of soil types
(sand, silt, and clay) affect the probability of
collapse
 The pressure or force on the wall is called lateral

earth pressure
 All soils and all trench walls have lateral
earth pressure
 Soil strength depends on friction, cohesion, and

moisture content
 The longer a trench sits open, the weaker it

becomes, and the greater potential for collapse
 Every trench wall should be considered a

potential collapse hazard
• Knowledge of soil mechanics and soil type helps rescuers understand failure and collapse
• Soil is composed of rock-based material (grains), minerals, water (moisture), organic material, and air.
• The size, shape, or combination of soil types (sand, silt, and clay) affect the probability of collapse.
• Basic soil types are sand, silt, and clay.
• Most soils have a combination of the three types.
• Sand has the largest particles and clay and silt have the smallest
• This topic is covered in greater detail in Chapter 2, Soil and Collapse Mechanics.
• When a trench is dug, it leaves trench walls that have unopposed forces, resulting from the pull of gravity.
• Lateral earth pressure describes the pressure or force on the wall.
• The amount of lateral pressure that certain soils exert is a result of the weight of soil pushing down and the
amount of resistance, or internal strength, that the soil has.
• Soil strength depends on friction, cohesion, and moisture content.
• If the internal strength of the soil is greater than the lateral force, movement will not occur, and the trench wall
15
will remain standing (for a time).
• If the lateral force is greater than the soil’s internal strength, then the soil will become active and the wall will
collapse unless the wall is properly shored.
• The longer a trench sits open, the weaker it becomes, and the greater potential for collapse.
• Every trench wall should be considered a potential collapse hazard.
15
 Collapsed soil can cause crush, suffocation, and impact injuries resulting in
death
 Collapse commonly results in several cubic yards of dirt falling
 Average cubic yard of dirt equals the weight of a mid-size car
 Weight of soil can cause compressive asphyxia and fatal crush and compartment
injuries
 Force from falling chunks of soil can cause impact-related injuries to the head, neck,
spine, pelvis, extremities, and organs
 Soil particles can block both the upper and lower airways can cause suffocation
The weight of soil can cause crush, suffocation, and impact injuries resulting in death.
• A trench collapse commonly results in several cubic yards of dirt falling from the trench wall to the trench
floor.
• On average, a cubic foot of dirt weighs about 120 pounds (54 kilograms [kg]).
• That means that the average cubic yard of dirt weighs 3,240 pounds (1,470 kg), which is about the
weight of a mid-size car.
• The weight of soil and the manner in which it surrounds the body results in an entrapping mechanism.
• Just 1 cubic yard of dirt on top of a victim’s chest is more than enough weight to mechanically limit
the expansion of the lungs, resulting in death (compressive asphyxia).
• The weight of soil can also cause potentially fatal crush and compartment injuries.
• The force created by large falling chunks of soil can hit victims in the trench and cause impact-related injuries
to the head, neck, spine, pelvis, extremities, and organs.
Soil particles that enter and block both the upper and lower airways can cause death from suffocation
16
Trench Rescue Response Systems
 Responding to a trench emergency is a community endeavor
 A well prepared AHJ
 Compiles a list of resources to mitigate a trench emergency
 Establishes agreements with other agencies prior to an incident
 Lists and establishes agreements for less common trench and excavation incidents
Responding to a trench emergency is a community endeavor.
• A well prepared AHJ

• Compiles a list of resources to mitigate a trench emergency
• Establishes agreements with other agencies prior to an incident
• Lists and establishes agreements for less common trench and
excavation incidents
17
Trench and Excavation Hazards
 Trenching and excavation present

hazards for everyone
 OSHA standards help rescuers
identify the hazards and their
mitigation in the trench environment
 A risk vs gain analysis helps
rescuers assess the situation
 Decision made based on
assessing the situation for hazards
 Weigh the risks against the
benefits to be gained for taking
those risks
Trench and Excavation Hazards
• Trenching and excavation present hazards for everyone engaged in the environment, including construction
workers and rescuers.
• OSHA standards written for construction sites help rescuers identify the hazards and their mitigation in the
trench environment.
• A risk vs gain analysis helps rescuers assess the situation.

• Risk vs gain analysis is a decision made by a first responder
• Based on assessing the situation for hazards and weighing the risks likely to be taken against the
benefits to be gained for taking those risks
• This concept will be covered in detail in Chapter 5, Hazard Mitigation.
• Understanding OSHA requirements aids rescuers in determining the safety measures in place on the
construction site.
18
• Understanding OSHA hazard control measures aids in determining the tactical direction of rescuers.
18
Sample OSHA Safety Measures
 Collapse (Cave-In)
 All persons should be removed until
collapse is mitigated
 No worker may enter trench 5 feet (1.5
m) deep or greater without proper
protection
 Falling Objects
 Materials and equipment should be
secured 2 feet (0.6 m) from the lip of
the trench
© roman023/Getty Images
 Restraining devices should be used for
items that may roll into the trench
 Fall Hazards
 Monitor and remove fall hazards from
the trench work zone
 Fall protection is not necessary unless
the excavation site visibility is hindered
• Collapse (Cave-In)
• If conditions indicate trench collapse, all persons
should be removed until collapse is mitigated.
• No worker may enter trench 5 feet (1.5 m) deep or
greater without proper protection.
• Falling Objects
• Materials and equipment should be secured 2 feet
from the lip of the trench.
• Restraining devices should be used for items that
may roll into the trench.
• Fall Hazards
• Monitor and remove fall hazards from the trench work
zone.
19
• Fall protection is not necessary unless the excavation
site visibility is hindered.
19
 Utility Hazards
 Prior to digging a trench, utilities
should be identified and marked by
a trained professional
 Location of utilities is performed by
digging, probing, water excavating,
and other methods
Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki
 Hazardous Atmospheres
 Trench air quality must be
monitored and tested
 Air monitoring is the responsibility
of the competent person
 Atmospheres with low oxygen or
flammable gases require additional
safety precautions and ventilation Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of
MIEMSS
20
Sample OSHA Safety Measures (6 of 6)
 Physical Hazards
 Spoil pile and other materials must
have a 2-foot (0.6 m) setback from
trench lip
 Heavy equipment must be kept
away from trench walls
 Ingress or Egress
 Ingress (entrance) and egress
(exit) must be provided for people
entering trenches
 Trenches deeper than 4 feet (1.2
m) must have a stairway, ladder, or
ramp
Courtesy of Greg Payeur
Physical Hazards
• Spoil pile and other materials must have a 2-foot
setback from trench lip.
• Heavy equipment must be kept away from trench
walls.
Ingress or Egress
• Ingress (entrance) and egress (exit) must be provided
for people entering trenches.
• Trenches deeper than 4 feet (1.2 m) must have a
stairway, ladder, or ramp.
21
CHAPTER 2
Soil and Collapse

Mechanics
Chapter 2 Soil and Collapse Mechanics
1
 Identify characteristics associated with soil types.
 Describe rescue concerns related to each soil type.
 Identify forces associated with soil.
 Describe major factors that influence soil strength.
 Describe types of trench collapse. Identify conditions and factors that may lead
to trench collapse.
 Recognize signs of impending collapse.
• Identify characteristics associated with soil types.

• Describe rescue concerns related to each soil type.
• Identify forces associated with soil.
• Describe major factors that influence soil strength.
• Describe types of trench collapse. Identify conditions and factors that may
lead to trench collapse.
• Recognize signs of impending collapse.
2
Introduction
 Soil and collapse mechanics introduce great risk during trench rescues
 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires employers to
create hazard and risk-free workplaces
 Many hazards exist that can injure or kill workers
 The most common hazards:
 Trench collapse or additional collapse
 Presence of utilities
 Materials falling into the trench
 OSHA standards related to trenches are written for construction

 Do offer guidelines to rescuers working in a trench or excavation
.Introduction
• Review the learning objectives.

• Rescuers must understand soil and collapse
mechanics because they pose the greatest risk at
trench rescue incidents.
• Employers are required by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) to create hazard- and
risk-free workplaces.
•
• Trench hazards that can injure or kill workers include
collapse, materials falling into trench, atmospheric
hazards, utilities, and equipment failures.
• The most common hazard is the risk of trench collapse
or additional collapse, followed by presence of utilities
3
and materials falling into the trench.
• Soil assumptions, terminology, and shoring practices
outlined in OSHA standards are not written for rescue
operations.
• OSHA regulations are applicable to rescuers working
in a trench or excavation and OSHA-29 CFR 1926.650,
OSHA-29 CFR 1926.651, and 29 CFR 1926.652 should
be read by aspiring trench rescuers.
• Key soil knowledge requirements needed by rescuers
to make informed decisions at a rescue or recovery
operation are the focus of this chapter.
3
OSHA-29 CFR 1926.651 and 1926.652
 Requirements for excavation and trenching operations outlined in OSHA

excavation standards, 29 CFR Part 1926, Subpart P
 Scene safety requirements for contractors and employers outlined in 29 CFR
1926.651 and 1926.652 or comparable OSHA-approved state plan
requirements
 Per OSHA
 A trench is
 A narrow underground excavation that is deeper than it is wide and is no wider than 15
feet (4.5 m)
 An excavation is
 A human-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth’s surface formed by earth
removal
OSHA-29 CFR 1926.651 and 1926.652
• The requirements for excavation and trenching operations are outlined in OSHA excavation standards, 29 CFR
Part 1926, Subpart P.
• Scene safety requirements that contractors and employers must follow are outlined in 29 CFR 1926.651 and
1926.652 or comparable OSHA-approved state plan requirements.
• OSHA defines
• A trench as a narrow underground excavation that is deeper than it is wide and is no wider than 15 feet (4.5
m).
• An excavation as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth’s surface formed by earth
removal.
• A trench is an excavation, but an excavation is not

necessarily a trench. Both have similar safety concerns
due to vertical walls that can fail with little to no notice.
4
OSHA-29 CFR 1926.651 and 1926.652
 Per OSHA:
 Trenches must be properly shored, sloped, or benched
 Means of egress provided within 25 feet (7.6 m) of any worker
 Workers must be given adequate protection from falling hazards
 OSHA provides a basis of soil pressure used to design construction shoring

 Soil pressure dependent upon soil classification by a competent person
 Shoring guidelines provided in OSHA standard not designed for trench rescue
 No nationally recognized method for trench rescue shoring
 Rescuers should:
 Understand and recognize the evidence-based best practices built on engineering
aspects of trench rescue shoring
• Important OSHA requirements of the OSHA standard include:

• Trenches must be properly shored, sloped, or benched.
• Means of egress need to be provided within 25 feet (7.6 m) of any worker.
• Workers must be given adequate protection from the hazards presented by loose soil or rock that may roll or
fall from an excavation face.
• Adequate protection must be provided from excavated or other materials or equipment that could fall or roll
into the excavation.
• OSHA standards provide a basis of soil pressure used to design construction shoring.
• Soil pressure is dependent upon soil classification by a competent person.
• Appendix C of Subpart P provides the timber shoring systems to be used with proper soil classification.
• Shoring guidelines provided in the OSHA standard are not designed for trench rescue.
• There is no nationally recognized method for trench rescue shoring.
5
• Rescuers should understand and recognize the evidence-based best practices built on engineering aspects of
trench rescue shoring.
5
OSHA Soil Classification
 OSHA requires that soil be  Stable rock is the least dangerous

classified by a competent person soil type, which can remain
 A competent person is trained to standing after excavation
conduct visual and manual soil
tests before digging begins
 The T-L method

 Designed by civil engineers
 Allows firefighters to quickly assess
and understand the soil conditions
and proper shoring components in © Gilles Paire/Shutterstock
a rescue situation
 Classification of soils is determined

by visual and manual tests
6
Type A
 Type A includes clay, silty clay, clay loam,

sandy clay loam, and cemented soil
 Soil is not considered Type A if it is:
 Fissured
 Exposed to vibration
 Previously disturbed
 Past of a sloped soil layer
 Subject to factors that would make it
less stable
Type A includes clay, silty clay, clay loam, sandy clay loam, and cemented soil.
• Soil is not considered Type A if any of the following conditions are present:
• The soil is fissured.
• The soil is subject to vibration.
• The soil has been previously disturbed.
• The soil is part of a sloped soil layer that is steeper than 4 horizontal units to 1 vertical
unit.
• The material is subject to other factors that would require it to be classified as a less
stable material.
7
Type B
 Type B comprises cohesive material with

an unconfined compressive strength
greater than 0.5 tsf but less than 1.5 tsf, or
granular cohesionless materials.
 Includes angular gravel, silt, silt loam,
sandy loam, and sandy clay loam
 May be a previously disturbed soil
Type B comprises cohesive material with an unconfined compressive strength greater than 0.5 tsf but less than 1.5
tsf, or granular cohesionless materials.
• Includes angular gravel, silt, silt loam, sandy loam, and sandy clay loam
• May be a previously disturbed soil
• May be a soil that, while meeting the unconfined compressive force requirements for Type A, is
fissured, or subject to vibration from an external force, such as vehicles traveling on a roadway
• Could be a material that is part of a sloped system steeper than 4 horizontal units to 1 vertical unit
8
Type C
 Type C includes granular, sand, and sandy

loam (mix) and can be broken down into
two types:
 Type C-60: Soil that is moist and cohesive
or moist and granular
 Type C-80: Soil that is moving or running
and will not stand up long enough for
shoring to be installed
Type C includes granular, sand, and sandy loam (mix) and can be broken down into two types.
• Type C-60: Soil that is moist and cohesive or moist and granular.
• Type C-80: Soil that is moving or running and will not stand up long enough for shoring to be
installed.
• Often found below the water table or in heavily saturated areas
9
Other Soil Classifications
 Other soil classifications recognized by OSHA include:

 Alternative soil classifications can be used if the data compiled to design and
construct a protective system are approved by a registered professional engineer
 T-L soil is a new classification designed by professional engineers
Other soil classifications are recognized by OSHA.
• Alternative soil classifications can be used if the data compiled to design and construct a protective
system are approved by a registered professional engineer.
• T-L soil is a new classification designed by professional engineers.
• This soil type is discussed in Chapter 7, Operations Level Trench Rescue Shoring.
• T-L soil is soil that has been engineered to meet worst-case soil conditions
10
Soil Mechanics and Soil Types
 Rescuers must:
 Gain a basic understanding of soil
mechanics
 Understand the physical elements © ognennaja/Shutterstock
that interact and contribute to a

collapse situation
 Basic soil types:

 Sand © Fabio Lamanna/Shutterstock
 Has the largest particles and can

be seen with the naked eye
 Silt
 Clay
 Has the smallest particles and can © Viktoriya Pavliuk/Shutterstock
only be seen with a microscope
 Most soils have a combination of
these soil types
Soil Mechanics.
• Rescuers must gain a basic understanding of soil

mechanics and the physical elements that interact and
contribute to a collapse situation.
• The basic soil types are sand, silt, and clay, and most
soils have a combination of these soil types.
• Sand has the largest particles and can be seen with
the naked eye.
• Clay has the smallest particles and can only be seen
with a microscope.
11
Soil Types
 Soil is composed of soil particles, air, and fluid

 The more water in the soil, the lower the
resistance and heavier it becomes
 Heavier soil has a larger potential lateral force
at failure
Soil is a multiphase system composed of soil particles, air,

and fluid.
• The more water in the soil, the lower the resistance
and heavier it becomes.
• Heavier soil has a larger potential lateral force at
failure.
12
Forces Associated with Soil
 Vertical force
 Defined by gravity
 The force that draws everything to the
center of the earth
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Caused by the addition of water to the soil
profile
 Heightens the effects of gravity
 Soil structure composed of voids and

solids
 Make it porous and absorbent
 Water increases soil’s weight and changes
its dynamics
Vertical force is defined by gravity, the force that draws everything to the center of the earth.
• If we dig a hole and then leave, the hole will eventually fill itself back in.
• This tendency is simply nature’s way of reaching the lowest energy state.
• Gravity is discussed in more depth in Chapter 9, Lifting and Load Stabilization.
• Hydrostatic pressure, caused by the addition of water to the soil profile, heightens the effects of gravity.
• Dry soil can weigh between 80 and 120 pounds per cubic foot2.
• When the weight of water is added to an absorbent soil, the resulting weight can be astounding.
• In some cases, water-saturated soil can weigh as much as 150 pcf.
• Soil structure is composed of solids and voids making it porous and absorbent.
• When the voids fill with water, the overall mass of the soil becomes exponentially heavy.
• The dangers associated with unsupported vertical soil walls and soil density are not always
perceived.
13
 Soil can be as dangerous as walking under

a suspended piano
 Horizontal force
 Lateral earth pressure is the force that
soil exerts in the horizontal direction
 Magnitude of lateral soil pressure is a result

of:
 The weight of soil pushing down
(vertical overburden pressure)
 Resistance (internal strength of the
soil)
 The active earth pressure coefficient

 A percentage calculated by civil
engineers to describe how much
vertical pressure translates to
horizontal pressure
Horizontal force (lateral earth pressure) is the force that soil exerts in the horizontal direction.
• The magnitude of lateral soil pressure is a result of the weight of soil pushing down (vertical overburden
pressure) and resistance (internal strength of the soil).
• The active earth pressure coefficient is a percentage calculated by civil engineers to describe how much
vertical pressure translates to horizontal pressure.
• As an analogy, compare a block of gelatin, a brownie, and a brick.
• If you put the same weight on all, you will get very different results.
• The gelatin will squish, and the sides will bulge out.
• This is similar action to what you would see in weak clay soils and
would result in the largest amount of lateral pressure.
• The same load on a brownie will just compress the brownie a little without
really bulging the sides much.
• This would be like a medium clay or a medium compact granular
soil.
• If you put the load on a brick, you would notice no changes.
• This would be similar to a strong clay or a very compact granular
soil and results in the lowest lateral pressure because the material
14
is so strong it resists it internally.
14
 Total amount of vertical force translated horizontally into a lateral pressure

depends on the strength of the soil to resist lateral movement
 The amount a time a trench will remain standing depends on:
 Soil composition
 Grain size/shape
 Creep
 Temperature
 Permeability
 External forces
 Rescuers should assume that if the internal strength is greater than the lateral
forces:
 The trench will remain standing for a while
The total amount of vertical force that is translated horizontally into a lateral pressure depends on the strength of the
soil to resist lateral movement.
• If the internal strength of the soil is greater than the lateral force, visible movement will not occur,
and the trench wall will remain standing for a while.
• The amount of time that the trench wall will remain standing is dependent on several factors, such
as:
• Soil composition
• Grain size/shape
• Creep
• Temperature
• Permeability
• External forces
• Rescuers can assume that if the internal strength is greater than the lateral forces, then the trench
will remain standing for a while.
15
 Civil engineers assume a triangular or rectangular unit volume of soil and

multiply it by the earth pressure coefficient to assume lateral pressure
 Rescuers must assess the amount of lateral soil force the shoring system
needs to support
 The T-L Method allows rescuers to rapidly determine this value to select
shoring equipment and systems
• To determine lateral forces, civil engineers assume a triangular or rectangular unit volume of soil
and multiply it by the earth pressure coefficient.
• Rescuers must assess the amount of lateral soil force the shoring system needs to support and the
T-L Method allows rescuers to rapidly determine this value to select shoring equipment and
systems.
• This method will be covered in Chapter 7, Operations Level Trench Rescue Shoring.
• Virginia Department of Fire Programs embraces the T-L Method as a tool for rescuers in
making tactical decisions regarding trench collapses along with utilizing the supplied
tabulated data from Paratech and OSHA.
16
Soil Strength and Friction
 Vector
 Defined by gravity and the soil’s
strength
 Represents the lateral force on a
trench wall
 When the lateral force overcomes the

resistant forces: © Denis Botarev/Shutterstock
 Soil becomes active and the wall

collapses
 Soil friction contributes to a soil’s strength
 Angular-shaped soil particles are stronger

than rounded-shaped soil particles
 Greater friction is caused by angular
interlock
 Picture stacking marbles on a table
vs blocks
A vector is defined by gravity and the soil’s strength which represents the lateral force on a trench wall.
• When the lateral force overcomes the resistant forces, the soil will become active, and the wall will collapse.
Soil friction contributes to a soil’s internal strength.

• Angular-shaped soil particles are stronger than rounded-shaped soil particles because greater friction is
caused by angular interlock.
• Soil friction and the marble analogy

• A good way to understand soil friction is to consider round, hard spheres, like marbles or ball
bearings.
• Perfectly round ball bearings will not stand in a pile.
• Ball bearings have a zero internal angle of friction and are nearly frictionless.
• They are very poor at supporting forces unless they are confined.
• Dry sand, on the other hand, will form a cone-shaped pile when poured on a table.
• This is the way that granular soil (sand) acts.
• When attempting to stack marbles, we will find that we may be able to arrange a single layer, but if
we try to put one on top for a second layer, it will push the others apart.
• Why? The vertical weight of a sphere pushing down between first layer spheres acts like
17
a wedge, creating lateral forces, trying to force the first layer spheres apart.
• Because they are nearly frictionless, they have no ability to resist this lateral force and
they move, preventing stacking from happening.
• If we confine the spheres by putting a frame around them, we will be able to stack them.
• The frame around the first-level spheres confines them and provides the
ability to resist the lateral forces.
• If we do the same experiment with irregularly shaped objects, the stacking becomes
easier.
• The individual objects begin to lock together in a way that can internally resist
more lateral force.
• The more angular those particles get, the more they lock together and the
more they resist lateral forces internally.
• Eventually, if we stack soil high enough, the weight of the soil above the
particles, and the wedging forces it creates, will be able to overcome the
internal capacity of the soil to resist lateral force.
• This is when the soil collapses.
17
Cohesion
 Cohesion
 An attractive force between like
molecules
 Clay is the only soil type capable of
cohesion
 Strength of clay determined by
cohesion and water in the soil
 As cohesion increases, the attraction
to water increases
Cohesion is an attractive force between like molecules.
• Clay is the only soil type capable of cohesion (electrical attraction).

• The strength of clay is determined by cohesion and the amount of water in the soil.
• As cohesion increases, the attraction to water increases.
18
Moisture Content
 Under certain conditions, the presence of water can add strength to particular
soils
 Those conditions do not exist with open excavations
 For trench walls, as the presence of water increases:

 The strength of the soil will decrease
 Eventually the soil will act as a fluid and flow into the trench
 The presence of moisture compounds the hazards of trench failure, because

not only does the probability of failure increase:
 Unit weight of the soil increases
 Equates to more lateral forces from the soil and a higher probability of secondary
collapses
Under certain conditions, the presence of water can add strength to particular soils; however, those conditions do not
exist with open excavations.
• For trench walls, as the presence of water increases, the strength of the soil will decrease and eventually the
soil will act as a fluid and flow into the trench.
• The presence of moisture compounds the hazards of trench failure, because not only does the probability of
failure increase, but the unit weight of the soil also increases.
• This equates to more lateral forces from the soil and a higher probability of secondary collapses
19
Unconfined Compressive Strength
 Soil strength measured by unconfined

compressive strength (UCS)
 Higher UCS
 Suggests a soil with more internal
strength
 Lower UCS
 Indicates soil with less internal
strength
 UCS varies with the water content of soil
 Trench wall will lose its ability to stand
when:
 Soil cohesion and UCS lower than the
force trying to push the trench wall
into the trench
Soil strength is measured by unconfined compressive strength (UCS).

• A higher UCS suggests a soil with more internal strength, while a lower UCS indicates soil with less internal
strength.
• UCS will vary with the water content of the soil.
• The trench wall will lose its ability to stand when soil cohesion and UCS is lower than the force trying to push
the trench wall into the trench.
20
Spoil Pile Slide
 Results from excavated earth being placed too close to

the lip of the trench
 Overburden pressure describes the effect of the
spoil pile weight or objects placed on the trench
 Occurs when the soil’s angle of repose is greater than

its cohesive tendency
 Soil will flow back into the trench at a rate and volume to
bring the situation back into balance
 Evaluate every pile of dirt around the trench for its

potential to become active
 Presence of moisture is one factor in a spoil pile slide

 Moisture provides cohesion
 The soil becomes less stable as it loses moisture
 Spoil pile must be moved to:

 Reduce the overburden pressure if it may
potentially become active
Trench Collapse
Spoil Pile Slide
• A spoil pile slide results from excavated earth being placed
too close to the lip of the trench. The term overburden
pressure describes the effect of the spoil pile weight or
objects placed on the trench.
• A spoil pile slide occurs when the soil’s angle of repose is
greater than its cohesive tendency.
• The soil will flow back into the trench at a rate and volume
necessary to bring the situation back into balance for the
conditions.
• Rescuers should evaluate every pile of dirt around the
trench for its potential to become active.
• The presence of moisture is one factor contributing to a
spoil pile slide. Moisture provides cohesion and the soil
becomes less stable as it loses moisture.
• A spoil pile must be moved to reduce the overburden
pressure if it maintains any potential to become active.
21
Lip Shear Failures
 A lip shear
 A common failure when the soil is layered
 Occurs suddenly without warning
A lip shear
• A common failure when the soil is layered
• Occurs suddenly without warning
22
Lip Shear Failures
 Soil types likely for lip shear failure

include:
 Slides—sands and noncohesive silts
 Topples—cohesive silts and clays
 Conditions likely for lip shear failure

include:
 Dry, loose soils
 Noncohesive silts and sands
 Soft or loose layers
The soil types that are likely for lip shear failure include the following:
• Slides—sands and noncohesive silts
• Topples—cohesive silts and clays
Conditions that are likely for lip shear failure include the following:
• Dry, loose soils
• Noncohesive silts and sands
• Soft or loose layers
23
Slough Failure
 Slough failure
 Involves the loss of part of the trench wall
 Can be caused by a spoil pile being placed too
close to the trench lip
 Signs of sloughing include:

 Belly or bulge
 Layer or pocket of soil different from the rest of
the trench
 Presence of weaker soils
 Soil types likely for slough failure:

 Sand
 Soils with low cohesive qualities
 Conditions likely for slough failure include:

 Very dry soils
 Very wet soils
 Weak layer within the trench wall
Slough Failure
• A slough failure involves the loss of part of the trench wall and can be caused by a spoil pile being placed too close to
the trench lip.
• Signs of sloughing include a belly or bulge, layer or pocket of soil that is different from the rest of the trench, and the
presence of weaker soils.
• The following soil types are likely for slough failure:

• Sand
• Soils with low cohesive qualities
• The conditions likely for slough failure include the following:

• Very dry soils
• Very wet soils
• Weak layer within the trench wall
•
24
Rotational Failures
 Rotational failure
 Occurs when a failure plane develops within
lower strength cohesive soils
 Plane is circular or elliptical

 Identified by a curved failure surface
 Rotational collapse
 Occurs at the bottom of the trench
 Rapidly, with little warning
 Shoves items or workers in trench against
opposite wall
 Soil types likely to fail in rotation:

 Cohesive silts, also known as plastic silts
 Clays
 Conditions likely for rotational failure include:

 Deep layers of weak clay soils
 Shallow groundwater
Rotational Failures
• A rotational failure occurs when a failure plane develops within lower strength cohesive soils.
• The plane is circular or elliptical and identified by a curved failure surface.
• A rotational collapse occurs at the bottom of the trench, rapidly with little warning, and shoves items or workers in the
trench against the opposite wall of the trench.
• The following soil types are likely to fail in rotation:

• Cohesive silts, also known as plastic silts
• Clays
• The conditions that are likely for rotational failure include the following:
• Deep layers of weak clay soils
• Shallow groundwater
25
Toe Failure
 A slough failure that occurs at the

bottom of the trench, where the floor
meets the wall
 Can be caused by a sand pocket or
water at the bottom of the trench
 Extremely dangerous because:

 Rescuers might not notice the
conditions
 Situation difficult to correct until a
protective system is in place
© Drop of Light/Shutterstock
Toe Failure
• A toe failure is a slough failure that occurs at the bottom of the trench, where the floor meets the wall and can be
caused by a sand pocket or the effects of water at the bottom of the trench.
• Toe failure is extremely dangerous because:

• Rescuers might not notice the conditions.
• The situation is difficult to correct until a protective system is in place.
26
Toe Failure
 A bell pier condition can be caused by

the accumulation of water
 Does not occur suddenly
 Is the result of long-term toe failure on
both sides of the trench
• A bell pier condition can be caused by the accumulation of

water. It does not occur suddenly but is the result of long-
term toe failure on both sides of the trench.
27
Wall Shear Failures
 Wall shear collapse

 Occurs when a section of soil loses its ability to stand
 Collapses into the trench along a mostly vertical plane
 Usually start with a fissure at the trench lip

 Often a large collapse, leaving tons of debris in the
trench Soil types likely for wall shear failure include:
 Cohesive silts
 Clays
 Following conditions likely for wall shear failure:

 Drying wet soils
Wall Shear Failures
• A wall shear collapse occurs when a section of soil loses its ability to stand and collapses into the trench along a mostly
vertical plane.
• Wall shear failures usually start with a fissure at the trench lip and are often a large collapse, leaving tons of debris in
the trench.
• The soil types that are likely for wall shear failure include the following:
• Cohesive silts
• Clays
• The following conditions are likely for wall shear failure:

• Drying wet soils
28
Wedge Failures
 Begins with fissures along the surface of the ground

 Often seen on the inside corners of intersecting
trenches
 Soil types likely for wedge failure include:

 Cohesive silts
 Well-graded compact sands
 Conditions likely for wedge failure include:

 Intersecting trench walls
 Weak lower layer
 Wetted soils
 Sand pockets
Wedge Failures
• A wedge failure begins with fissures along the surface of the ground and are often seen on the inside corners of
intersecting trenches.
• The soil types likely for wedge failure include the following:
• Cohesive silts
• Well-graded compact sands
• The conditions likely for wedge failure include the following:

• Intersecting trench walls
• Weak lower layer
• Wetted soils
• Sand pockets
29
Collapse Patterns
 Rescuers need to be able to recognize the distinct collapse patterns and voids
 Lip shear (slide) pattern
Collapse Patterns
• Rescuers should recognize the distinct collapse patterns and voids in order to determine backfill and shoring sequence
options for wall shears, wedge failures, rotational failures, and slough-in failures.
• Lip shear occurs when a weak soil is at the lip, the resulting collapse often slides and leaves a low angle on
the back wall of the void.
30
Collapse Patterns
 Lip shear (topple) pattern
 Wall shear (topple) pattern
• When a strong soil is at the lip, the resulting collapse

often topples and leaves a high angle on the back wall
of the void.
• Wall shears are common in cohesive soils and often
result with a large section of the wall breaking off and
toppling, leaving high angled and irregular void back
walls.
31
Collapse Patterns
 Wedge failure pattern
 Rotational failure pattern
• Wedge failures are commonly seen at intersecting

trenches. In those cases, a wedge-shaped section of
an inside corner breaks off and slides downward.
• A wedge collapse can leave either a high or low
angled void back wall.
• Rotational failures usually result in a collapse pattern
with a high angled void back wall at the top half to two-
thirds of the collapse and a lower angled (semi-
circular) back wall near the bottom of the collapse.
32
Collapse Patterns
 Slough in (undercut) pattern
 Toe failure pattern
• Slough-in failures can result in an overhanging

(cornice) section of trench wall directly above the void.
• A toe failure can result in an overhanging (cornice)
section of trench wall directly above the void.
33
Conditions and Factors That Lead to Collapse
 Wide variety of conditions and factors can lead to collapse:

 Water
 Water tables
 Severe environmental conditions
 Varying soil profiles
 Disturbed soils
 Superimposed loads
 Vibration
Conditions and Factors That Lead to

Collapse
A wide variety of trench rescue scenarios can be

described, and each will have a different set of conditions
and factors that create complex situations that rescuers
need to consider.
• Water
• Water tables
• Severe environmental conditions
• Varying soil profiles
• Disturbed soils
• Superimposed loads
• Vibration
34
Water and Water Table
 Water
 Adds tremendous weight to soil
 Water’s effect on soil’s ability to maintain
strength is critical to trench rescue
 Soils may appear strong but are unstable

 Water table
 Scene with a high water table will have
heavier and more unpredictable soil
Water
• Water adds tremendous weight to soil and the effect of water on soil’s ability to maintain strength is critical to trench
rescue.
• Soils may appear strong but once saturated become weak and unstable.
• Watch out for soils that appear solid but are actually wet and unstable.
• For instance, consider clay soil.
• When it is dry, it can be powdery and loose.
• With the addition of water, it solidifies and becomes more stable and stronger.
• With the addition of even more water, it becomes fluid and loses strength.
Water Table
• The water table influences the rescue situation, and a scene with a high-water table will have heavier and more
unpredictable soil.
35
Severe Environmental Conditions
 Severe environmental factors such as can impact the strength of the

soil
 Drying, wind, water, or freezing
 Stability of trenches impacted by freestanding time

 The longer a trench is open, the greater the compressive forces the
trench will withstand

• Severe environmental factors such as drying, wind, water,
or freezing can greatly impact the strength of the soil.
• The stability of trenches is impacted by freestanding time:
the longer a trench is open, the greater the compressive
forces the trench will withstand.
36
Varying Soil Profiles
 Rescuers face challenges when

varying soil profiles are present
 Varying soil profiles within layers
challenge the determination of
strengths and friction coefficients
Varying Soil Profiles

• Rescuers face challenges when varying soil profiles are
present at the trench site.
• Varying soil profiles within layers challenge the

determination of strengths and friction coefficients
37
Disturbed Soils
 Lack cohesiveness because they are broken and/or mixed with other soil types
 Can be made more stable:
 Engineers use calculations based on soil type and moisture content to determine
maximum compaction
 Makes the site more stable and less dangerous
Disturbed Soils
• Disturbed soils lack cohesiveness because they are broken and/or mixed with other soil types.
• Disturbed soils can be made more stable, and engineers use calculations based on soil type and moisture content to
determine maximum compaction thereby making the site more stable and less dangerous.
• In noncontrolled fills, extreme caution should be exercised, as the internal structure of the soil can be highly
variable and range from very strong to very weak over a short distance.
38
Superimposed (Surcharge) Loads
 Caused by increased vertical and lateral pressure

created by heavy objects and materials near the lip
of the trench
 Heavy equipment used to dig the trench hole causes
pressure to be exerted on unsupported trench walls
 Equipment should be turned off and left in place if it
is located beyond the point of soil failure
 Rescue equipment used to resolve the emergency
should not become a superimposed load:
 Position rescue vehicles no closer than two or three
times the depth of the trench if not running or running

• Superimposed or surcharged loads are caused by
increased vertical and lateral pressure created by heavy
objects and materials near the lip of the trench.
• The heavy equipment used to dig the trench hole inevitably
causes pressure to be exerted on unsupported trench
walls.
• Equipment should be turned off and left in place if it is
located beyond the point of soil failure.
• The rescue equipment used to resolve the emergency
should not become a superimposed load.
• Position rescue vehicles no closer than two or three times
the depth of the trench if not running or running.
39
 Vacuum trucks should be kept a distance equal to at least three times the depth
of the trench
 Problems created by contractors attempting to work more efficiently can create
two problems:
 Spoil pile located close to the unsupported trench wall places additional weight
 Part of the spoil pile may slide into the hole
 Move spoil piles far enough away from the unsupported trench to eliminate
weight concerns and provide lip protection
• Vacuum trucks should be kept a distance equal to at least three times the depth of the trench.
• Problems created by contractors attempting to work more efficiently can create two problems:
• A spoil pile located close to the unsupported trench wall places additional weight.
• Part of the spoil pile may slide back into the hole.
• Spoil piles must be moved far enough away from the unsupported trench to eliminate weight concerns and providing lip
protection.
40
Vibration
 Trench collapse can be caused by vibration

 From road traffic
 Machinery digging the trench
 In the rescue area:

 Traffic should be limited
 Drilling equipment shut down
Vibration
• Vibration from road traffic or machinery digging the trench can cause trench collapse.
• Road traffic that is within 150 feet (45 m) of the trench must be shut down.
• Traffic should be limited, and drilling equipment shut down in the rescue area surrounding the trench collapse.
• Events such as blasting, passing trains, and aircraft landings close to a trench rescue site can also cause
vibrations that result in collapse.
• When effecting a rescue, efforts to control sources of extreme vibrations within 300 feet (91.4 m) of the
rescue area must be made.
• Circling helicopters and their rotor wash can transmit significant vibration into the ground.
41
Signs of Impending Collapse
 Rescuers should be familiar with the many signs of impending soil collapse
 There is not always a warning before a collapse
 Visible cracks
 Fissure curves intersecting a trench lip and trench wall cracks indicate soil is moving
 A guaranteed sign of failure
 Determine if soil cracks outline a wedge or block-shaped mass of soil
 Bulging visible on walls or floors

 Most commonly occur in weak clay soils that are wet
 Water
 Can erode and carry away soil particles (visible)
 Can impact the strength of the soil the wetter the soil the less the strength
 Can fill the cracks in fissured clay and create a lateral pressure along the fracture line
 Can lubricate the soil surface and make them slip

Rescuers should consider and be familiar with the many
signs of impending soil collapse, but must also note that
there is not always a warning before a collapse.
Visible Cracks
• Fissure curves intersecting a trench lip and trench wall
cracks indicate soil is moving and a guaranteed sign of
failure.
• Rescuers should determine if soil cracks outline a wedge or
block-shaped mass of soil.
Bulging Visible on Walls or Floors
• Bulging walls or floors most commonly occur in weak clay
soils that are wet.
Water
42
• Water can erode and carry away soil particles (visible).
• Water can impact the strength of the soil the wetter the soil
the less the strength.
• Water can fill the cracks in fissured clay and create a lateral
pressure along the fracture line.
• Water can lubricate the soil surface and make them slip.
42
 Undercut or blown out trench walls

 The longer the soil overhangs, the more likely it is to fail
 For most soils with overhangs, a crack will start to form at the surface before it breaks
and falls
 Be aware that undercut or blown out trench walls is one of the most dangerous
situations
 Always treat as an immediate hazard
Undercut or Blown Out Trench Walls

• The longer the soil overhangs, the more likely it is to fail.
For most soils with overhangs, a crack will start to form at
the surface before it breaks and falls.
• Rescuers should be aware that undercut or blown out
trench walls is one of the most dangerous situations and
should always be treated as an immediate hazard.
43
CHAPTER 3
Initial Actions
Chapter 3 Initial Actions
1
 Identify the initial scene management tasks at a trench rescue incident.
 Describe an initial incident command organizational structure for a trench rescue
incident.
 Describe the process of performing a trench rescue scene size-up.
 Describe how to safely approach a trench.
 Explain considerations for gathering information about victims at a trench rescue.
Identify information that should be gathered from witnesses at a trench rescue.
 Describe the considerations for assessing a trench incident.
 Describe hazards associated with the trench environment.
 Identify defensive methods of managing hazards associated with trench rescue.
 Describe methods of controlling hazards.
• Identify the initial scene management tasks at a trench rescue incident.

• Describe an initial incident command organizational structure for a trench
rescue incident.
• Describe the process of performing a trench rescue scene size-up.
• Describe how to safely approach a trench.
• Explain considerations for gathering information about victims at a trench
rescue. Identify information that should be gathered from witnesses at a
trench rescue.
• Describe the considerations for assessing a trench incident.
• Describe hazards associated with the trench environment.
• Identify defensive methods of managing hazards associated with trench
rescue.
• Describe methods of controlling hazards.
2
 Explain the process of determining the scope of a trench rescue.
 Describe how search parameters for a trench rescue are identified.
 Explain considerations for determining what additional resources may be
needed at an incident.
 Explain how scene size-up information is used to develop incident action plan.
 Describe the purpose and components of an incident action plan. Identify the
resources associated with the two response tiers for trench rescue.
 Describe initial site control actions at a trench rescue incident.
 Describe awareness level defensive actions to mitigate hazards.
 Describe the methods of effecting a non-entry rescue.
• Explain the process of determining the scope of a trench rescue.

• Describe how search parameters for a trench rescue are identified.
• Explain considerations for determining what additional resources may be
needed at an incident.
• Explain how scene size-up information is used to develop incident action
plan.
• Describe the purpose and components of an incident action plan. Identify
the resources associated with the two response tiers for trench rescue.
• Describe initial site control actions at a trench rescue incident.
• Describe awareness level defensive actions to mitigate hazards.
• Describe the methods of effecting a non-entry rescue.
3
Scene Management – Incident Command
 Scene management
 Based on the Incident Command System (ICS)
 ICS is based on National Incident Management System (NIMS) principles
 Easily adapts to trench rescue incidents
Scene management
• Based on the Incident Command System (ICS)
• ICS is based on National Incident Management System (NIMS)

principles
• Easily adapts to trench rescue incidents
4
Scene Management – Incident Command
 ICS is expanded after the IC identifies and receives the resource to

resolve the emergency
 ICS will need to be expanded to manage, supervise, and support those
resources
 Five main teams of ICS:
 Command
 Planning
 Operations
 Logistics
 Finance
Incident Command
• The local fire department is the authority that is responsible for rescue incidents.
• Scene management must be based on a well-established and exercised incident command system (ICS).
• This system is based on the National Incident Management System (NIMS) principles and will easily adapt to
trench rescue incidents.
• After the IC identifies and receives the resources necessary to resolve the emergency, the ICS will need to be
expanded to manage, supervise, and support those resources.
• The ICS comprises five main teams: command, planning, operations, logistics, and finance.
5
Incident Command – Command Post
 Usually, the first arriving fire

apparatus or chief’s car
 Should not interfere with
operations
 Set ~100 feet (30 m) from the
trench
 Hot and warm zones established

near and just beyond the victim’s
location
 Hot zone with a 50-foot (15-m)
radius around the victim’s
location controls the site
The Command Post
• Is usually the first arriving fire apparatus or chief’s car
• Should be positioned so that it does not interfere with the rescue operation
• Is set about 100 feet (30 m) from the trench
• Hot and warm zones are established near and just beyond the victim’s location.
• Hot zone with a 50-foot (15-m) radius around the victim’s location controls the site.
• Having the command post spotted at 100 feet (30 m) from the trench:
• Keeps it in the warm zone (50 to 100 feet [15 to 30 m] from the incident area)
• Places incoming first responders behind the command post (beyond 100 feet [30 m]) and
in a good location for forward staging
• Command staff are easily identified by their vests.
6
Incident Command – Staging Area
 Staging area near, but not closer than the

command post
 If additional resources necessary, the first-
due apparatus moved to make room for
specialized equipment
 Forward staging area
 Positioned near the command post
 Required to get the equipment and
personnel immediately needed close to
the trench
 Primary staging
 For resources that are not directed to report
to the forward staging area
 At least 300 feet (91 m) from the trench Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki
 Staging area
 Manages incoming resources
 Dispatches resources
 Requests logistics section support
The Staging Area
• Staging area for first-due companies will be near, but not closer than the command post.
• If additional resources are necessary, the first-due apparatus will be moved to make room for
specialized equipment.
• Trench and excavation incidents often require personnel and equipment from a variety of different
public and private agencies.
• A forward staging area positioned near the command post is required to get the equipment and
personnel that are immediately needed close to the trench.
• Resources that are not directed to report to the forward staging area will need a place to stage.
• That location is called primary staging.
• Unless a resource is specifically ordered to report to forward staging, they will report to
the primary staging area.
• The primary staging area should be at least 300 feet (91 m) from the trench.
• Staging officer directs the movement of resources from a position located at the primary staging area.
• Staging area:
7
• Manages check-in of all incoming resources
• Dispatches resources at the operations officer’s request
• Requests logistics section support, as necessary, for resources located in their staging area
7
Standard Operating Guidelines (SOGs) and Incident
Action Plans
 Guidelines provide order during chaos
 Incident Action Plans (IAPs)
 Created for almost every task
 Large scale IAPs
 Written action plans for expected or potential risks
 Tactical sheets
 Provide a checklist for:
 Personal protective equipment (PPE)
 Radio frequencies
 Rescue companies
Standard Operating Guidelines (SOGs) and Incident Action

Plans
• Guidelines provide order during chaos
• Incident Action Plans (IAPs)
• Created for almost every task

• Large scale IAPs
• Written action plans for expected or

potential risks
• Tactical sheets
8
• Provide a checklist for:
• Personal protective equipment
(PPE)
• Radio frequencies
• Rescue companies
8
Standard Operating Guidelines (SOGs) and Incident
Action Plans (2 of 2)
 Medium scale IAPs

 Verbal
 Smaller-scale IAP
 Mental
 Several sources are drawn upon to handle the incident:
 SOGs—provide uniformity in how an incident is handled
 Experience—allows seasoned rescuers to determine actions needed on the spot
 Training—consider the skill mastery needed to safely perform the rescue
 Size-up—surveys the scene
9
Size-Up
 Turning information into intelligence
 Assessment and evaluation of scene conditions:
 Situation assessment
 Hazards assessment
 Victim assessment
 Trench assessment
 Resources assessment
Size-Up
• Turning information into intelligence
• Assessment and evaluation of scene conditions:

• Situation assessment
• Hazards assessment
• Victim assessment
• Trench assessment
• Resources assessment
10
Situation Assessment
 Dispatchers determine:
 Who is the caller?
 What is the location of the
emergency?
 What happened?
 How many people are trapped or
injured?
 When did the emergency occur
and when did the digging begin?
 Why was the trench dug?
 What is the available access to the © Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS
trench?
• Dispatchers determine:
• Who is the caller?

• What is the location of the emergency?
• What happened?
• How many people are trapped or injured?
• When did the emergency occur and when did the digging begin?
• Why was the trench dug?
• What is the available access to the trench?
11
 Rescuers use both interview and visual  When did this emergency occur?
inspection techniques to:  Why was this trench dug? Why did
 Assess the situation, hazards, the victim enter the trench?
victims, the trench, and resources
available
 The interviewer needs to determine:
 Who is the person being
interviewed? Who is the person(s)
in the trench?
 What happened to the person who
is unable to get out of the trench?
 Where was the trapped victim(s)
last seen if no longer visible?
Rescuers need to use both interview and visual inspection techniques to assess the situation, hazards, victims, the
trench, and resources available.
• The interviewer needs to determine:

• Who
• Who is the person being interviewed? Is it the competent person, foreman, co-worker, or
witness?
• Who is the person in the trench? Is there more than one?
• What
• What happened to the person who is unable to get out of the trench?
• Where
• Where was the trapped victim(s) last seen if no longer visible?
• When
• When (time frame) did this emergency occur?
• Why
• Why was this trench dug? Why did the victim enter the trench?
12
 The cause of the emergency should be  May have to systematically

classified: replace and remove what was in
 Cave-in or noncave-in emergency place and enhance the existing
 If the trench did not collapse, system
identify the cause of the  Should trigger a request for trench
emergency rescue technicians with advanced
 Often, the reasons will be that shoring capabilities
the worker fell into the trench,
had a medical emergency, or
had an object strike them
 If the original protective system failed,
rescuers face a bigger problem
The cause of the emergency should be classified as this will direct the actions of rescuers.
• Cave-in or noncave-in emergency

• If the trench did not collapse (cave-in), it will be necessary to identify the cause of the
emergency.
• Statistically, the reasons will be that the worker fell into the trench, had a medical
emergency (cardiac, seizure, etc.), or had an object fall into the trench and hit them.
• If the original protective system failed, then rescuers face a bigger problem.
• Trench rescuers may have to systematically replace and remove what was in place and
enhance the existing system.
• This condition should trigger a request for trench rescue technicians with advanced
shoring capabilities.
13
Hazard Assessment
 Be aware of and look for common

to the trench rescue environment
 Begin as the trench site comes into
view
 Potential hazards include:

 Collapse (cave-in)
 Underground utilities
 Hazardous atmosphere
 Hazardous materials
 Physical hazards © Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Courtesy of MIEMSS
 Biological hazards
Hazard Assessment
Rescuers must be aware of and look for hazards that are common to the trench rescue environment and should
begin as the trench site comes into view.
• Hazards include:
• Collapse (cave-in)
• Underground utilities (natural gas, water, sewer, electrical, etc.)
• Hazardous atmosphere (commonly carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, explosives, and
oxygen deficit)
• Hazardous materials (commonly gasoline, diesel fuel, solvents, fluids)
• Physical hazards (commonly construction and rescue equipment on the trench
• Biological hazards that are associated with trench-related traumatic injuries
14
Victim Assessment
 Includes identifying and locating all actual

and potential victims to determine the
number of victims involved and their
probable locations
 First-responding rescuers are responsible

for determining if victims are alive or dead
 Easiest victim assessments occur
when the victim is visible
 If the victim’s arms are not buried
or injured, a non-entry rescue is a
possibility
 When no victims are visible, immediately

interview witnesses to get information about
the number of victims and their last known
locations
Victim Assessment
A victim assessment includes identifying and locating all actual and potential victims to determine the number of
victims involved and their probable locations.
• First-responding rescuers are responsible for determining if the victims are alive or dead.
• The easy victim assessments occur when the victim is visible.

• With cave-in situations, the victim viability is good when they are conscious and buried
below their chest.
• If the victim’s arms are not buried or injured, a non-entry rescue is a real possibility.
• Much more difficult victim assessments occur when the victims are not visible from the
trench lip.
• Viability of completely buried victims is statistically very low but it is possible if
large objects (pipes, construction equipment, boulder, etc.) were present in
the trench and near the victim at the time of the collapse.
• Those kinds of objects can both shelter the victim from the impact
of a collapsing trench wall and can provide a void area near the
object that could allow the victim to breathe.
15
• When arriving at a trench collapse where no victims are visible, rescuers should immediately
interview witnesses to get information about the number of victims and their last known locations.
15
Trench Assessment
 First trench assessment is the depth, width, and shape of the trench
 If the trench is 8 feet (2 m) or less in depth and width and is a
straight trench, then it is an operations level event
 Use a pike pole to determine the trench depth and width

 If one end of the pike pole reaches the bottom and the other end
sticks up over the lip, the trench is less than 8 feet (2.4 m) deep
 To estimate the width, hold one end at the wall where the lip
protection is in place and see if the opposing wall is within the length
of the pole Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki
 Second trench assessment involves collapse

 If no collapse has occurred, then it is a noncollapse situation
 If a collapse has occurred, an estimate needs to be made of the
size of the collapse
Trench Assessment
• First trench assessment is the depth, width, and

shape of the trench
• If the trench is 8 feet (2 m) or less in depth and

width and is a straight trench, then it is an
operations level event
• Use a pike pole to determine the trench depth

and width
• If one end of the pike pole reaches the
bottom and the other end sticks up over the
16
lip, the trench is less than 8 feet (2.4 m)
deep
• To estimate the width, hold one end at the wall

where the lip protection is in place and see if the
opposing wall is within the length of the pole
• Second trench assessment involves collapse

• If no collapse has occurred, then it is a
noncollapse situation
• If a collapse has occurred, an estimate
needs to be made of the size of the collapse
16
Resource Assessment
 Identify on-site resources
 Determine initial actions or if additional equipment is needed for initial actions
 Scope of the rescue determined by:
 Number and types of hazards
 Number of victims
 Extent of their entrapment and injuries
 Size and shape of the trench or excavation
Resource Assessment.
On-site resources should be identified and will determine the initial actions and/or if initial equipment is needed to
perform the rescue.
• Begin by identifying the on-site resources that can provide the needed initial actions.
• Assess lip protection sources.
• Items such as fire service, emergency medical services (EMS) backboards, ladders, and
construction company plywood and lumber can be used for temporary lip protection to enable initial
action functions.
17
18
Initial Actions Checklist
Evaluation
 IC determines the scope and resources
 Evaluation determines the resources required to mitigate the incident
 Directly impacts the IAP
Evaluation
• The IC must evaluate the information gathered and

determine the scope of the incident. This will determine
the resources and directly impact the IAP.
• The evaluation will determine the resources required to
mitigate the incident and will directly impact the IAP.
19
Evaluation
 Incident categories:
 Awareness Level
 Hazards managed with defensive measures
 Rescues accomplished without entering the trench
 Personnel working on the trench lip protected from collapse
 Operations Level
 Hazards managed with defensive and/or offensive measures
 Rescues and recoveries require the entry of rescue personnel
 Trenches no deeper than 8 feet
 Digging to extricate a victim will not expose more than 2 feet (0.6 m) of
unshored trench wall
 Environmental conditions not severe
 Tier 1 resources needed
Incidents are categorized into the following:
Awareness level incidents

• Hazards can be managed with defensive measures.
• Rescues can be accomplished without entering the trench.
• Personnel working on the trench lip can be protected from collapse.
Operations level incidents

• Hazards can be managed with defensive and/or offensive measures.
• Rescues and recoveries requiring the entry of rescue personnel
• Trench details:
• Depth of 8 feet (2.4 m) or less
• Nonintersecting trench
• Digging to extricate a victim will not expose more than 2 feet (0.6 m) of unshored trench wall.
• Environmental conditions are not severe.
• Tier 1 resources will be needed.
20
Evaluation
 Incident categories:
 Technician Level
 Hazards managed with defensive and/or offensive measures
 Rescues and recoveries require the entry of rescue personnel
 Trenches deeper than 8 feet
 Digging to extricate a victim may expose more than 2 feet (0.6 m) of unshored
trench
 Environmental conditions may be severe
 Tier 1 resources selected; Tier 2 resources may be needed
 Specialist level
 Trench depths greater than 20 feet (6 m)
 Beyond the scope of NFPA 1006
Technician level incident

• Hazards can be managed with defensive and/or offensive measures.
• Rescues and recoveries requiring the entry of rescue personnel
• Trench details:
• Depth of 20 feet (6 m) or less
• Nonintersecting or intersecting
• Digging to extricate a victim may expose more than 2 feet (0.6 m) of unshored trench.
• Environmental conditions may be severe.
• Tier 1 resources selected; Tier 2 resources may be needed.
Specialist level (See Appendix A for more details.)

• Trench depths greater than 20 feet (6 m)
• Excavations
• End walls are within the victim area and have walls with angles less than 70 degrees.
• Overhanging appurtenances (pavement, equipment, or materials) that cannot be shored or quickly
removed
• Unstable spoil piles that are falling into the excavation/trench
21
• Excavations dug into the side of tall, steep, or unstable slopes (hills)
• Shoring that is structurally inadequate, loosening, or moving.
• Failure of an engineered shoring system
• Moving soil (even after the installation of shoring)
• Flowing soil (uncontrollable water and soil that are below the water table)
21
Summon Resources
 Training level minimum is awareness level
 Delay for resources needed to address an entry rescue operation can be
minimized if the AHJ has a list of resources needed to mitigate the majority of
trench rescue incidents
 Resources are divided into a two-tier response plan:
 Tier 1 Response immediately dispatched to all reported trench emergency services
 Tier 2 Response services are selectively requested by the IC
22
Tier 1 Response
 Tier 1 Response includes:

 Fire department
 Police
 EMS
 Trench rescue team
 Emergency utility control
 Vacuum trucks
 Recovery bags
Courtesy of Larry Collins
23
Tier 2 Response
 Tier 2 Response includes:

 Technical rescue advisors
 Rescue engineers
 Heavy equipment operator
 Confined space rescue team
 Hazardous materials team
 USAR search team
 Rehabilitation units
24
Site Control
 First-arriving responders control site
 The IC
 Shuts down traffic
 Shut down in a 300-foot (91-m) radius around the trench to prevent cave-in
 Including construction equipment
 Establishes and controls operational zones
 Use caution tape and barriers to mark off zones
 Establishing a hot zone will provide control of the scene
 Prepares for incoming resources
Site Control
The first-arriving responders (fire and police) must control the site.
• The IC must develop a plan to shut down traffic, establish and control operational zones, and prepare the site
for incoming resources.
• The IC must then give specific assignments to control the site.
Road traffic must be shut down in a 300-foot (91-m) radius around the trench to prevent cave-in.
• In addition, construction equipment must be shut down unless it is assigned to the rescue.
• Police officers are trained and equipped to control road traffic.
• Firefighters need to coordinate the movement and shut-down of construction equipment around the trench
site.
25
Site Control
 Hot zone
 Also known as an action zone
 For rescue teams only
 Immediately surrounds the dangers of the incident
 Entry into this zone is restricted
 Warm zone
 For properly trained and equipped personnel only
 Cold zone
 For staging vehicles and equipment
 Contains the command post
One of the first assignments the IC will give is to establish operational zones.
• Firefighters assigned to this task can use caution tape and other barriers (fences, structures, etc.) to clearly
mark off the zones.
• Establishing a hot zone with a radius of about 25 feet (7 m) around the victim in the trench will be easy to
control and will provide enough room for rescue operations.
• Remove anyone who is not part of the response team from the trench and hot zone.
• The hot zone must have a controlled entry point that provides easy access to assigned personnel
and equipment.
• After a hot zone has been established (barrier tape and other barricades), a warm zone should be
developed.
• The warm zone needs to be large enough to provide for the command post, forward
staging (personnel and equipment), and support functions.
• Everything beyond the warm zone is considered the cold zone.
• Hot zone: This area, also known as an action zone, is for rescue teams only.
• It immediately surrounds the dangers of the incident, and entry into this zone is restricted to protect personnel
26
outside the zone.
• Warm zone: This area is for properly trained and equipped personnel only.
• Cold zone: This area is for staging vehicles and equipment and contains the command post.
26
27
Zones: Hot, Warm, and Cold
Site Control
 Prepare the site

 Initial actions provide a clear access to the trench for rescue vehicles and a
clear pathway for rescuers
 Once path is established, the trench lip (8 feet [2 m] on both sides of the
trapped victim) must be cleared and leveled
 Construction tools and equipment must be removed
 Ground pads should be placed on the lip near the victim
 Distributes the weight of rescuers and rescue equipment near the trench
lip
 Place an escape ladder
The site must be prepared by firefighters and construction workers so that when the trench rescue team and other
resources arrive, they will be able to seamlessly access the trench and begin shoring and rescue efforts.
• Trench and excavation sites are often congested with vehicles, construction equipment, and spoil piles.
• Initial actions need to provide a clear access to the trench for rescue vehicles and a clear pathway for
rescuers to carry equipment from their trucks and trailers to the trench.
• Once that path has been established, the trench lip (8 feet [2 m] on both sides of the trapped victim) must be
cleared and leveled.
• Construction tools and equipment scattered around the trench lip are potential trip and fall hazards and must
be removed.
• Ground pads should be placed on the lip near the victim to distribute the weight of rescuers and rescue
equipment near the trench lip.
• A safe path to the trench should be identified, and an escape ladder should be placed into the trench in the
28
event that a rescuer or assigned construction worker slips or trips and falls into the trench.
28
Hazard Management
 The most important function is

recognizing existing and potential
hazards
 Identify hazards and initiate defensive
measures 10 to 15 minutes after arrival
 Awareness level rescuers
 Avoid the hazard
 Control the hazard
 Remove the hazard
 Wear personal protective equipment (PPE)
Hazard Management
• The most important function performed during the
initial actions phase of the incident is recognizing
existing and potential hazards.
• The time needed to identify hazards and initiate control
(defensive measures) should be 10 to 15 minutes after
arrival.
• Awareness level rescuers implement defensive
measures during the initial actions phase of the
response. These measures include:
• Avoid the hazard: Isolate and keep people at a safe
distance from the hazard.
• Control the hazard: Stop the hazard from entering the
rescue area.
• Remove the hazard: Move the hazard away from the
rescue area.
29
• Personal protective equipment (PPE): Don PPE that
will provide protection for a specific hazard
29
Hazard Management
 Exposed utilities can be a threat
 Broken utilities are real hazards and defensive measures should be taken
 Secure the scene, isolate the hazards, and summon hazard mitigation
resources
 Underground electrical wires
 Natural gas line break
 Sewer line break
 Waterline break
Exposed utilities can be a threat, and broken utilities are real hazards and defensive measures should be taken.
Secure the scene, isolate the hazards, and summon hazard mitigation resources.
• Underground electrical wires: First, call the electric company.

• Control access to area by removing nonemergency personnel from the involved area,
keeping rescue personnel away from exposed wires, and establishing perimeters (barrier
tape, rope, etc.).
• Noncontact voltage testing should be performed if rescuers are equipped and trained.
• Natural gas line break: Call the gas company.

• Control access to the area and monitor the area for hazardous atmosphere.
• Rescuers should prepare for gas-related hazards such as fire, explosion, and
combustion of surrounding flammables.
• Sources of ignition should be eliminated.
• Because of these hazards, suppression equipment and full structural firefighting PPE
must be in place.
• Trench entry operations by operations level and technician level rescuers should be
30
delayed until acceptable safety levels are met.
• Using the resources available, an attempt to determine the location of a shut-off should
be made.
• Attempts to operate a street valve should not be made without gas company
supervision.
• Monitor and investigate surrounding structures for vapors and occupants who
have been overcome.
• Sewer line break: Call the department of public works.

• Control access to area and monitor the area for hazardous atmosphere (methane,
hydrogen sulfide, etc.).
• Water line break: Call the water department and control access to the area.
30
Hazard Management
 Unbroken utility lines

 Exposed pipe should be supported
before shoring and rescue operation
begins
 Supporting the exposed line reduces
the chance of the line breaking during
the rescue/recovery operation
 To support an exposed intact utility
line:
 Monitor the atmosphere
 Position a ladder or timber
 Apply ropes or straps around the
pipe
 Tie off all ropes or straps
Unbroken utility lines
• Regardless of what type of utility an exposed pipe is carrying, it should be supported before the shoring and
rescue operation begins.
• Supporting the exposed line is done to reduce the chance of the line breaking during the rescue/recovery
operation.
• To support an exposed utility line that is still intact:

• Monitor the atmosphere in the area that needs to have a pipe supported (work from ground pads).
• Position a ladder or timber over the trench opening and directly above the exposed pipe.
• Apply ropes or straps around the pipe.
• If a pipe consists of more than one continuous section, support all sections of the pipe
independently.
• Tie off all ropes or straps to ladder rungs, beams, or timber beam.
31
Non-Entry Rescue and Victim Self-Rescue
 Non-entry and victim self-rescue are

preferred methods
 Reduces risk to rescue personnel
 Best case is when victim climbs out
unaided
 Ladder
 Shovel and helmet
 Packaging device
 Victim can be lifted out of the
trench
Courtesy of CMC Rescue, Inc Courtesy of Larry Collins
 High angle directional and packaging
devices
 Simple harness
 Wristlets
 Stokes basket
 Never attempt to pull a partially buried
victim from the trench
. Non-entry Rescue and Victim Self-Rescue
• Non-entry and victim self-rescue are preferred methods and reduce the risk to rescue personnel.
• The best case scenario is when the victim climbs out unaided.
• If the end of the trench is near the victim, the ladder can be placed into the trench while the rescuer is
standing on the lip of the end wall.
• If the victim is partially buried and has one or both arms free, a helmet and a shovel may be lowered down to
the victim and the victim can dig themselves out.
• Keep in mind that even individuals with broken bones will climb a ladder if they think a potential for collapse
exists.
• If a victim is hurt and only partially able to help themselves, pass down a packaging device such as the chest
portion of a class 3 rope rescue harness, a “screamer suit,” or LSP Cinch Ring (previously called the LSP
Cinch Collar) attached to a rope rescue system.
• The victim can then be lifted out of the trench following the release of the mechanism of entrapment.
• Rescuers must make sure that the weight of the rescuers assisting with the non-entry rescue operation is
distributed along the trench lip.
• Medical backboards can act as ground pads and will help with load distribution.
32
• A non-entry rescue may require a hauling device attached to an elevated anchor (high directional) that
removes the victim vertically.
• Access to the trench and proximity to the lip for the safe operation of an aerial ladder or a piece of
heavy equipment will need to be considered as a part of the operational plan.
• Aerial ladders and excavators used as high directional anchor points may be positioned and then
completely shut down and used only as a stationary anchor point.
• Aerial ladders and excavators should never be extended or raised to lift a victim.
• It is unlikely that the victim has been trained in how to put on a class 3 harness or other webbing
configuration, so a simple harness should be provided.
• In all cases, never attempt to pull a partially buried victim from the trench.
• Another method of performing non-entry rescue is to have the victim place a pair of wristlets on their wrists.
• The best way to remove a victim with wristlets is a rope-based mechanical advantage system and a
high directional anchor.
• A faster but more risky way to lift the victim out of the trench could involve getting several of the
strongest rescuers on the rope to pull the victim up.
• It all comes down to the risk vs gain analysis, in which a decision is made based on a hazard
identification and situation assessment that weighs the risks against the benefits to be gained for
taking those risks.
• Another rapid but somewhat risky removal method (trench width dependent) involves lowering a Stokes
basket with a rope tied on each corner and having the victim roll themselves into the basket and hang on.
• Then, with a rescuer on each rope (at all four corners), the basket/victim is pulled up out of the
trench using a hand-over-hand technique.
32
 Determine if a non-entry rescue is possible
 Install lip protection
 For partially buried victims, tie a rope to a shovel and lower it to the victim
 Place a ladder near the victim and support the ladder as victim climbs out
 If the victim is unable to climb a ladder:
 Set up a rope rescue system with an overhead anchor point
 Lower a simple harness attached to the rope
 Instruct the victim how to don the harness
 Raise the victim out of the trench
 Remove the victim from the trench
Non-entry rescue
• Determine if a non-entry rescue is possible.

• The victim must be conscious with at least upper body mobility, and the trench lip adjacent to the
area where the victim is trapped must be safe enough for available lip protection technique
• If the possibility exists, an extrication team is assigned to implement the non-entry rescue.
• Install lip protection in the area where the rescuers will need to work on the trench lip.
• For partially buried victims, tie a rope to a shovel and lower it to the victim.
• Place a ladder near the victim and support the ladder (tied off or held) as the victim climbs out.
• If the victim is unable to climb a ladder, set up a rope rescue system with an overhead anchor point (high
directional), lower a simple harness (like a LSP Cinch Ring) attached to the rope, instruct the victim on how to
don the harness, and raise the victim out of the trench.
• Remove the victim from the trench.
33
CHAPTER 4
Personal Protective
Equipment and
Equipment Basics
Chapter 4 Personal Protective Equipment and Equipment Basics
1
 Identify trench rescue personal protective equipment.
 Explain considerations for selecting personal protective equipment (PPE) for
 Identify task specific PPE that is used in trench rescue.
 Explain the considerations for selecting PPE for trench rescue operations.
 Identify and describe weight distribution and bridging equipment for trench
rescue incidents. Explain the function of trench rescue shoring equipment.
 Explain the purpose and use of hazard mitigation equipment.
• Identify trench rescue personal protective equipment.

• Explain considerations for selecting personal protective equipment (PPE) for
• Identify task specific PPE that is used in trench rescue.
• Explain the considerations for selecting PPE for trench rescue operations.
• Identify and describe weight distribution and bridging equipment for trench
rescue incidents. Explain the function of trench rescue shoring equipment.
• Explain the purpose and use of hazard mitigation equipment.
2
The Importance of Proper Equipment
 Lack of proper PPE designed for trench rescue will put rescuers at risk
 NFPA 1951, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Technical Rescue Incidents
 The benchmark for technical rescue PPE
 Trench PPE must comply
 Firefighting PPE is not designed for use in trench rescue
The Importance of Proper Equipment
• Lack of proper PPE designed to function in a trench rescue puts firefighters at risk of serious injury and
violates the standards set by the NFPA.
• All training and experience can be rendered ineffective if personnel do not have the proper personal protective
clothing and equipment to give them reasonable protection during the rescue.
• NFPA 1951, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Technical Rescue Incidents, sets the benchmark for
technical rescue PPE.
• PPE for trench rescue team members should comply with that standard.
• Firefighters carry PPE that protects them when responding to motor vehicle accidents and fires, but this
equipment is not designed for rescuers responding to a trench incident.
3
Development of Safety Culture
 Instilling a safety mindset and developing a safety culture requires:

 Training
 Discipline
 Accountability
 Team members need to hold one another accountable

 A safety culture is something that teams should be proud of
Development of a Safety Culture

• Instilling a safety mindset and developing a safety
culture requires training, discipline, and accountability.
• Team members need to hold one another accountable
for practicing safety and using proper PPE.
• A safety culture is something that teams should be
proud of.
4
Personal Protective Equipment for Trench Rescue
 Personal-Issue PPE
 Given to every member of a trench
rescue team
 Equipment is not shared and
should be cleaned after each use
 Rescuers should be comfortable in

their PPE so that they can
concentrate on the rescue efforts
 Not their clothing
Personal Protective Equipment for Trench Rescue
Personal-Issue PPE is given to every member of a trench rescue team.

• This equipment is not shared and should be cleaned after each use.
• Personal PPE should include coats, trousers, or coveralls, helmets, gloves, boots, and safety glasses.
5
Personal-Issue PPE
 Torso, arm, and leg protection

include:
 Coats, trousers, and coveralls
 Helmets must be NFPA Standard

1951-compliant
 Hand protection
 NFPA Standard 1951-compliant
gloves
 Standard leather gloves
Courtesy of Pigeon Mountain Industries
6
Personal-Issue PPE
 Boots
 Protect feet from sharp debris and
dropped items
 High-top design
 ANSI-approved safety glasses

 Not reflective sunglasses
 Turnout gear
 Wear until hazards are controlled
and removed
© trabachar/Shutterstock
7
Team-Issue PPE
 Stored in the response unit
 Available to any team member
 Should be properly sanitized after each use
Team-Issued PPE
• Stored in the response unit
• Available to any team member
• Should be properly sanitized after each use
8
Team-Issue PPE
 Respiratory protection
 Always available at the scene of a
trench rescue
 Atmospheric monitors
 Self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA)
 Supplied air breathing apparatus
(SABA)
 Particulate filtering respirators
 Used in windy, dusty, and dirty
conditions
 Be compliant with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134

training and annual fit testing requirements
9
Team-Issue PPE
 Live victims need the same level of respiratory protection as rescuers
 Hearing protection
 Shield rescuer’s ears from high-noise frequencies
 Should not block out communication
 When operating chainsaws:

 Chaps, protective jackets, gloves, boots, helmets, and eye protection must be used
 Skullcaps
 Welders wear under helmets to keep their heads cool
 Protects from sparks when using torches
 Shade 5 eye protection

 Must be available to rescuers using cutting torches
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Trench Rescue Shoring Equipment Overview
 Specialized safety equipment

 Combination of specialized equipment and equipment built from common materials
 Used for lip protection and to support trench walls
Specialized safety equipment is used for lip protection and to support trench walls.
• A combination of equipment built using common materials and specialized equipment
• Equipment includes:
• Lip protection, trench rescue panels, struts, wales, and backfill
• Specialized equipment may include pneumatic struts, lip bridges, aluminum wales, and backfill
consisting of air bags or struts.
• Lip protection is used to minimize or prevent concentrated loading on the lips of the trench.
• Trench walls are supported by trench rescue panels, struts, and wales.
• Backfill is used to fill voids between the panels and soil.
11
 Ground pads
 Safety measure placed on a trench
lip
 Distributes the load, or weight, of
rescuers and rescue equipment
 Limitations:
 Hide soil movement
 Cannot be used over large open lip
voids, trench lips with unstable soil
conditions, over a closed lip void © Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS
Ground pads are a safety measure placed on a trench lip to distribute the load, or weight, of rescuers and rescue
equipment on the lip area.
• A 200-pound (91-kg) rescuer will exert a downward force of 200 pounds (91 kg) on the trench lip.
• If that rescuer is standing directly on the soil, the downward force is distributed over the surface area of the
rescuer’s boot soles, which would be less than 1 square foot (0.1 m2).
• That force would be more than 200 pounds per square foot (976 kg/m2).
• A sheet of lumber 3/4-inch [19-mm] thick lumber or greater and 4 × 8 foot [1.2 × 2.4 m] can distribute that
weight over a much larger area.
• A concentrated load is much more likely to cause a collapse of the trench wall than a distributed
load.
• Limitations and inherent dangers
• Ground pads hide soil movement.
• Ground pads cannot be used over:
• Large open lip voids
• Trench lips with unstable soil conditions
• Over a closed lip void (slough-in with overhanging soil)
• Once primary and secondary trench shoring has been placed, the need for ground pads is decreased.
12
• Best practice to continue to utilize while operations continue.
• Ground pads can be removed if monitoring the growth of cracks or movement of the soil is the
priority.
• 4 × 8 feet plywood sheets will bend, bow, and cup.
• To minimize tripping hazards, make sure that the edges of the plywood contact the ground.
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 Ground pads consist of:

 4 × 8 foot, 3/4-inch plywood for the
open areas of the trench lip
 2 × 8 foot, 3/4-inch plywood for the
spoil pile side of the trench lip
 Two 2 × 12-inch boards (side by
side) for the spoil pile side of the
trench lip
© Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS
Courtesy of Cecil V. “Buddy” Martinette, Jr.
13
 Lip bridges
 Built with girders, platforms, and
bases sections of timbers
 Placed away from the
compromised wall
 Used to elevate the bridge above
the lip
 Offer a higher level of safety to
rescuers
Lip bridges are built with girders, platforms, and bases sections of timbers placed away from the compromised wall
and used to elevate the bridge above the lip. Virginia Department of Fire Programs will also refer to lip bridges as
ladder positioning devices.
• Lip bridges offer a higher level of safety to rescuers.
• Lip bridges are constructed of the following:

• Bridge bases: 6 × 6 × 36-inch or 4 × 4 × 24-inch cribs
• Girders (timbers or laminated veneer lumber [LVL] beams): 6 × 6-inch minimum, 14 to 16-feet (4.3–
4.9 m) long
• Platforms: Wood beams and 3/4-inch (19-mm) plywood decking or aluminum stages or fire service
ladders with wood planks
• An alternative to aluminum stages are wooden platforms.

• Platforms should be 2-feet (0.6 m) wide and at least 14 feet (4.3 m) long.
• Platforms that are 16 feet (4.9 m) long are better if the rescue team’s apparatus will hold them.
14
 Lip bridges:
 Allow rescuers to see what is happening
 Transfer the rescue and equipment load away from the trench lip
 Best practices include:

 Use lip bridge when walls are unstable or have collapsed
 Use 4-foot wide ground pads when trench walls are stable and no interference from
the spoil pile or equipment
 Use 2-foot wide ground pads when the trench walls are stable and the spoil pile or
obstructions do not allow enough space for wider ground pads
Lip bridges are usually a safer and more efficient method of lip protection for trench rescue incidents because:
• They allow rescuers to see what is happening.
• They transfer the rescue and equipment load away from the trench lip.
Lip protection best practices include:

• Use of a lip bridge when walls are unstable or have collapsed
• Use of 4-foot wide ground pads when trench walls are stable and no interference from the spoil pile or other
equipment
• Use of 2-foot wide ground pads when the trench walls are stable and the spoil pile or obstructions do not
allow enough space for the wider ground pads
15
 Trench rescue panels

 Collect the load from one side of
the trench and distribute it to the
other side of the trench
 Essential to the safety of both
trapped victims and rescuers
 Safe working load should be at
least two times stronger than the
force that the soil could exert on it
Trench rescue panels consists of plywood and lumber strongbacks (or beams).
• They collect the load from one side of the trench and distribute it to the other side of the trench.
• Trench rescue panels must be stiffer and stronger than the sheeting used by trench construction workers.
• Trench walls are not solid and must be shored with trench rescue panels to retain and collect the load.
• Even if the soil appears to be cohesive, it can break apart into small pieces.
• These pieces need to be retained by a combination of strong panels and struts.
• Historically, panels have been used with struts spaced at 4 feet (1.2 m), leaving 2 feet (0.6 m) from
the top or bottom of the panel to the strut.
• From an engineering standpoint, this spacing provides a balance in forces that is
advantageous.
• The panel acts as a beam to transfer the load to the struts.
• Beams work by resisting the load.
• Bending strength is a measure of the stress at which a material will break.
• Represented in psi (pounds per square inch)
16
• The strength of a material is a function of its maximum stress and its size and shape.
• Represented in pounds
• The safe working load of trench rescue panels should be at least two times stronger than the force that the
soil could exert on it.
16
 Premium engineered materials

 Can support nearly three times the load compared to common materials
 Also known as composite engineering
 Composite behavior is obtained by piecing rescue panels together with zero slip
 Most common example of this is a steel beam
 Three plates welded together into an I shape
 Cannot weld the strongback to the plywood for rescue panels
 Use construction adhesives to make the two pieces of wood act like a single
piece
Premium engineered materials can support nearly three times the load that can be supported by common materials.
• Composite construction is more than four times stronger than noncomposite construction.
• Common practice for rescuers to connect plywood sheeting to strongbacks by connecting with three bolts,
screws, or nails.
Composite behavior is obtained by piecing rescue panels together with zero slip.
• This significantly increases the strength of rescue panels.
• The most common example of this is a steel beam, which is three plates welded together into an I shape.
• The welds prevent any slip between the individual plates.
• The three plates, when welded together, provide more strength than a sum of the individual pieces.
• Cannot weld the strongback to the plywood for rescue panels

• Mechanical connectors like nails, screws, and bolts are not sufficient to prevent the slip between the
two pieces.
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• Construction adhesives can provide sufficient capacity against slip and make the two pieces of wood act like
a single piece.
17
 Lumber strength
 A knot in a piece of wood can decimate
capacity
 Plywood is made up of several thin
layers of wood glued together
 The more layers you have, the
more ability to bridge any defects
 Combine premium materials with
the layering and you get the
strongest option
 FinnForm and LVL (laminated
veneer lumber)
 Both built like plywood,
with many thin layers
glued together
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 The authors’ best practice in

panels
 Use construction adhesive (and
screws) to connect a 2 × 12 LVL
to a sheet of ¾-inch FinnForm
to create a composite panel
 Cutting the corners off the
panels is recommended
 Avoid the panels chipping and
separating from and falling on © Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS
the corner of the panels
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 Wales
 Used to span large areas of trench walls
 Used to create room for extrication work and victim removal
 Made of timber, LVL, or aluminum
Wales
• Used to span large areas of trench walls
• Used to create room for extrication work and victim removal
• Made of timber, LVL, or aluminum
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 Wale hangers work best when:

 They are installed on panels that have been secured with at least one properly
installed strut
 Ropes are used to lower and secure the wale in the trench
Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki
Wale hangers work best when they are installed on panels that have been secured with at least one properly installed
strut.
• Ropes are used to lower and secure the wale in the trench.
• Ropes can be secured to the wale by drilling a 1-inch (2.5-cm) diameter hole 6 inches (15 cm) from the end of
the wale and passing the rope through the hole and tying a stopper knot.
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 Backfill
 Backfilling void areas helps to minimize
soil movement and distribute the load
from the opposite wall
 Commonly used backfill techniques
include air bags, backshores,
buttresses, wood, and soil
 Airbags
 Best for medium to large
voids that have high angle
back walls
Backfill is a generic term given to several common methods used to replace the soil that has left the trench wall as a
result of a collapse.
• Backfilling void areas helps to minimize soil movement and distribute the load from the opposite wall.
• Performed by the panel team
• Commonly used backfill techniques include air bags, backshores, buttresses, wood, and soil.
• Airbags
• Best for medium to large voids that have high angle back walls
22
 Backfill
 Backshores
 Struts placed on the back side of panels or wales and extending to the panel sections on
the back wall of the void
 Buttresses
 Can quickly and effectively resolve large lip shear voids that have left low angled walls
Backshores
• Struts placed on the back side of panels or wales and extending to the panel sections on
the back wall of the void
Buttresses
• Can quickly and effectively resolve large lip shear voids that have left low angled walls
Wood
• Good choice for small voids (2–12 inches [5–15 cm]) beyond the trench wall) accessible
from the lip
Soil
• Best used as backfill for small voids accessible from the lip with low or high angled back
walls
• Covered in detail in Chapter 7, Operations Level Trench Rescue Shoring
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Trench Rescue Shoring Equipment Overview (14 of 18)
 Backfill
 Soil
 Good choice for small voids (2–12 inches beyond the trench wall) accessible from the lip
 Wood
 Best used as backfill for small voids accessible from the lip with low or high angled back
walls
Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki
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 Struts
 Sometimes called shores or cross braces when made of timber
 Best practices include:
 Install and remove without entering the trench
 Must be expandable, have gauges, and controllable activation pressures
 A minimum of two struts installed on each 4 × 8-foot panel
 Struts must be installed between 1 and 2 feet from both the trench lip and
bottom of the panel
 There must be no more than 4 feet between struts
Struts
• Sometimes called shores or cross

braces when made of timber
• Best practices include:

• Install and remove without entering
the trench
• Must be expandable, have gauges,
and controllable activation
pressures
25
• A minimum of two struts installed
on each 4 × 8-foot panel
• Struts must be installed
between 1 and 2 feet from both
the trench lip and bottom of the
panel
• There must be no more than 4
feet between struts
25
 Pneumatic struts
 Come in wide variety of lengths
 Extended by using compressed
air to extend to needed length
 Either locks by itself or is
manually locked
Pneumatic struts
• Come in wide variety of lengths
• Extended by using compressed air

to extend to needed length
• Either locks by itself or is manually

locked
26
 Timber struts
 Inexpensive
 Can be cut to size
 Time consuming to cut precisely
 Require rescuers to be in the
trench to install
Timber struts
• Usually 4 × 4-inch, 4 × 6-inch, and 6 × 6-inch sections of Douglas fir or select pine with a bending strength of
not less than 1500 psi.
• Low cost and can be cut to varying lengths with little difficulty
• Disadvantage is that they are time consuming to cut precisely.
• Require rescuers to be in the trench to install them
27
 Screw jack struts

 Used as a boot end, fit over a piece of
timber
 When used with pipe, known as pipe
jacks
 Not very strong compared to
pneumatic struts
 Hydraulic struts
 Combines struts and upright into a
single unit
 System is lowered in the trench from
the top
 Then pressurized and expanded
with a hydraulic pump and hose
Screw jack struts

• Used as a boot end, fit over a piece of timber
• When used with pipe, known as pipe jacks
• Not very strong compared to pneumatic
struts
Hydraulic struts
• Combines struts and upright into a single
unit
• System is lowered in the trench from the top
• Then pressurized and expanded with a hydraulic pump and
hose
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Tools and Appliances
 Strut collar locking tools

 Enable rescuers to install and remove struts without entering trench
 For accurate measurements, rescuers use:
 25-foot contractor style tape measure
 Digital or smart-phone angle finder app
© Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS Courtesy of Johnson Level & Tool Mfg. Co, Inc
29
 Fire service pike poles

 Helpful for positioning panels and
wales
 Pickets
 Used to suspend wales
 Sledgehammers may be necessary
to drive pickets into the ground
30
 Shovels
 Used to move dirt, redistribute the spoil
pile, and level the soil
 Entrenching tool
 Small collapsible shovel that
works well in tight and congested
places
 Hammers
 Should be strong enough to drive a 16-
penny duplex nail in 3 hits
 Duplex nails have two shoulders
 Can easily be removed so that
wood components can be reused
31
 Chainsaws
 Versatile in rescues involving timber shoring
 Extreme caution should be used
Courtesy of Cecil V. “Buddy” Martinette, Jr
32
 Ventilation equipment
 Used when an atmospheric problem present
 Electric-powered fire department smoke ejector
 Used on the windward side, blowing into the trench
 Will provide an adequate flow of fresh air into the trench
 Ladders
 Victim self-rescue
 Spanning a trench opening
 Must be ladder egress in trenches more than 4 feet deep
 Egress ladders placed so that workers do not have to travel more than 25 feet
to escape
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 Scene lighting
 Necessary for trench rescue
operations taking place in hours of
darkness
 Dewatering devices
 Mud pumps, municipal vacuum
truck, and the Res-cue Vac system
 Necessary for the control of water
from both ground seepage and
rainwater runoff Courtesy of Bob Schilp
Scene lighting is necessary for trench rescue operations taking place in hours of darkness.
Dewatering devices are necessary for the control of water from both ground seepage and rainwater runoff.
• Excess water deteriorates the trench if allowed to stand.
• Mud pumps are large-diaphragm pumps that can act as low-volume dewatering devices.
• Additional dewatering devices are the municipal vacuum truck and the Rescue Vac system.
• These devices are discussed in detail in Chapter 5, Hazard Mitigation.
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 Utility control equipment

 May be needed to address damage by excavation or collapse of the trench
wall
 Victim removal equipment
 Includes medical equipment, entrenching shovels, probes, vacuum tools,
harnesses, spinal motion restriction devices, litter baskets, rope systems,
high directional, and ladders
 Lifting and stabilizing heavy objects
 Lifting equipment includes levers, pulleys, air bags, spreaders, high
directional anchor points
 Stabilizing equipment includes cribbings, shores, wire rope, chains,
shackles
Utility control equipment may be necessary to address damage by excavation or collapse of the trench wall.
• Discussed in detail in Chapter 5, Hazard Mitigation.
Victim removal equipment is essential to care for a trapped or injured victim.

• Equipment includes medical equipment, entrenching shovels, probes, vacuum tools, harnesses, spinal motion
restriction devices, litter baskets, rope systems, high directional, and ladders.
• The equipment needed to take care of a trapped or injured victim in a trench victim is detailed in Chapter 8,
Victim Care and Extrication.
Lifting and stabilizing heavy objects is required to make the rescue work zone safe.
• Lifting equipment includes levers, pulleys, air bags, spreaders, high directional anchor points.
• Stabilizing equipment includes cribbings, shores, wire rope, chains, shackles.
• The use of this equipment is detailed in Chapter 9, Lifting and Load Stabilization.
35
 Rapid intervention team (RIT)

 Assess most likely hazards, develop a rescue plan, stage necessary tools,
and request the number of RIT members required
 Responsible for rescue team members only
 RIT have separate extrication equipment, victim treatment, packaging, and
removal equipment
 Cutting stations
 When several pieces of lumber need to be cut, a cutting station table may
be built
 Location should be in the warm zone
 The rescuer in charge should have radio communication with the shoring
team officer
Rapid intervention team (RIT)
• Assess most likely hazards, develop

a rescue plan, stage necessary
tools, and request the number of
RIT members required
• Responsible for rescue team
members only
• RIT have separate extrication
equipment, victim treatment,
packaging, and removal equipment
36
Cutting stations
• When several pieces of lumber

need to be cut, a cutting station
table may be built
• Location should be in the warm
zone
• The rescuer in charge should have
radio communication with the
shoring team officer
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CHAPTER 5
Hazard Mitigation
Chapter 5 Hazard Mitigation
1
 Recognize the presence of factors that may lead to hazardous conditions.
 Explain the purpose of a hazard control plan.
 Explain the function and application of hazard control.
 Describe the equipment for trench rescue incidents.
 Describe the methods of controlling hazards.
 Identify a minimum equipment cache for operations level hazard control activity.
• Recognize the presence of factors that may lead to hazardous conditions.

• Explain the purpose of a hazard control plan.
• Explain the function and application of hazard control.
• Describe the equipment for trench rescue incidents.
• Describe the methods of controlling hazards.
• Identify a minimum equipment cache for operations level hazard control
activity.
2
Introduction
 Potential hazards at a trench rescue site include:

 Collapse
 Hazardous atmospheres
 Traffic
 Physical hazards
 Biological hazards associated with traumatic injuries
 The most common hazard is soil failure and collapse of trench walls
Potential hazards at a trench rescue site include:
• Collapse (cave-in)
• Underground utilities (natural gas, water, sewer, electrical, etc.)
• Hazardous atmospheres (commonly carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, explosives, and
oxygen deficit)
• Traffic (cars, trucks, and heavy equipment)
• Hazardous materials (commonly gasoline, diesel fuel, solvents, fluids)
• Physical hazards (commonly construction and rescue equipment on the trench lip)
• Biological hazards associated with trench-related traumatic injuries (for example, blood)
The most common hazard at a trench emergency is soil failure and collapse of trench walls.
3
Hazard Identification
 A variety of hazards may be present
 Initial actions performed by awareness level rescuers should include:
 Identification of hazards
 Control of hazards in the cold zone
 Hazards can be safely mitigated by trained personnel:

 Using proper PPE
 Through avoidance, control, removal, or shielding
Hazard Identification
• A variety of hazards may be present at an underground construction site/trench.
• Initial actions performed by awareness level rescuers should include the identification of hazards and the
control of hazards in the cold zone.
• Cold zone contains staging, cutting stations, logistical support, and rehabilitation.
• Most hazards inside of the warm and hot zones should be isolated and avoided by awareness level rescuers.
• Offensive hazard mitigation in the warm and hot zones is typically performed by personnel with
higher levels of training.
• Hazards at a trench rescue can be safely mitigated (through avoidance, control, removal, or
shielding) by trained personnel using proper PPE.
4
Hazard Identification – Trench Collapse
 Collapse of soil
 Most prevalent hazard
 Consider all unprotected walls hazardous
 Isolate area with barriers
 No one may enter an unprotected trench
 No one may be within 4 feet of the trench lip until protection is in place
Trench Collapse
• The collapse of soil is the most prevalent hazard at a trench incident.
• All unprotected walls should be considered hazardous.
• The area around the trench (or the hot zone) should be isolated with barrier tape.
• Bystanders and unassigned first responders must be removed.
• Personnel assigned to work in the hot zone must be briefed on their tasks and all hazards.
• No one will be allowed to enter an unprotected trench.

• No one will stand or walk on the trench lip (within 4 feet [1.2 m] of the wall) until lip protection is in place.
5
Hazard Identification – Utilities
 May be damaged by digging or from the
impact of a collapse
 Exposed and unsupported utility lines spanning

between two trench walls can break
 Common utilities include:

 Water, sewer, natural gas, electric, and
telecommunication lines
 Determine the locations of all utilities before

digging in a collapsed area
 Call the local utility service company
 Sometimes called “Ms. Utility,” “One Call,”
or 811
 Services paid for by the utility
companies
 Purpose is to mark existing utilities
before any type of digging operation
Utilities
• Underground utilities
• May be damaged by digging or from the impact of
a collapse
• Exposed and unsupported utility lines spanning

between two trench walls can break
• Common utilities include:

• Water, sewer, natural gas, electric, and
telecommunication lines
• Determine the locations of all utilities before digging in
6
a collapsed area
• Call the local utility service company
• Sometimes called “Ms. Utility,” “One Call,” or 811
• Services paid for by the utility companies
• Purpose is to mark existing utilities before
any type of digging operation
6
Hazard Identification – Traffic
 Cars, trucks, buses, and heavy

equipment near a trench accident
can cause further wall collapse
 Remove hazards by blocking off all
roadways within 300 feet of the
trench
 Block off through barricades,
barrier tape, apparatus positioning,
etc.
 Police will take over as they arrive © Steve Hamann/Shutterstock
on the scene
 Shut down heavy equipment
operating within 300 feet of the
trench
Traffic
• Cars, trucks, buses, and heavy equipment near a trench accident can cause further wall collapse.
• Remove these hazards by completely blocking off all roadways within 300 feet (91 m) of the trench.
• Block off through barricades, barrier tape, apparatus positioning, etc.
• Pass this duty off to police as they arrive on the scene.
• Shut down heavy equipment operating within 300 feet (91 m) of the trench.
7
Hazard Identification – Physical Hazards
 Physical hazards include:

 Construction and rescue equipment in and near the trench
 Remove from the rescue area
Physical Hazards
• Include construction and rescue equipment in and near the trench
• Should be removed from the rescue area
8
Hazard Identification – Water
 Excessive water
 Can fill the trench
 Changes the weight of the soil
 Increases the possibility of
secondary collapse
 Water can result in drowning of a

trapped victim
 Common sources of water include:
 Broken water lines
 Broken sewer lines
 High water tables
 Heavy rains
Water
• Excessive water can fill the trench changing the weight of the soil and increasing the possibility of secondary
collapse.
• Water in the trench can result in drowning of a trapped victim.
• The source of the water must be identified and appropriate measures taken to control the hazard.
• Common sources of water include:

• Broken water lines
• Broken sewer lines
• High water tables
• Heavy rains
9
Hazard Identification – Severe Environmental Conditions
 Severe environmental conditions often cause accidents at trench sites
 Include:
 Heavy rain
 High winds
 Cold temperatures
 Hot temperatures
 Snow and ice
 Lightning
• Include heavy rain, high winds, cold temperatures, hot temperatures, snow, ice, and lightning
• Often cause accidents at trench sites
10
Hazard Identification – Biologic and Hazardous Materials
 Rescuers must wear appropriate PPE

 Protect from bodily fluids
 Protect from hazardous materials
 Often related to the equipment used at the trench site
 Can include gasoline, diesel fuel, hydraulic fluids, acetylene and oxygen
 OSHA guidelines
 Test atmospheres in a trench or excavation deeper than 4 feet
Biological Hazards
• Trench-related injuries are often traumatic in nature.

• Traumatic injuries result in bleeding, vomiting, and the presence of other body fluids.
• Rescuers must wear appropriate PPE to protect themselves during a rescue.
Hazardous Materials
• Hazardous materials are often related to the equipment used at the trench site.
• Can include gasoline, diesel fuel, hydraulic fluids, acetylene and oxygen
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) guidance for construction workers working in landfill
areas advises the atmospheres in a trench or excavation deeper than 4 feet (1.2 m) be tested first.
• Trench rescue teams should follow that guidance.
11
Hazard Identification – Atmospheric
 Trenches unlikely to contain hazardous atmospheres unless near a landfill area

or hazardous substances storage
 Common atmospheric hazards include:
 Carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, flammables, and oxygen deficiency
 Best practice
 Test the atmosphere for common hazards at arrival
 Continue to monitor the atmosphere if hazards condition detected
Atmospheric
• Trenches are unlikely to contain hazardous atmospheres unless it is near a landfill area or where hazardous
substances are stored.
• The most common atmospheric hazards at a trench site are carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, flammables,
and oxygen deficiency.
• Best practice is for rescuers to test the atmosphere for oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
flammability upon arrival at every trench
• Continuously monitor the atmosphere if any sign of hazardous conditions is present.
12
Hazard Control Plan
 Addresses the safety of the trapped victims, bystanders, and all responders
 Initial hazard recognition and mitigation begins with:
 First-arriving rescue teams (awareness level rescuers)
 Complete hazard assessment

 Made by the operations level rescuers
 Determine the effectiveness of mitigation efforts
 Determine the need for further offensive hazard mitigation techniques
 Call-in specialists as needed
Hazard Control Plan
Addresses the safety of the trapped victims, bystanders, and all responders
• Initial hazard recognition and mitigation begins with the first arriving rescue teams (awareness level rescuers).
A complete hazard assessment should be made by the operations level rescuers to:
• Determine the effectiveness of mitigation efforts
• Implement further offensive hazard mitigation techniques
• Depending on local standard operating guidelines (SOGs), higher level rescuers may be trained to
implement offensive hazard mitigation techniques to control hazards beyond the scope of
awareness level rescuers.
• Call in specialists as needed
• Those resources may include utility company emergency response teams and hazardous material
response teams.
13
Hazard Control Plan – PPE
 Trench rescue teams arrive on site

wearing appropriate basic rescue
PPE
 Basic PPE can and should be
enhanced based on situation and
hazard assessments
 Enhanced PPE may include:
 Self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) and structural firefighting
gear
 Impervious boots, gloves, and
ensembles
 High-voltage gloves/over boots
Hazard Mitigation PPE
• PPE can protect rescuers from many hazards associated with trench or excavation emergencies.
• Trench rescue teams should arrive on site wearing appropriate basic rescue PPE.
• Basic PPE can and should be enhanced as the situation and hazard assessments warrant.
• Enhanced PPE may include:
• Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and sstructural firefighting gear (for natural
gas leaks),
• Iimpervious boots, gloves, and ensembles (for sewage and standing water)
• High-voltage gloves/over boots (for electrical wires)
14
Hazard Control Plan – Briefing
 Conduct pre-entry briefing before taking actions beyond basic information gathering
 Pre-entry briefing enables rescuers to understand:
 The hazards and their locations
 The situation
 The strategic and tactical steps needed to execute the rescue plan Items included in the pre-
briefing are:
 Overall goal of the operation
 Hazards that have been identified
 Hazard control plan
 PPE requirements
 Protective system design
 Position assignments
 Accountability systems
 Emergency procedures
Briefing
• Conduct pre-entry briefing before taking actions

beyond basic information gathering
• Pre-entry briefing enables rescuers to

understand:
• The hazards and their locations
• The situation
• The strategic and tactical steps needed to

execute the rescue plan Items included in the
pre-briefing are:
15
• Overall goal of the operation
• Hazards that have been identified
• Hazard control plan
• PPE requirements
• Protective system design
• Position assignments
• Accountability systems
• Emergency procedures
15
Hazard Mitigation
 Defensive hazard mitigation measures include:

 Isolating hazards and the hazardous area
 Notifying all affected personnel
 Requesting additional resources as needed
 Offensive hazard mitigation measures:

 Include shutting off and controlling hazards
 Should only be utilized for rescue mode operations
 Tactical options for offensive mitigation of trench rescue hazards

 Require specialized training and equipment
Hazard Mitigation
Defensive hazard mitigation measures include:

• Isolating hazards and the hazardous area
• Notifying all affected personnel
• Requesting additional resources as needed to control or contain the hazards
• Detailed in Chapter 3, Initial Actions
Offensive hazard mitigation measures go beyond defensive measures to include:

• Shutting off and controlling hazards
• The techniques used to accomplish offensive methods may place the operations level rescuer at much higher
risks and are dependent on local SOGs.
• Offensive hazard mitigation techniques should only be utilized for rescue mode operations.
• In situations where the victim is clearly deceased, wait for the response of the utility company, hazardous
materials team, or other enhanced hazard mitigation resources.
Tactical options for offensive mitigation of trench rescue hazards often require specialized training and equipment.
16
• The authority having jurisdiction over the trench rescue team will decide whether to provide these services.
• Before attempting these techniques, be sure to have the proper equipment and PPE, and training from a
subject matter expert.
• Training may come from utility companies, equipment manufacturers, and instructors who are subject matter
experts.
16
Hazard Control Equipment
 Includes tools that test for and

mitigate hazards
 Potential offensive hazard control
equipment includes:
 Atmospheric monitor
 Ventilation equipment
 Noncontact voltage tester
 High voltage gloves
 Telescoping insulated “hot stick”
 Burlap (static electricity grounding)
 Assorted size pipe plugs
Hazard control equipment includes tools that test for and mitigate hazards.
• Potential offensive hazard control equipment includes:

• Atmospheric monitor
• Ventilation equipment
• Noncontact voltage tester
• High voltage gloves
• Telescoping insulated “hot stick”
• Burlap (static electricity grounding)
• Assorted size pipe plugs
17
Hazard Control Equipment – Atmospheric Testing
 Trench rescue teams should be

equipped with atmospheric testing
monitor
 Atmospheric monitoring, bump
testing, equipment maintenance,
and calibration must comply with
the manufacturer’s
recommendations
Atmospheric testing equipment
• Trench rescue teams should be equipped with atmospheric testing monitor.
• It is best practice to test the atmosphere at a trench rescue site upon arrival and to continuously
monitor the atmosphere if hazards are detected.
• Atmospheric monitoring, bump testing, equipment maintenance, and calibration must comply with
the manufacturer’s recommendations.
18
Hazard Control Equipment – Dewatering Devices
 Necessary for the control of water from:  When pumps powered by gasoline engines
 Ground seepage, broken water mains, are used:
and rainwater runoff  Exhaust must be controlled and
directed away from the trench for
 Mud pumps safety
 Large diaphragm pumps
 Low-volume dewatering device
 Additional devices include:

 Electric or gasoline powered trash
pumps, vacuum pumps, and the
Rescue Vac system
Dewatering devices
• Dewatering devices are necessary for the control of water from ground seepage, broken water
mains, and rainwater runoff.
• Large-diaphragm pumps (mud pumps) are a low-volume dewatering device used commonly in
trenches.
• Electric or gasoline powered trash pumps, vacuum pumps, and the Rescue Vacsytem can also be
used to dewater a trench.
• If a trench rescue rig carries a Stanley USAR power unit, there is a self-priming hydraulic
trash pump available.
• When pumps powered by gasoline engines are used, the exhaust must be controlled and directed
away from the trench for rescuer and victim safety.
19
Hazard Control Equipment – Electric
 Depending in local SOGs:

 Rescuers may be trained to identify
primary vs secondary power lines
as well as high vs low voltage
power lines
 Voltage (live electrical current) can

be detected with noncontact
voltage testers
Electric control equipment
• Rescuers may be trained to identify primary vs. secondary power lines as well as high vs. low
voltage power lines, depending on local SOGs.
• Voltage (live electrical current) can be detected with noncontact voltage testers.
20
Hazard Control Equipment – Sewer and Water
 Water lines up to 2 inches in diameter

 Can be crimped to minimize or stop the flow of water
 If made of plastic, copper, lead, or steel
 Sewer lines
 Commonly larger than 2 inches in diameter and low pressure
 Can be stopped by plugging lines using towels, cribbing, shims, or inflatable plugs
Sewer and water control equipment
• Water lines up to 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter can be crimped to minimize or stop the flow of water.
• If they are made of plastic, copper, lead, or steel
• Sewer lines are commonly larger than 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter

• Flow is low pressure.
• Can be stopped by plugging lines using towels, cribbing, shims, or inflatable plugs made
for this purpose
21
Hazard Control Equipment – Ventilation Equipment
 An electric-powered fire department

smoke ejector
 Used to ventilate the trench
 A confined space ventilator

 Used to send fresh air directly to
the victim’s face via duct tubing
apparatus
Ventilation equipment
• An electric-powered fire department smoke ejector can ventilate the trench.
• Confined space ventilator

• Can send fresh air directly to the victim’s face via duct tubing apparatus
22
Hazard Control Equipment – Natural Gas Control
Equipment
 Underground natural gas lines can

be broken during:
 Excavation process
 Impact of collapse
 Natural gas is explosive and can

displace oxygen in the trench
 Flow of gas must be stopped and
the gas ventilated from the trench
Natural gas control equipment
• Underground natural gas lines can be broken during the excavation process or from the impact of a
collapsing trench wall.
• Natural gas is explosive and can displace oxygen in the trench.
• If a line is broken, the flow of gas must be stopped and the gas ventilated from the trench.
• Safest way is to have the emergency response team from the local natural gas company
perform those functions.
• How this hazard is mitigated is dependent on local SOGs.
23
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Atmospheric
Monitoring
 Monitor atmosphere with a calibrated atmospheric monitor
 4 x 4 x 4 monitoring technique designed to rapidly test for the four most
common hazardous atmospheric conditions
 4 functions—4 locations—4-foot increments
 Additional site-specific monitoring may be required to test for specific

hazardous atmospheric contaminants
 Solvents and glues may not be detected by four function monitors
 Identification must come from interviews and observations
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques
Atmospheric monitoring
• A calibrated atmospheric monitor should be used to monitor atmospheric conditions.
• A 4X4X4 monitoring technique is designed to rapidly test for the four most common hazardous
atmospheric conditions found at trench and excavation sites.
• 4 functions—4 locations—4-foot increments
• Additional site-specific monitoring may be required to test for specific (less common) hazardous
atmospheric contaminants.
• Some hazardous atmospheric conditions like solvents and glues may not be detected by
four function monitors.
• Identification of these types of hazards must come from interviews with workers and
observations of cans, buckets, and containers at the trench site.
24
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Dewatering
 Necessary for the control of water in the trench
 Dewatering plans should be considered even if the trench is dry upon arrival
 Dikes can prevent water entering from ground level
 Strainers can be used on the end of the hose to help prevent clogs when
pumping
 Submersible pumps can be lowered using a milk crate or bucket with holes
 Sewer and water line breaks can create hazardous conditions
 Accessing main water shut-off valve for professionals
Dewatering devices
• Dewatering is necessary for the control of water in the trench and dewatering plans should be
considered even if the trench is dry upon arrival.
• Dikes can be built around the trench to prevent water entering from ground level.
• When pumping out water or sewage, strainers can be used on the end of the hose to help prevent
clogs.
• Submersible pumps can be lowered using a milk crate or bucket with holes.
• Sewer line breaks

• Sewer line flow may be stopped with towels, cribbing, and or shims.
• To mitigate a broken natural sewer line, first pump the sewage from trench by following
the dewatering procedures
• Once the sewage is contained in a designated holding area, the broken pipe can be
plugged or crimped.
25
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques –
Underground Electrical Wires
 Noncontact voltage tester

 Determines the presence of voltage in the wire
 Electrical current
 Should be controlled or disconnected before rescuers are allowed to work in close
proximity
Underground electrical wires
• The presence of voltage (electrical current) in the wire should be determined using a noncontact
voltage tester.
• Electrical current should be controlled or disconnected before rescuers are allowed to work in close
proximity.
26
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Gas
 Before mitigating, consider:

 Local SOGs
 Training level of rescuers
 Full PPE must be worn and ignition sources eliminated

 Curb valve
 Controls the flow of gas from the main line
 Should only be shut down by utility experts
Gas
• Local SOGs and training level of rescuers must be considered prior to mitigating a natural gas line
hazard.
• Full PPE must be work and ignition sources eliminated.
• Shut down of a curb valve (controls the flow of gas from the main line) should be performed only by
utility experts.
27
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Ventilation
 Initial ventilation
 Directed at controlling the overall atmospheric conditions within the trench
 Called trench ventilation
 Rescue ventilation
 Directed at improving the atmospheric conditions where the victim is trapped
 Accomplished with confined space ventilators
 Heating device can be used to prevent hypothermia
 Recovery mode
 Ventilation should be in place and atmospheric hazards eliminated prior to entry
Ventilation
• Initial ventilation is directed at controlling the overall atmospheric conditions within the trench and is
called trench ventilation.
• Rescue ventilation is directed at improving the atmospheric conditions in the specific area where the
victim is trapped
• Accomplished with confined space ventilators using duct tubes to direct the flow of air
directly to the victim’s area
• Confined space ventilation equipment not likely to arrive with first-due fire companies, but
often available on trench rescue and technical rescue apparatus
• When used with an approved heating device, rescue ventilation can also be used to
prevent hypothermia in victims trapped in cool, wet, or cold conditions.
• When operating in a recovery mode, ventilation should be in place and atmospheric hazards
eliminated prior to entry.
28
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Ventilation
Concerns
 Risk of hypothermia
 In cool and damp environments
 Risk of recirculation of hazardous
atmospheres
 Can occur if blowers are placed
downwind of the hazard
 Short circuiting
 Can occur if fresh air moves
directly from inlet to outlet without
circulating to other areas
 Can be identified with monitoring
Ventilation concerns
• Ventilation efforts in cool and damp environments can create hypothermia.
• Recirculation of hazardous atmospheres can occur if blowers are placed downwind (leeward side)
of the hazard.
• The hazardous atmosphere exiting the trench is blown (by the wind) back into the blower
intake and then circulated back into the trench.
• Moving the blower to the (windward side) will eliminate recirculation problems
• Short circuiting can occur if fresh air moves directly from inlet to outlet without circulating to other
areas—this can be identified with monitoring.
29
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Trench
Ventilation
 Purpose
 Improve the atmosphere of the entire trench, rather than just the victim’s area
 Can be accomplished with electric or battery-powered fire service smoke
ejectors
 In trenches that have atmospheric hazards:
 Primary ventilation needs to take place before rescue entry operations begin
Trench ventilation
• The purpose is to improve the atmosphere of the entire trench, rather than just the victim’s area.
• Can be accomplished with electric or battery-powered fire service smoke ejectors
• In trenches that have atmospheric hazards, primary ventilation needs to take place before rescue
entry operations begin.
30
Potential Offensive Mitigation Techniques – Rescue
Ventilation
 Purpose
 Supply fresh air directly to the victim in the trench
 Based on supply ventilation methods
 Rather than exhaust ventilation methods
 Tubing placed in the trench near the victim’s face
 Used to direct the supply ventilation to the victim
Rescue ventilation
• The purpose is to supply fresh air directly to the victim in the trench.
• Based on supply ventilation methods rather than exhaust ventilation methods.
• Tubing is placed in the trench near the victims face and used to direct the supply ventilation to the
victim.
31
Hazardous Materials
 Common hazardous materials on a trench site include fuels and solvents

 Rescuers trained at the hazardous materials operations level with proper PPE
may:
 Control and/or remove gasoline, diesel fuel, hydraulic fluids, and solvent containers
and spills
 Per local SOGs
 In the event of the presence of other hazardous materials:
 Specially trained hazardous materials teams must be summoned
Hazardous materials
• Common hazardous materials on a trench site include fuels and solvents.
• Rescuers trained at the hazardous materials operations level with proper PPE may control and/or
remove gasoline, diesel fuel, hydraulic fluids, and solvent containers and spills per local SOGs.
• In the event of the presence of other hazardous materials, specially trained hazardous materials
teams must be summoned.
32
Severe Environmental Conditions – Heavy Rains / Wind
 Divert with dikes or dams
 Tarp or tent may be erected over the rescue area of the trench
 Pumps/dewatering equipment used to remove water from the trench
 Rescue workers should be protected with:

 Gore-Tex–type rain gear
 Helmets
 Eye protection
 Gloves
 Water-resistant footwear
 If possible, create a wind break:

 Position the rescue truck/trailer in a safe spot upwind of the trench
 Cut off any trench panels that stick up more than 2 feet above the trench lip
 Avoid the additional pressure created by wind hitting the large panels
 Carry panels and ground pads as low to the ground as possible
 Rescuers should be protected similarly to how they dress in heavy rain
Severe environmental conditions
• Severe environmental conditions include:

• Heavy rain
• Divert rain away from the trench with dikes and ramps.
• A tarp or tent may be set up over the rescue area of the trench.
• Water may be removed from the trench by the use of trash pumps and
dewatering equipment.
• Rescuers should be protected with Gore-Tex–type rain gear, helmets, eye
protection, gloves, and water-resistant footwear.
• High winds
• Create a wind break by positioning the rescue truck/trailer in a safe spot
upwind of the trench, if possible.
• Cut off any trench panels that stick up more than 2 feet (0.6 m) above the
trench lip to avoid the additional pressure created by wind hitting the large
panels.
• Carry panels and ground pads as low to the ground as possible.
• Rescuers should be protected similarly to how they dress in heavy rain.
33
Severe Environmental Conditions –
Cold / Hot Temperatures
 Cold Temperatures  Hot Temperatures
 Warm air from heated ventilation fans  Cooling air may be circulated into the
can be ducted into the trench trench using ventilation equipment
 Rescue workers need to be rotated out  Rescue workers need to be rotated out
of the trench and into warming huts of the trench and into air-conditioned
periodically rehabilitation area periodically
 Rescue workers should be protected  Rescue workers should be protected
with: with:
 Cold weather (insulated coverall  Light-colored cotton shirts
type) ensembles  Cotton pants
 Hoods  Vented helmets
 Helmets  Lightweight gloves
 Insulated gloves and boots  Breathable ankle boots
Cold temperatures
• Warm air from heated ventilation fans can be ducted into the trench.
• Rescuers need to be rotated out of these environments and placed into
warming huts.
• Rescuers should be protected with cold weather (insulated coverall type)
ensembles, hoods, helmets, and insulated gloves and boots.
Hot temperatures
• Cooling air may be circulated into the trench with ventilation equipment.
• Rescuers should be rotated out of hot environments and placed in air-
conditioned rehabilitation areas.
• Rescuers should be protected with light-colored cotton shirts, cotton pants,
vented helmets, lightweight gloves, and breathable boots.
34
Severe Environmental Conditions –
Snow / Ice / Lightening
 Rescue area may be covered by tarps or tents
 Snow and ice should be periodically removed from the trench, the trench lip,
and the lip protection
 Rescuers should be protected by:
 Water-repellent insulated cold-weather ensembles
 Helmets
 Water-repellent insulated gloves
 Boots with cleats

 Threat of lightning strike during recovery incident
 Rescuers leave the area
 Return when threat is lifted
Snow or ice
• Rescue area may be covered by tarps or tents.
• The snow and ice should be periodically removed from the trench, trench lip,
and lip protection.
• Rescuers should be protected in water-repellent cold-weather ensembles,
helmets, water-repellent insulated gloves, and boots with cleats.
Lightning
• Any time that lightning strikes are present in the area and the incident has
been declared a recovery rather than a rescue, rescuers should leave the
area and only return after the lightning has stopped.
35
Enhanced Hazard Mitigation
 Some hazards may require direct technical assistance
 To minimize delay in response time, enhanced hazard mitigation resources
should be dispatched on receipt of a reported trench or excavation emergency
 Tier 1 resources
 Those that need to be immediately dispatched upon receipt of a reported
trench or excavation emergency
 Tier 2 resources
 Should be requested immediately after the need is recognized
Enhanced hazard mitigation
• Some hazards may require the direct technical assistance of a utility company emergency response
team or hazardous material response teams.
• To minimize the delay in response time, enhanced hazard mitigation resources should be
dispatched on receipt of a reported trench/excavation emergency.
• Tier 1 resources are those that need to be immediately dispatched upon receipt of a reported
trench or excavation emergency.
• Tier 2 resources should be requested immediately after the need is recognized.
36
Ongoing Hazard Mitigation
 Technical safety officer

 Must be designated
 Responsible for recognizing and mitigating hazards throughout the incident
 Initial hazard and enhanced hazard mitigation efforts

 Must be monitored and evaluated throughout the incident
Ongoing Hazard Mitigation

• A technical safety officer must be designated and is
responsible for recognizing and mitigating hazards
throughout the incident.
• Initial hazard and enhanced hazard mitigation efforts
must be monitored and evaluated throughout the
incident.
37
CHAPTER 6
Managing the
Trench Incident
Chapter 6 Managing the Trench Incident
1
 Describe an extended command structure for trench rescue.
 Identify the common teams utilized at trench rescues.
 Describe common incident management tools.
 Identify tasks that must be completed during demobilization.
 Identify considerations for terminating command. Identify steps necessary to
return all resources to a ready state.
 Explain documentation considerations associated with termination an incident.
 Describe how to clean and service trench rescue equipment.
• Describe an extended command structure for trench rescue.

• Identify the common teams utilized at trench rescues.
• Describe common incident management tools.
• Identify tasks that must be completed during demobilization.
• Identify considerations for terminating command. Identify steps necessary to
return all resources to a ready state.
• Explain documentation considerations associated with termination an
incident.
• Describe how to clean and service trench rescue equipment.
2
Introduction
 Incident command system (ICS)

 Used by fire departments to handle local emergency incidents
 ICS addresses trench emergencies on multiple levels:
 Strategic, tactical, and task
 Incident Commander (IC)

 In charge and directs duties and responsibilities of other personnel
 The ICS must be:

 Flexible, expandable, and capable of managing and directing a variety of resources
• The incident command system (ICS) is used by fire departments to handle local emergency incidents.
• ICS addresses trench emergencies on multiple levels: strategic, tactical, and task.
• The Incident Commander (IC) is in charge and directs duties and responsibilities of other personnel, which
• Implements a systematic method of handling the incident
• Decreases the organizational span of control
• Provides on-scene accountability for everyone involved
• The ICS used for trench incidents must be flexible, expandable, and capable of managing and directing a
variety of resources.
3
Size-Up
 Scene size-up is required to determine what has happened and to help predict
what will happen
 Sizing up the scene:
 Provides situational awareness
 Informs decisions
 Directs actions to be taken
Size-Up
• Scene size-up is required to determine what has happened and to help predict what will happen.
• Sizing up the scene:

• Provides situational awareness
• Informs decisions
• Directs actions to be taken
4
Size-Up
 The scene size-up includes:

 Gathering information about the situation, hazard(s), victim(s), trench, and
resources
 Collapse with one or more victims trapped is the most likely situation
 Other common situations include:
 Person unable to exit the trench because of a traumatic injury
 Medical condition
 Hazardous atmosphere
 Electrocution
 Incident complexity and the number of victims determines rescuer level and
resources required
The scene size-up includes:

Gathering information about the situation, hazard(s), victim(s), trench,
and resources
• Collapse with one or more victims trapped is the most likely situation
• Other common situations include:

• Person unable to exit the trench because of a traumatic injury
• Medical condition
• Hazardous atmosphere
• Electrocution
• Incident complexity and the number of victims determines rescuer level and
resources required
5
Size-Up
 Initial command structure begins

with the arrival of the authority
having jurisdiction (AHJ)
 The initial command structure at a
trench rescue must provide:
 Command
 Hazard control
 Scene control
 Non-entry rescue, if possible
 Medical care
Size-Up and Expanding the Incident Command Structure
• The initial command structure begins with the arrival of the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).
• The initial command structure at a trench rescue must provide for certain functions, including:
• Command
• Hazard control
• Scene control
• Non-entry rescue (if possible)
• Medical care
6
Size-Up
 Initial functions managed and supervised by firefighters trained at awareness or

higher levels of trench rescue
 Expanded command structure must provide for:
 Command, operations, safety, logistics, and liaison
 Finance and planning branch to be added to the command structure for complex
incidents
• These functions are managed and supervised by firefighters trained at awareness or higher levels of trench
rescue.
• The expanded command structure at a trench rescue must provide for the command, operations, safety,
logistics, and liaison.
• For complex incidents requiring specialist rescuers, a finance and planning branch is likely to be added to the
command structure.
7
Command
 IC is responsible for developing

the strategic goals for the
operation
 Based on the initial scene size-
up and subsequent incident
developments
 Responsible for determining
the need for and arranging the
acquisition of all resources
necessary
 Operations officer fulfills the © Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS.
goals set forth by the IC
Command
• IC is responsible for developing the

strategic goals for the operation
• Based on the initial scene size-up
and subsequent incident
developments
• Responsible for determining the
need for and arranging the
acquisition of all resources
necessary
8
• Operations officer fulfills the goals
set forth by the IC
8
Command
 Staging officer
 Responsible for positioning
and accounting for resources
not immediately assigned
 Located at the primary staging
area
 Safety officer
 Monitors incident operations
and advises incident command
on all matters relating to
operational safety
 Technical rescue safety officer
Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki.
works directly with the safety
officer
Staging officer
• Responsible for positioning and
accounting for resources not
immediately assigned
• Located at the primary staging area
Safety officer
• Monitors incident operations and
advises incident command on all
matters relating to operational
safety
9
• Technical rescue safety officer
works directly with the safety officer
9
Command
 Liaison officer
 Establishes and maintains communications with governmental agencies,
nongovernmental organizations, and private sector groups
 Provides them with organizational policies and resource needs and availability
 Public information officer (PIO)
 An important function that should be filled within the first hour of the event
 PIO is responsible for:
 Disseminating accurate information about the incident’s cause, size,
situation
 Resources being committed
Liaison officer
• Establishes and maintains
communications with governmental
agencies, nongovernmental
organizations, and private sector
groups
• Provides them with organizational
policies and resource needs and
availability
Public information officer (PIO)
10
• An important function that should
be filled within the first hour of the
event
• PIO is responsible for:
• Disseminating accurate
information about the incident’s
cause, size, situation
• Resources being committed
10
Logistics
 Logistics officer
 Manages the support needs for the incident
 Orders resources
 Provides:
 Facilities
 Transportation
 Supplies
 Equipment maintenance and fuel
 Food service
 Communications
 Medical services
Logistics
Logistics officer manages all of the support needs for the incident, such as:
• Ordering resources and providing facilities
• Transportation
• Supplies
• Equipment maintenance and fuel
• Food service
• Communications
• Medical services for incident personnel
• Commonly filled by a command or company officer from the local fire department
• Most trench rescue units carry only enough rescue shoring to stabilize an operations level trench incident.
• For more complex trench configurations, additional rescue shoring equipment will be required.
• Technician level trench incidents often take hours to resolve.
• Creates the need for food, water, shelter, and work relief (i.e., more rescuers), scene
11
lighting and power sources
• Logistics officer must forecast these additional requirements long.
• Trench rescue team logistics officer needs to work closely with the logistics officer to keep them informed of
additional rescue-related equipment needs, in addition to keeping a list of expendable and damaged rescue
equipment.
11
Logistics
 Rescue team logistics officer (RTLO)

 Responsible equipment accountability and field repairs
 Predicts additional equipment needs and requests the needed equipment through
the logistics officer
 Support team officer works at the direction of the logistics officer through the RTLO
 Support team often composed of firefighters trained at the awareness level,
duties include:
 Transporting/carrying shoring and rescue equipment from vehicles to
designated staging sites
 Developing a cut station
 Assisting with equipment maintenance
 Providing and maintaining power (generators) and scene lighting
 Ongoing atmospheric monitoring and ventilation as needed
Rescue team logistics officer (RTLO) responsible for the trench rescue team equipment accountability and field
repairs.
• Responsibilities include equipment accountability and field repairs.
• Vitally important to keep all equipment not currently in use at a predetermined location so the RTLO
can keep track of it and determine its availability at any given time during the emergency
• The RTLO must be able to predict additional equipment needs and request the needed equipment
through the logistics officer.
• Support team officer works at the direction of the logistics officer through the RTLO.
• The support team often composed of firefighters trained at the awareness level.
• Assigning a member of the trench rescue team to the position of support team officer to
manage and supervise the support team will pay dividends as the incident progresses.
• Support team duties may include:
• Transporting/carrying shoring and rescue equipment from vehicles to
designated staging sites
12
• Developing a cut station
• Assisting with equipment maintenance
• Providing and maintaining power (generators) and scene lighting
• Ongoing atmospheric monitoring and ventilation as needed
12
Operations
 Most operations tasks

performed by the trench rescue
team
 Trench rescue teams may be
broken down into sub-teams:
 Entry
 Panel
 Shoring
Operations
• Most of the operations tasks are performed by the trench rescue team.
• Trench rescue teams may be broken down into sub-teams: entry, panel, and shoring.
• Upon arrival at a trench rescue incident, the team members may be given one of the following assignments:
• Rescue team manager
• Technical rescue safety officer
• Entry team officer
• Entry team specialists
• Panel team officer
• Panel team specialists
• Shoring team officer
• Shoring team specialists
• Rescue team logistics officer
• Support team officer
13
Operations
 Rescue team manager manages and supervises the activities of the trench
rescue team
 Entry team officer manages and supervises the entry team tasks
 Entry team enhances the initial actions performed by awareness level rescuers
 Develops and implements a hazard control plan to follow during all entry
operations
 Entry operations include:
 Victim access
 Treatment
 Packaging
 Extrication
 Removal
• Rescue team manager manages and supervises the activities of the trench rescue team.
• Common for the IC to designate the rescue team manager as the operations officer.
• Entry team officer manages and supervises the entry team tasks, including non-entry and entry operations.
• Entry team enhances the initial actions performed by awareness level rescuers.
• Develops and implements a hazard control plan to follow during all entry operations
• Entry operations include:

• Victim access
• Treatment
• Packaging
• Extrication
• Removal
14
Operations
 Panel team officer manages

and supervises the panel team
tasks, including:
 Conducting a shoring size-up
(assessing lip and void
conditions)
 Lip protection installation
 Panel placement
 Backfill
 Water placement
 Panel team sets up, carries,
and installs all shields or panels
• Panel team officer manages and supervises the panel team tasks, including:
• Conducting a shoring size-up (assessing lip and void conditions)
• Lip protection installation
• Panel placement
• Backfill
• Water placement
• The panel team is required to set up, carry, and install all shields or panels.
15
Operations
 Shoring team officer manages

and supervises the shoring
team tasks
 Tasks include:
 Shoring size-up
 Positioning ladders for entry
and egress
 Shoring
 Installation of struts
 Shoring team assembles and
installs struts
 May involve the installation of
wood, pneumatic, or another
type of strut shores
Courtesy of Greg Payeur.
The shoring team officer manages and supervises the shoring team tasks.
• These tasks include:
• Shoring size-up
• Positioning ladders for entry and egress
• Shoring
• Installation of struts
• The shoring team assembles and installs struts required to make the protective system safe.
• This work may involve the installation of wood, pneumatic, or another type of strut
shores.
16
Operations
 Rapid intervention team (RIT) must be established and staged before

rescuers enter the trench
 Comprises members from the trench rescue team(s) on the scene
 Responsible for the rescue of trench rescue team members
 Not victims
 Medical team officer works at the direction of the operations officer
 Responsible for establishing a medical control area
 Treat any on-scene rescuer injury and provide for victim care and
transportation
 Additional duties may include assisting the rehabilitation area with monitoring
of rescuers’ vital signs
Rapid intervention team (RIT) must be established and staged before rescuers
enter the trench
• Comprises members from the trench rescue team(s) on the scene
• Responsible for the rescue of trench rescue team members

• Not victims
• Medical team officer works at the direction of the operations officer

• Responsible for establishing a
medical control area
• Treat any on-scene rescuer
injury and provide for victim
care and transportation
17
• Additional duties may include
assisting the rehabilitation area with
monitoring of rescuers’ vital signs
17
Incident Management Tools
 If the incident cannot be resolved by awareness level rescuers, a variety of

skilled personnel and specialized equipment are required
 Checklists and worksheets can help the incident command team run a trench
emergency incident
 Resource lists
 Task assignment and personnel tracking worksheets
 Hazard control plan checklist
 Reminds the IC of the most common hazards at a trench incident
• If a trench rescue incident cannot be resolved by awareness level rescuers, an increasing variety of skilled
personnel and specialized equipment is required.
• Checklists and worksheets can help the incident command team run a trench emergency incident.
• Resource lists are a management tool that can be used at all levels of incidents.
• Ideally, resource lists would be available to all team members, from dispatch personnel to command
officers.
• Task assignment and personnel tracking worksheets are helpful management tools at operations and
technician level incidents.
• The hazard control plan checklist reminds the IC of the most common hazards at a trench incident
18
 Magnitude and scope of a trench incident directly impacts the number and
types of resources required
 Resource lists and agreements
 Agencies that respond to trench incidents should:
 Contact local resources that can provide the services listed in the resources list
and develop agreements with them
 The phone numbers and contact information must be available 24/7
• The magnitude and scope of a trench incident directly impacts the number and types of resources that will be
required.
• Agencies that respond to trench incidents should contact local resources that can provide the services listed
in the resources list and develop agreements with them before adding them to their local resource list.
• The phone numbers and contact information must be available 24/7.
19
20
Incident Termination
 No part of termination procedures should begin, nor should any responders leave the scene, before a
postincident briefing with the IC is conducted
 Special care needs to be taken to ensure that rescuers are rested and alert before breakdown begins
 Fresh crews may be brought in to facilitate the termination and breakdown of the equipment
 The termination and breakdown of the protective system happen in the reverse order from how the system
was built
 Rescuers should remain focused on the fact that the job is not successfully completed until the incident is
terminated, and no personnel have been hurt Ensure that rescuers are rested and alert before breakdown
begins
 Termination and breakdown of the protective system happen in the reverse order from how the system was
built
 During the termination phase, the entry, panel, and shoring teams are responsible for:
 Gathering
 Inventorying
 Restoring equipment
• The incident termination phase of a trench rescue can be a dangerous time.

• It is at this point in the process that the adrenaline is gone, and personnel are tired.
• After the victim is removed, it is important to stop all activities and call everyone out of the hot zone to begin
the termination process.
• No part of termination procedures should begin, nor should any responders leave the scene, before a
postincident briefing with the IC is conducted.
• This is the first step in the debriefing process.
• Summarizes the operation, answers questions, gauges the welfare of the rescuers, and offers the
chance for the incident leaders to express their appreciation to the rescuers
• It also is the time to tell all personnel that, from this point forward, safety is the most important
consideration.
• Special care needs to be taken to ensure that rescuers are rested and alert before breakdown begins.
• Fresh crews may be brought in to facilitate the termination and breakdown of the equipment.
• This phase should not be rushed.
21
• Personnel must take frequent breaks and keep in mind that the emergency is not over until overhaul of the
incident is complete.
• The termination and breakdown of the protective system happen in the reverse order from how the system was
built.
• Process includes removing unneeded equipment from the hot zone and disassembling and removing shoring
equipment.
• In every case, while personnel are removing the protective system, they must operate from within a safe area
of the protective system or remove component parts from outside the trench area, and they should continue
to use any necessary PPE.
• Rescuers should remain focused on the fact that the job is not successfully completed until the incident is
terminated, and no personnel have been hurt.
• Consideration may also need to be given to rotating crew assignments.
• For example, personnel who had outside-of-trench assignments during the operation might be given inside-
of-trench assignments during termination and breakdown.
21
 The incident termination phase can be a dangerous time

 Personnel are tired
 After the victim is removed, stop all activities and call everyone out of the hot zone
to begin the termination process
 First a postincident briefing with the IC is conducted
 Summarize the operation, answer questions, gauge the welfare of rescuers, and
allow incident leaders to express their thanks
 Emphasize that safety is the most important considerationLast part of the

operation will involve after action meetings:
 Postincident analysis
 Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD), possibly
 CISD allows rescuers to defuse and gear up for the next response
 Key is to conduct the critique soon enough after the event
 Specific aspects of the rescue are still fresh in rescuers’ minds
• During the termination phase, the entry, panel, and shoring teams are responsible for gathering, inventorying,
and restoring all of their equipment.
• The last part of the operation will involve after action meetings, such as a postincident analysis and possibly a
critical incident stress debriefing (CISD).
• CISD is the part of the event that allows rescuers to defuse and gear up for the next response.
• The key is to conduct the critique soon enough after the event so that specific aspects of the rescue are still
fresh in rescuers’ minds.
22
CHAPTER 7
Tabulated Data
Charts
Chapter 7B Tabulated Data Charts
Please use this important reference material while assessing and developing
an operational plan for any trench.
1
2
Tabulated Data
3
Tabulated Data
4
Tabulated Data
Tabulated Data
Reproduced from MUSAR Training Foundation. (2020). Trench rescue shoring
operations guide (2nd ed.). Author. https://paratech.com/wp-
content/uploads/2021/01 /MUSAR-SOG-2020.pdf
5
Tabulated Data
Reproduced from MUSAR Training Foundation. (2020). Trench rescue
shoring operations guide (2nd ed.). Author. https://paratech.com/wp-
content/uploads/2021/01 /MUSAR-SOG-2020.pdf
6
Tabulated Data
Reproduced from MUSAR Training Foundation. (2020). Trench rescue shoring operations guide
(2nd ed.). Author. https://paratech.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/01 /MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
7
Tabulated Data
(2nd ed.). Author. https://paratech.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/01 /MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
8
Tabulated Data
Reproduced from MUSAR Training Foundation. (2020). Trench rescue shoring operations guide (2nd ed.). Author.
https://paratech.com/wp ‐content/uploads/2021/01/MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
9
Tabulated Data
https://paratech.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/01 /MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
10
Tabulated Data
https://paratech.com/wp‐content/uploads/2021/01 /MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
11
Tabulated Data
Reproduced from MUSAR Training Foundation. (2020). Trench rescue shoring operations guide (2nd ed.).
Author. https://paratech.com/wp ‐content/uploads/2021/01/MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
Correction for Paratech Wale 8’ Span. The most updated tabulated data now
supports the 8’ Span as a L-10.
12
13
Tabulated Data
Tabulated Data
(2nd ed.). Author. https://paratech.com/wp ‐content/uploads/2021/01/MUSAR‐SOG‐2020.pdf
14
CHAPTER 7
Operations Level
Trench Rescue
Shoring
Chapter 7 Operations Level Trench Rescue Shoring
1
 Explain the differences between trench rescue shoring and trench construction shoring.
 Identify the principles of trench rescue shoring and the equipment that is commonly
used for this purpose.
 Explain the use of the T-L method to determine lateral soil forces and shoring
requirements.
 Explain the benefits of using prescriptive shoring designs.
 Explain the benefits of non-entry shoring. Describe a safe zone.
 Explain the benefits of having a default trench rescue shoring method.
 Describe the purpose of a shoring plan.
 Identify the steps covered in a shoring plan.
 Identify topics to be covered in a shoring plan briefing.
• Explain the differences between trench rescue shoring and trench

construction shoring.
• Identify the principles of trench rescue shoring and the equipment that is
commonly used for this purpose.
• Explain the use of the T-L method to determine lateral soil forces and
shoring requirements.
• Explain the benefits of using prescriptive shoring designs.
• Explain the benefits of non-entry shoring. Describe a safe zone.
• Explain the benefits of having a default trench rescue shoring method.
• Describe the purpose of a shoring plan.
• Identify the steps covered in a shoring plan.
• Identify topics to be covered in a shoring plan briefing.
2
 Create a shoring plan for a nonintersecting trench no more than 8 feet (2.4 m) deep.
 Identify the requirements for the use of trench rescue shoring and trench shields as an alternative to
traditional trench shoring.
 Describe procedures for installing ground pads.
 Describe installing lip bridges.
 Explain the difference between entry and non-entry shoring. Describe considerations for selecting and
installing panels.
 Describe the procedure for installing panels.
 Describe the procedure for installing pneumatic struts.
 Describe the use of timber shores.
 Describe the installation of wales.
 Explain methods to address voids when shoring.
 Describe shoring removal processes.
• Create a shoring plan for a nonintersecting trench no more than 8 feet (2.4
m) deep.
• Identify the requirements for the use of trench rescue shoring and trench
shields as an alternative to traditional trench shoring.
• Describe procedures for installing ground pads.
• Describe installing lip bridges.
• Explain the difference between entry and non-entry shoring. Describe
considerations for selecting and installing panels.
• Describe the procedure for installing panels.
• Describe the procedure for installing pneumatic struts.
• Describe the use of timber shores.
• Describe the installation of wales.
• Explain methods to address voids when shoring.
• Describe shoring removal processes.
3
Introduction
 Shoring systems generally consist of panels, struts, wales, and support
equipment
 Basic set of shoring equipment can be applied in different way
 Operations level rescuers must understand that their equipment and skills
have limitations
Introduction
• Shoring systems used at the majority of trench rescue incidents consist of panels, struts, wales, and support
equipment.
• Trench rescue shoring is installing equipment at a collapsed trench where victims are trapped.
• A basic set of rescue shoring equipment can be applied in many different ways.
• Operations level rescuers must understand that their equipment and skills have limitations.
• Trench rescue shoring and underground construction shoring have similarities, but they also have several
important differences that should prevent them from being used interchangeably.
• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) shoring guidelines do not address rescue
operations.
• In some cases, shoring practices used by construction workers are dangerous and counterproductive to
rescue operations.
4
The History of Trench Rescue Shoring
 Sheeting and shoring techniques

for rescuers have evolved
 Underground construction shoring
differs from trench rescue shoring:
 Purpose
 Construction vs rescue
 Soil conditions Courtesy of Speed Shore Corporation.
 Static vs dynamic
The sheeting and shoring techniques used by rescuers has evolved over time from those used by the underground
construction industry.
To comprehend the fundamentals of trench rescue shoring, you will need to understand the following:
• The differences between rescue shoring and construction shoring
• The principles of rescue shoring
• The shoring practices that will increase the chances of a successful rescue
Underground construction shoring differs from trench rescue shoring in the purpose, soil conditions, time, and
planning.
• The purpose of shoring a trench for construction is to provide a safe area for workers to install and/or repair
underground utilities and structures.
• The purpose of shoring a trench for rescue is to protect trapped victims immediately from potential additional
collapse (primary shoring) and enable the rescue and removal of victims.
• Often rescue shoring takes place when active soil has collapsed and created voids, thus requiring
deviations from standard OSHA-methods.
5
 Underground construction shoring differs from trench rescue shoring:
 Timing
 Short vs long-term solutions
 Planning
 Planned vs emergency
Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki. © Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock. Courtesy of Marc Messier.
In construction shoring, sheeting/shoring is installed before the soil is active and often occurs prior to or immediately
following excavation.
• Soil conditions for rescue shoring are generally active and involve collapse, which can result in large lateral
forces.
• Trench rescue shoring focuses on rapid installation meant to be used for short periods of time (12 hours or
less).
• Construction shoring (long-term soil retention) is less rapid in installation, is meant to be in place for a longer
duration, and often requires the use of heavy machinery.
During a rescue, time is of the essence.

• Can be the difference between extricating a live person and recovering a dead body
• Trench rescue shoring practices must be capable of rapid installation that can be performed manually.
Construction excavations are planned with a comprehensive soil analysis and coordinated preplan conducted.
• Planned excavations provide several options that are based on soil conditions, excavation size, time, and
budget.
Trench rescue incidents are unplanned and often use default shoring methods that are designed for worst-case
scenario soil conditions.
• Default shoring provides one option for a majority of soil conditions and excavation sizes that result in
collapsed trenches and trapped victims.
6
• It is extremely important that the shoring methods are designed by a rescue engineer specifically for worst-
case soil conditions expected in the operating area.
• Rescuers should follow a shoring operations guide designed by a professional engineer with trench rescue
shoring competency.
6
Principles of Trench Rescue Shoring
 Load is lateral soil pressure
 Shoring is primarily horizontal
 Best supported by using components that can be installed from outside the trench
using ground pads and lip bridges
 Shoring systems must be capable of:
 Collecting and distributing loads
 Transferring loads
 Resisting loads
Principles of Trench Rescue Shoring
Load is lateral soil pressure and the shoring is primarily

horizontal, which is best supported by using components
that can be installed from outside the trench using ground
pads and lip bridges.
Trench rescue shoring systems must be capable of

collecting and distributing loads, transferring loads, and
resisting loads.
7
Trench Rescue Shoring Essentials

 Panels collect the load
 Wales distribute the load
 Struts transfer the load
 Resisting loads
 Struts resist the load
 Backfill provides resistance with open voids
© Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Courtesy of MIEMSS. Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki.
Trench Rescue Shoring Essentials

 Panels collect the load
 Wales distribute the load
 Struts transfer the load
 Resisting loads
 Struts resist the load
 Backfill provides resistance with open voids
8
Lateral Soil Forces and Firefighters
 Trench rescuers need to have:

 Ability to rapidly and safely determine the maximum forces that the soil can exert on
your shoring system
 Ability to select and install shoring that is capable of resisting those forces
 Essential for safe and efficient trench rescue operations
Lateral Soil Forces and Firefighters
The ability to rapidly and safely determine the maximum

forces that the soil can exert on your shoring system and
the ability to select and install shoring that is capable of
resisting those forces are essential for safe and efficient
9
T-L Method
 Determining the possibility of soil failure

 Important part of hazards mitigation and safety
 T-L method of soil assessment
 Determining lateral soil forces and interpreting tabulated data (data organized
into a table) is reduced to the use of a tape measure and charts (or pocket
guides)
 T-L method relies on the failure signs observed onsite
 Uses visual clues to approximate the actual load that will occur in the short term
of a rescue
 Uses the horizontal distance of trench failure, or signs of failure such as cracks
approximately parallel to the trench lip
 The “L” is the distance measured horizontally from the trench lip to the farthest
collapse or cracking that parallels the trench, or “L distance”
T-L Method
• Determining the possibility of soil failure
• Important part of hazards mitigation

and safety
• T-L method of soil assessment
• Determining lateral soil forces and

interpreting tabulated data (data
organized into a table) is reduced to
the use of a tape measure and
10
charts (or pocket guides)
• T-L method relies on the failure signs observed onsite
• Uses visual clues to approximate

the actual load that will occur in the
short term of a rescue
• Uses the horizontal distance of
trench failure, or signs of failure
such as cracks approximately
parallel to the trench lip
• The “L” is the distance measured
horizontally from the trench lip to
the farthest collapse or cracking
that parallels the trench, or “L
distance”
10
T-L Method
 T-L method calculates the vertical weight of the block of soil bounded by the
farthest sign of failure
 Trench depth × L distance × Length × Assumed soil density of 133 pounds per
cubic foot [pcf]
 Applies a coefficient of 0.5 to determine lateral earth pressure
 Shoring assumed to be 4 × 8 feet panels with two struts per panel
 Method produces a force where the only variable is the L distance
 Provides equation that depends on L for systems using 4-foot wide panels
 If signs of failure are not visible or covered by a spoil pile:
 Failure depth of 0.7 times the trench depth used to determine the L value
T-L method calculates the vertical

weight of the block of soil bounded by
the farthest sign of failure
• Trench depth × L distance × Length

× Assumed soil density of 133
pounds per cubic foot [pcf]
• Applies a coefficient of 0.5 to
11
determine lateral earth pressure
• Shoring assumed to be 4 × 8
feet panels with two struts per
panel
• Method produces a force where
the only variable is the L
distance
• Provides equation that depends
on L for systems using 4-foot
wide panels
• If signs of failure are not visible

or covered by a spoil pile:
• Failure depth of 0.7 times the
trench depth used to determine
the L value
11
Soil Classification and Soil Forces
 Classify soil as T-L soil conditions to protect rescuers and victims
 T-L method utilizes soil pressure formulas in worst-case conditions
 A lateral force of about 66 pounds per square foot (psf)
 On a 4 × 4-foot (16-square foot [ft2]) section of shoring (half panel), 16 cubic feet
(ft3; 4 × 4 × 1-feet) of T-L soil will develop nearly 1,100 pounds of lateral force (16 ft2
× 66.4 psf = 1,063)
Soil Classification and Soil Forces
Soil should be classified as T-L soil conditions to protect rescuers and victims.
• Best practice is to consider soil to be worst-case condition in trench rescues.
The T-L method utilizes soil pressure formulas in worst-case conditions.
12
How to Use the T-L Method for Trench Rescue
 Use a tape measure to find the

simple L from the original trench
face (wall) to the farthest point of
soil failure
 Simple L (SL) is the distance
length measured in feet from the
original trench wall perpendicular
to the farthest point of soil failure
or cracks/fissures
 When there are multiple signs of
failure
 Always use the farthest point as
the SL
To use the T-L Method for trench rescue:
• A tape measure is used to find the simple L from the original trench face (wall) to the farthest point of soil
failure.
• Simple L (SL) is the distance length measured in feet from the original trench wall perpendicular to the
farthest point of soil failure or cracks/fissures.
• When there are multiple signs of failure, always use the farthest point as the SL.
13
How to Use the T-L Method for Trench Rescue
 In summary:
 From a safe area on the lip,
measure the distance from the
original trench wall
(face) perpendicular to the
farthest failure point
 Round that measurement up to
the next foot and utilize that
total L distance in the shoring
charts
 If no surcharged load exists,
 SL is the total L
In summary:
• From a safe area on the lip, measure the distance from the original trench wall (face) perpendicular
to the farthest failure point.
• Round that measurement up to the next foot and utilize that total L distance in the shoring charts.
• If no surcharge load exists, the SL is the total (L), which is used in the shoring charts.
14
Surcharge Loads (ScL)
 ScL
 ScL are the spoil piles and
construction equipment within the
area between the original trench
faces and the farthest point of soil
failure
 Must be added to the SL to obtain
the total L
 Total L is the SL plus the ScL (if
present)
 Total L used to select trench
rescue shoring from approved
engineered tabulated data
charts
Surcharge Loads (ScL)
 ScL are the spoil piles and construction equipment within the area
between the original trench faces and the farthest point of soil
failure
 Must be added to the SL to obtain the total L
 Total L is the SL plus the ScL (if

present)
 Total L used to select trench rescue
shoring from approved engineered
tabulated data charts
15
Adding the Spoil Pile Surcharge
 Measure the amount of

spoil pile that is within the
SL
 Round the measurement up
to the next foot
 Use this measurement in
the surcharge table (spoil
column)
Adding the Spoil Pile Surcharge
• Measure the amount of spoil pile that is within the SL
• Round the measurement up to the next foot
• Use this measurement in the surcharge table (spoil column)
16
Equipment Surcharge Load
 Account for equipment weight
 Equipment surcharge loads
handled similarly to the spoil load
surcharge:
 Measure amount of equipment
within the SL
 Round up to the next foot
 See the Equipment column in
Table 7-2
 Use the table to locate the
corresponding value to add to
the SL
Equipment adds additional weight on the soils adjacent to the trench, which increases lateral earth pressures.
• Equipment surcharge loads are handled similarly to the spoil load surcharge:
• Measure the amount of equipment that is within the SL.
• Round the measurement up to the next foot.
• Use the measurement in the surcharge table (Equipment column in Table 7-2).
• Use the table to locate the corresponding value to add to the SL.
17
Trench Depth to L Conversion
 When no signs of failure are

apparent:
 SL can be taken as 70% of trench
depth
 Table 7-3 provides values
 Measuring the trench depth
 Rounding up to the nearest
foot
 Read the corresponding SL
equivalent value
When no signs of failure are apparent, the SL can be taken as 70% of trench depth.
• Table 7-3 provides easy-to-look-up values.
• It can be used by measuring the trench depth, rounding up to the nearest foot, then reading the
corresponding SL equivalent value from the chart.
18
Tabulated Data for Shoring Equipment
 Information developed by a licensed professional engineer
 Arranged in easy-to-read rows and columns
 Organizations such as Michigan Urban Search and Rescue (MUSAR)
created tabulated data specifically for collapsed trench walls and rescue
conditions
 MUSAR’s tabulated data is based on worst case soil (T-L soil)
 Shoring charts may be used at all rescue incidents and in most soil conditions
Engineered Tabulated Data

• Information that has been developed by a licensed professional engineer and arranged in easy-to-read rows
and columns
• Valid engineered tabulated data is developed for specific purposes using appropriate theories and
assumptions.
• It is critical to carefully read all the engineer’s notes to determine if the tabulated data addresses the
type of trench and soil conditions that you are dealing with at the scene.
Most trench shoring tabulated data is designed for use by construction workers when trench walls are intact.
• With a trench collapse, the condition of the trench walls is different, the soil is unstable and dynamic, and the
lateral soil forces are different than what construction-based tabulated data is designed to address.
• Organizations such as Michigan Urban Search and Rescue (MUSAR) have created tabulated data
specifically for collapsed trench walls and rescue conditions.
• MUSAR’s engineered tabulated data is based on worst case soil (T-L soil) and their shoring charts
should be used at all rescue incidents and in most soil conditions.
19
 To interpret and use tabulated data:
 Measure the trench failure point (SL) and calculate the Total L (L) if surcharge
loads are present
 Then use the charts to determine the appropriate shoring component
 Tables 7-4 through 7-13 provide tabulated data on shoring components ranging
from struts to sole anchor pickets
 Follow the standard operating guidelines for your agency
 Including any tabulated data created for your agency
To interpret and use tabulated data, rescuers need to measure the trench failure point (SL) and calculate
the Total L (L) if surcharge loads are present.
• Then use the charts to determine the appropriate shoring component (strut, panel, or
wale).
• If you know what struts, panels, and wales your team carries, it becomes very easy to
know a maximum Total L that each component can support.
20
Prescriptive Shoring Designs
 Designed by professional engineers
 Modular, easy to transport, and flexible to accommodate unanticipated conditions
 Enable a trained operations level rescuer to quickly assemble a trench rescue
shoring system
 Will protect the victim
 Creates a safe working environment for rescuers
Prescriptive Shoring Designs
Many of the prescriptive shoring designs being taught and/or used in the fire service have been neither engineered nor
tested by engineers.
• In the emergency medical services, trained emergency medical technicians and paramedics follow medical
protocols designed by experienced physicians based on current medical evidence.
• This prescriptive approach combines experience, training, and science into protocols and procedures that can
be seamlessly, safely, and successfully applied during an emergency.
Prescriptive shoring designs are professional engineer documents with designs of shoring systems for trench
rescuers in which common problems associated with shoring collapsed trenches are addressed safely.
• Most components in prescriptive shoring designs are modular, making them easy to transport and flexible
enough to accommodate unanticipated conditions.
• A trained operations level rescuer can assemble a trench rescue shoring system that quickly protects the
victim and creates a working environment for the rescuers that will not collapse on them.
21
Criteria for Safe Zone in a Trench
 To create a safe zone in a trench,

shoring, sloping and/or shielding
should be used based on soil force
calculations
 Criteria include:
 Close sheeting
 Struts placed within 10
degrees of level and 10
degrees of perpendicular to
trench walls
 Struts installed between 1,000
and 1,250 pounds of activation
force
© Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.
To create a safe zone in a trench, shoring,

sloping and/or shielding should be used
based on soil force calculations
Criteria include:
• Close sheeting
• Struts placed within 10 degrees of
level and 10 degrees of
perpendicular to trench walls
22
• Struts installed between 1,000 and
1,250 pounds of activation force
22
 Criteria include:
 Struts must be:
 Within 1 foot minimum and 2 feet maximum below the trench lip
 Within 1 foot minimum and 2 feet maximum above the trench floor
 A maximum 4 feet spacing vertically between struts
 Both ends of all struts must be secured to strongbacks/wales with two 16d
nails
Criteria also includes:
• Struts must be:

• Within 1 foot minimum and 2
feet maximum below the trench
lip
• Within 1 foot minimum and 2
feet maximum above the trench
floor
• A maximum 4 feet spacing
23
vertically between struts
• Both ends of all struts must be

secured to strongbacks/wales
with two 16d nails
23
Trench Rescue Shoring Plan
 Must start with providing immediate protection for the victim(s)
 Expanded to create a safe working area for rescuers
 Planned approach divides the task into phases
 By dividing plan into phases, a rescue team can create separate but linked goals for
each phase
 Goals must be recognizable and attainable even at complex trench rescue
situations
Trench Rescue Shoring Plan
Must start with providing immediate

protection for the victim(s)
• Expanded to create a safe working area for rescuers
• Planned approach divides the task into phases
• By dividing plan into phases, a rescue team can create separate but
linked goals for each phase
• Goals must be recognizable and

attainable even at complex trench
rescue situations
24
Shoring Plan Briefing
 Ensures all team members have a

clear understanding of their role(s)
and responsibilities
 Shoring team includes:
 Operations officer
 Rescue team manager
 Panel team officer
 Shoring team officer
 Entry team officer
Courtesy of Chad Godfrey.
Shoring Plan Briefing and Procedures for the Trench Rescue Shoring Plan will
be covered in great detail doing the Trench Operations skill workshops.
25
Shoring Plan Briefing
 Briefings should include details regarding:
 Mitigating and removing hazards
 Shoring assignments
 Tactics
 Sequence
 Following primary shoring, provide a briefing for secondary shoring tactics
and sequence
 Following secondary shoring, provide a briefing for complete shoring and
ongoing shoring assessments
26
Procedure for the Trench Rescue Shoring Plan
1. Trench size-up
 Assess the lip
 Assess trench depth and width
 Assess collapse risk
 Assess the voids
 Assess the victim(s) Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki. Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki.
 Use tabulated data
27
2. Primary shoring
 Purpose is to rapidly provide protection to the victim(s) by stabilizing the area(s) of
the trench adjacent to the victim
 The scope includes:
 Use of strategically placed panels
 Struts
 Backfill
 Occasionally a single point shore
 Primary shoring plans must allow for future installation of secondary shoring
28
3. Secondary shoring
 The purpose is to provide a safe zone for rescuers working inside the trench
 The scope includes expanding and enhancing the area shored during primary
shoring
 Backfill is put in place during secondary shoring
 A common goal is the development of a safe zone that is at least 12 feet wide
29
4. Complete shoring
 Shoring must be completed to maximize the safety of the rescuers and the victim
during extraction
 The scope includes the creation of a safe zone that is at least as wide as it is deep
 Supplemental shoring (as needed) put in place
30
5. Shoring performance assessment
 Physically inspect all shores twice during the first hour and then once per hour
 Adjust loose struts
 Listen for warning signs in wooden components
 Add struts if signs of loading
 Visually check the walls
 Look for signs of moving soil
 Check under lip protection for new or widening cracks
 Expand shoring to support adjacent trench walls showing movement
31
Emergency Procedures
 Emergency procedures should be considered in the event of soil movement or
any unmitigated hazard
 Rescuers must exit the trench
 Incident action plan briefing will occur
Emergency procedures should be considered and in the event of soil movement or any unmitigated hazard.
• Rescuers must exit the trench and an incident action plan briefing will occur.
32
Trench Rescue Equipment – Struts
 Also called cross braces or shores
 Horizontal braces
 Extend across trench
 Types:
 Pneumatic
 Hydraulic
 Timber
 Screw jacks
Trench Rescue Equipment
Struts (shores) are horizontal braces (columns) that extend across the trench and transfer the forces from one trench
wall to the opposite wall.
• Common types of struts are pneumatic, hydraulic, timber, and screw jacks.
• The strut activation force creates pressure on the soil behind the strut and panels.
• Properly used struts can help stabilize the soil and increase the strength and performance of strongbacks,
panels, and wales.
• Best practice is to use struts that can be installed with controllable and measurable strut pressure, can be
installed and removed without entering the trench, and have full strength with activation forces between 1000
and 1500 lbs of force.
• Strut pressure is the amount of air pressure that the air system is sending to the strut.
• Activation force is the total force that the strut exerts on the panels.
• The primary purpose of struts is to transfer energy to distribute pressure on trench walls.
Excessive strut pressure creates unwanted energy and can result in dangerous soil pressure behind the shoring system and
could cause additional soil failure
33
Trench Rescue Equipment – Struts
 Best practice
 Use struts that can be installed with controllable and measurable strut pressure
 Can be installed and removed without entering the trench
 Have full strength with activation forces between 1000-1500 lbs of force
 Four member team for organizations that use struts locked from outside the
trench:
 The shoring team officer
 The controller (shooter)
 Two strut handlers
Best practice
• Use struts that can be installed with
controllable and measurable strut
pressure
• Can be installed and removed
without entering the trench
• Have full strength with activation
forces between 1000-1500 lbs of
force
34
Four member team for organizations
that use struts locked from outside the
trench:
• The shoring team officer
• The controller (shooter)
• Two strut handlers
34
Trench Rescue Equipment – Pneumatic Struts
 Allow rescuers to measure

and control strut pressure
 Proper strut placement and
installation depends on
several factors, including:
 How deep the trench is
 What is likely to collapse
next
 Whether a rescuer must
enter the trench to lock the
collar manually
Pneumatic Struts
• Pneumatic struts use air pressure to extend the piston inside the cylinders to create a force against the
strongbacks, panels, and wales positioned on the trench walls.
• Once the desired air pressure is achieved, struts must be mechanically locked before entry.
• Depending on the strut being used, the mechanical lock can be accomplished by:
• Twisting a collar that rotates on the cylinder and inserting pins through the piston into holes
• Requires entry into the trench
• Spinning a collar that moves on the piston
• Can be performed outside of the trench
• Utilizing a built-in automatic (one directional) locking mechanism
• Can be performed outside of the trench
35
Trench Rescue Equipment – Hydraulic Struts
 Successfully used to shore construction trenches for many years
 Do not have collars that prevent the movement of the pistons and
cylinders
 Requires higher pressures to be used than pneumatic, timber, and
screw jack struts
 Effective on intact trench walls but
 Not a good choice for rescue shoring
Hydraulic Struts
• Hydraulic struts have been successfully used to shore construction trenches for many years.
• Activation pressure created by pumping hydraulic fluid from a reservoir through hoses and into the
strut cylinders, which house the moving pistons.
• Hydraulic struts do not have collars that prevent the movement of the pistons and cylinders.
• Instead, the compressive strength of the strut remains dependent on the hydraulic pressure
throughout the entire duration of their use in the trench.
• This requires higher pressures to be used than what is needed in pneumatic, timber, and screw jack
struts.
• Hydraulic struts are effective on intact trench walls but are not a good choice for rescue shoring.
• Users of these struts should request tabulated data and shoring procedures from the manufacturer
that is specific to cave-in soil conditions.
36
Trench Rescue Equipment – Screw Jack Struts
 Used with timbers
 Activation pressure by turning
screw
 Lower buckling strength than
pneumatic and hydraulic struts
Screw Jack Struts
• Screw jack struts are used with timbers; the screw allows
the strut to be tightened, increasing the activation pressure
• Attempting to create a reliable activation force is difficult

with screw jack struts because it is based on the installer
and there are no gauges.
• Many screw jack struts have lower breaking/buckling
37
strength than pneumatic and hydraulic struts.
37
Trench Rescue Equipment – Timber Struts
 Time consuming and require entry to install
 Pre-nailed bottom scabs used to hold the strut in place of installation
 Safest shoring placement sequence:
 Top, middle, bottom
 Number of struts to protect the trench based on the L value of the trench
 Utilizing wedges
 During the timber strut installation process, wedges may be driven between a
loosened strut and strongback. This will ensure sufficient pressurization during
the shoring operation.
Timber Struts
• Time consuming and require entry

to install
• Pre-nailed bottom scabs used to

hold the strut in place of installation
• Safest shoring placement

sequence:
38
• Top, middle, bottom
• Number of struts to protect the

trench based on the L value of the
trench
• Utilizing wedges
• During the timber strut installation
process, wedges may be driven
between a loosened strut and
strongback. This will ensure
sufficient pressurization during the
shoring operation.
38
Trench Rescue Equipment – Panels
 Collect load and distribute to

opposite wall
 Effective with unstable soil and
collapsed wall conditions
 Default size 4-foot by 8-foot with
strongbacks positioned in the
center
 Strongbacks should be
permanently connected to the
panels
Trench Rescue Panels
Panels are required to both collect the loads from the unstable wall and distribute them to the opposite wall.
Panels are very effective when unstable soil and collapsed wall conditions are encountered.
Most trench rescue teams rely on default shoring methods that include the use of 4-foot wide by 8-foot tall panels with
strongbacks positioned in the center.
• Strongbacks should be permanently connected (screwed and glued, not bolted) to the panels
• This structure offers a greater system strength and safety.
39
Trench Rescue Equipment – Panels
 Most default shoring methods include the use of 4-foot wide by 8-foot tall
panels with strongbacks positioned in the center
 Placing panels right next to each other and installing struts on the
strongbacks provides horizontal spacing at 4 feet on center
 Horizontal and vertical spacing of 4 feet or less will safely shore majority of
soil conditions if composite panels are used
 Setting panels in a trench is accomplished using several different methods
 Method used depends on trench condition of the trench and victim
location
Most default shoring methods include the

use of 4-foot wide by 8-foot tall panels with
strongbacks positioned in the center
• Placing panels right next to each
other and installing struts on the
strongbacks provides horizontal
spacing at 4 feet on center
• Horizontal and vertical spacing of 4
40
feet or less will safely shore majority
of soil conditions if composite
panels are used
• Setting panels in a trench is

accomplished using several
different methods
• Method used depends on trench
condition of the trench and
victim location
40
Wales
 Beams that span trench walls
 Inside wales
 Installed after panels
 Panels provide a large surface
area to distribute the load
 Transferred through the struts
to the wale
Wales
Wales are beams used in trenches to span large areas of trench walls (without intermediate struts)
The wale transfers the soil load on a panel into the opposing wall.
There are two wale techniques used in shoring trenches:

• Inside wales
• Installed after panels have been positioned on the trench walls
• The panels provide a large surface area to collect or distribute the load that is transferred
through the struts to the wale.
41
Wales
 Outside wales
 Outside wales will be utilized at the
technician level for VDFP.
 Installed directly on the trench wall
 Panels are then installed over the
wales and struts are installed on
the panel/wale interface
 Backfill is necessary between the
panels and the trench wall. This
method allows the forces to be
transferred effectively when the
protective system is complete.
Outside wales
• Outside wales will be utilized at the technician level for all Virginia
Department of Fire Program classes.
• Installed directly on the trench wall
• Panels are then installed over the wales and struts are installed on
the panel/wale interface
• Backfill is necessary between the panels and the trench wall. This
method allows the forces to be transferred effectively when the
protective system is complete.
42
Shoring Voids
 Soil failures create voids
 Backfill options must be assessed
 Void assessments
 Void type
 Wall angle
 Size
Shoring Voids
• Soil failures create voids
• Backfill options must be assessed
• Void assessments
• Void type
• Wall angle
• Size
43
Shoring Voids
 Trench boxes (modular shields)

 Each model has assembly and
installation protocols
 Possible to arrive to find a shield in

place
 Evaluate the shield and installation
for safety
Trench boxes (modular shields) are often used as well for protecting a trench from the collapse of soil.
• These can be easily assembled and lowered into the trench for use as rescue isolation devices and
safe zones for rescuers.
• A small modular aluminum shield can weigh several hundred pounds, but with a rope system and a
carefully coordinated rescue squad, a small shield can be lowered into a trench.
• Each brand and individual models have specific assembly and installation protocols and procedures
that must be followed.
• Rescuers who use shields as part of their response must receive shield-specific training and follow
the manufacturer’s tabulated data and practices.
• Rescuers should train regularly with the system so that installation becomes second
nature.
• It is possible to arrive at a trench rescue incident to find a shield in place.

• Rescuers need to evaluate the shield and the way it is installed to determine if it is safe
for use.
44
Shielding Systems
 Professionally designed by engineers
 Restrictions listed in tabulated data
 Selection based on
 Soil type
 Trench width
 Trench depth
 Consider:
 Follow manufacturer’s guidelines
 Top of box must extend 18 inches over unprotected trench
 Box bottom may be a maximum of 2 feet from trench bottom
 Do not extend height unless approved sheet piling techniques
are used
 Inspect before use
 Rescuers may never work outside the protection of the trench
box or other protected area of the trench
Shielding Systems
• Professionally designed by engineers
• Restrictions listed in tabulated data
• Selection based on
• Soil type
• Trench width
• Trench depth
• Consider:
• Follow manufacturer’s guidelines
• Top of box must extend 18 inches over unprotected trench
• Box bottom may be a maximum of 2 feet from trench
bottom
45
• Do not extend height unless approved sheet piling
techniques are used
• Inspect before use
• Rescuers may never work outside the protection of the
trench box or other protected area of the trench
45
Practices of Trench Rescue Shoring
 Train for complex situations
 Lip protection
 Ground pads
 Type of lip protection

 Boards
 Bridges
 Ladders
Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki. Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki. Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki.
Practices of Trench Rescue Shoring
The overwhelming majority of trench rescues involve soil failure and the collapse of one or more trench walls.
• Shoring trenches that have collapsed and contain trapped victims is significantly different and much more
dangerous than shoring trenches with walls that are intact and do not contain victims.
Lip protection is an important practice in trench rescue and needs to be completed prior to shoring.
• Ground pads and lip bridges distribute weight on fragile soil and are discussed in detail in Chapter 3, Initial
Actions.
• At each trench, rescuers will need to decide which kind of lip protection is best suited for the situation.
• Be aware that ground pads help distribute the weight of rescuers on the lip but do not eliminate the load
above weakened walls.
• In the event of a secondary collapse, the ground pad and everything on it (including rescuers) can
fall into the trench.
46
Trench Rescue Shoring
 Protecting the victim
 Minimize risk to the victim and
rescuers
Trench Rescue Shoring
The majority of trench rescue shoring activities should be

completed from outside the trench and should take place
on lip protection.
Trench rescue shoring can be divided into two categories:

entry shoring and non-entry shoring.
47
Entry Shoring Overview
 Entry shoring includes:

 Timber struts, pipe screw
jacks, and pneumatic struts
 Require rescuers to enter the
trench in order to mechanically
install and lock
 Entry shoring practices expose
rescuers to collapse hazards
 Not recommended as best
practice
 Typical shoring sequence
Entry Shoring Overview
• Entry shoring includes timber struts, pipe screw jacks, and pneumatic struts that require rescuers to enter the
trench in order to mechanically install and lock.
• Entry shoring practices expose rescuers to collapse hazards and therefore entry shoring is not recommended
as best practice.
48
Non-Entry Shoring Overview
 Can be assembled using rescue struts that can be completely installed,
mechanically locked, and removed without entering the trench
 Non-entry struts allow the area directly above the trapped victim to be shored
first
 With small/localized collapse, shoring the area directly above the victim is
best accomplished by using the following:
 Panels
 Positioning strut
 Backfill strut
 Compliance strut
 Typical shoring sequence
Non-Entry Shoring Overview
• Non-entry shoring can be assembled using rescue struts that can be completely installed, mechanically
locked, and removed without entering the trench.
• Non-entry struts allow the area directly above the trapped victim to be shored first.
• Rapidly protecting the victim(s) from additional collapse should be a strategic goal for all trench rescue
operations.
• With small/localized collapse, shoring the area directly above the victim is best accomplished by using the
following:
• Panels
• Positioning strut
• Backfill strut
• Compliance strut
49
Panel Installation
 Install panels as part of primary shoring
 Rescuers need to be competent with several panel installation options: one-
side panel set and two-side panel set
 One-side panel used when obstruction exists on one of the trench lips
 Side of the trench with the obstruction is the weak side
 Side without obstructions is the strong side
 Installation occurs on the strong side
 Two-side panel used when there is enough room on both trench lips to
allow panel team operations to take place
 Accomplished by lowering panels into the trench from both sides of the
trench
 Panels are lowered into place from the same side of the trench on which
they will be positioned
Panels must be installed as part of primary shoring.
• When placing panels for a rescue, the first two panels are set centered on the victim (primary shoring), and
then two more are set on each side (secondary shoring).
• To accomplish that, rescuers need to be competent with several panel installation options: one-side panel set
and two-side panel set.
• One-side panel set most often used when an obstruction exists on one of the trench lips and impedes the
installation of panel team equipment.
• The side of the trench with the obstruction is referred to as the weak side and the side without
obstructions is called the strong side.
• A one-side panel set involves installing both panels from the strong side of the trench.
• A two-side panel set is used when there is enough room on both trench lips to allow panel team operations to
take place.
• Accomplished by lowering panels into the trench from both sides of the trench
• The panels are lowered into place from the same side of the trench on which they will be positioned.
50
Panel Installation
 For nonintersecting trenches up to 8 feet deep, recommended number of
panels is six (three sets)
 Not possible if the trench is less than 12 feet long
 After installing primary shores, be sure to have panels set at both ends
of the trench that will facilitate the installation of struts that are within 2
feet of the end wall
 May require panels to overlap or to be cut to fit
 If the end walls are not sloped or benched, shoring will have to be
added to support the end walls
For nonintersecting trenches up to 8 feet deep, the recommended number of panels is six (three sets).
• This setup is not possible if the trench is less than 12 feet (3.7 m) long.
• After installing the primary shores, be sure to have panels set at both ends of the trench that will
facilitate the installation of struts that are within 2 feet (0.6 m) of the end wall.
• This may require panels to overlap or to be cut to fit.
• If the end walls are not sloped or benched, shoring will have to be added to support the end walls.
51
Installing Pneumatic Shores
 After installing the panels, the shoring team will install the shores
 Depending on the pneumatic shore type, may be installed outside or inside
the trench
 Organizations that use pneumatic struts with entry installation should use a
minimum of five members:
 Shoring team officer, a controller, strut handlers, and an installer
Installing Pneumatic Shores
• After installing the panels, the

shoring team will install the shores
• Depending on the pneumatic shore

type, may be installed outside or
inside the trench
• Organizations that use pneumatic
52
struts with entry installation should
use a minimum of five members:
• Shoring team officer, a controller,
strut handlers, and an installer
52
Installing Timber Shores
 Timber struts require entry for

installation should have a
minimum 5-member team:
 Shoring team officer, the strut
handlers, the installer, and the
cutter
 Prior to operations, the shoring

team will:
 Conduct a shoring size-up © Jones and Bartlett Learning. Courtesy of MIEMSS.
 Assign team positions

 Place an escape ladder
 Develop a cutting station
 Work on lip protection
 Stage and assemble equipment
Installing Timber Shores
Timber struts require entry for installation

should have a minimum 5-member team:
 Shoring team officer, the strut handlers, the installer, and the cutter
Prior to operations, the shoring team will:

• Conduct a shoring size-up
• Assign team positions
• Place an escape ladder
• Develop a cutting station
• Work on lip protection
• Stage and assemble equipment
53
Installing Inside Wales
 Used to open up the shored area
 Requires three to five team members
 Prior to entry:
 Conduct size up
 Assign team positions
 Install lip protection
 Place escape ladder
 Stage shoring equipment
Installing Inside Wales
• Used to open up the shored area
• Requires three to five team members
• Prior to entry:
• Conduct size up
• Assign team positions
• Install lip protection
• Place escape ladder
• Stage shoring equipment
54
Shoring Voids
 Voids in trench walls result from collapse
 Need to be shored and filled to minimize soil movement behind the panels
 Provide resistance to soil forces created in the trench wall
 Backfill options include:
 Airbags
 Strut bracing
 Wood backfill
 Buttress
 Soil
Shoring Voids
 Voids in trench walls result from collapse
 Need to be shored and filled to minimize soil movement behind the

panels
 Provide resistance to soil forces created in the trench wall
 Backfill options include:

 Airbags
 Strut bracing
 Wood backfill
 Buttress
 Soil
55
Airbag Backfill
 Air bag backfill is best for voids between 18 and 48 inches
 Bag should be lowered into the void partially inflated
 Struts should be installed before completing inflation of the airbag
 Subtle differences in using the air bag backfill exist
 Depending on if the void is open lip or closed lip
Airbag Backfill
Air bag backfill is best for voids

between 18 and 48 inches
• Bag should be lowered into the
void partially inflated
• Struts should be installed before
completing inflation of the airbag
• Subtle differences in using the
air bag backfill exist
56
• Depending on if the void is
open lip or closed lip
56
Wood Backfill
 Used to fill small void and includes timber, lumber, and shims
 Only practical to use with open lip voids
 At least one pressurized strut should be installed prior to placing wood into the
void
Wood Backfill
Used to fill small void and includes

timber, lumber, and shims
• Only practical to use with open lip
voids
• At least one pressurized strut
should be installed prior to placing
wood into the void
57
Buttress
 Best for large lip shear voids that are accessible from the lip that have left
low angled walls
 Can be constructed using timber or aluminum struts
 Does nothing to prevent soil movement from the wall on which it is built
 Should only be counted on to resist the force transferred from the strut
below the lip
Buttress
Best for large lip shear voids that are

accessible from the lip that have left
low angled walls
• Can be constructed using timber
or aluminum struts
• Does nothing to prevent soil
movement from the wall on
which it is built
58
• Should only be counted on to
resist the force transferred from
the strut below the lip
58
Soil Backfill
 Best utilized when voids are

accessible from the lip
 Soil from the spoil pile may be
shoveled into voids from the lip
after the panels and at least one
strut is in place
 Stone can be used
 Will not require as much
compaction effort if it is readily
available at the incident site
 Soil must be compacted behind the

panels after the struts are in place
Soil Backfill
Best utilized when voids are accessible from the lip

• Soil from the spoil pile may be shoveled into voids from the lip after
the panels and at least one strut is in place
• Stone can be used
• Will not require as much

compaction effort if it is readily
available at the incident site
Soil must be compacted behind the panels

after the struts are in place
59
Shoring System Disassembly and Removal
 Removal and disassembly of shoring systems and equipment can be
hazardous
 Release of compressive forces provided by the struts and panels can cause soil to
move
 Can result in collapse
 Equipment removal needs to be carefully planned and executed
 A fresh crew is ideal
 A detailed briefing must be held before the removal operation begins
Removal and disassembly of shoring systems and equipment can be hazardous as the release of compressive forces
provided by the struts and panels can cause soil to move and can result in collapse.
Equipment removal needs to be carefully planned and executed to avoid unnecessary mistakes and injuries.
• A fresh crew is ideal.
• A detailed briefing must be held before the removal operation begins.
60
 Removal can be accomplished using machines or manually as conditions
dictate
 Machine removal
 Safest method and best practice
 Only possible with struts that have collars that can be remotely operated
 Manual removal
 Puts personnel at the most risk
 Requires a team to enter the trench
 Machine tear out using an excavator
 Less preferred
 Used when the soil assessment determines the presence of active soil
Removal can be accomplished using machines or manually as conditions dictate.
• Machine removal is the safest method and best practice but is only possible with struts that have collars that
can be remotely operated from outside the trench.
• Manual removal puts personnel at the most risk as it requires a team to enter the trench for the removal
process.
• Machine tear out using an excavator is less preferred and is used only when the soil assessment determines
the presence of active (moving soil) that would make other processes of removal too dangerous.
61
Shoring System Disassembly/Removal Plan
 Assessment
 Examine lip conditions
 Evaluate condition of walls
 Briefing
 Define removal method
 Clarify assignments
 Describe safety and communications plan
 Outline sequence of events
A shoring system disassembly/removal plan requires both an assessment and briefing prior to the start of removal.
• A soil assessment must be performed before the removal method is selected and must continue throughout
the removal process.
• A briefing should be conducted with all personnel who will be engaged in the disassembly process and
includes assignments, safety plans, communications plans, and sequence of events.
62
CHAPTER 8
Victim Care and

Extrication
Chapter 8 Victim Care and Extrication
1
 Identify the mechanisms of injury associated with trench emergencies.
 Review non-entry methods of victim removal.
 Describe the process of removing soil to release a victim from entrapment.
 Describe the use of vacuum equipment to release victims from entrapment.
 Describe considerations for disentanglement of a victim from objects in a trench.
 Describe considerations when assessing an entrapped victim.
 Explain actions that can be taken to stabilize and protect an entrapped victim.
 Explain victim packaging considerations in the trench rescue environment.
 Conduct a risk versus gain analysis to inform victim removal decisions.
 Identify victim packaging equipment for trench rescue incidents.
• Identify the mechanisms of injury associated with trench emergencies.

• Review non-entry methods of victim removal.
• Describe the process of removing soil to release a victim from entrapment.
• Describe the use of vacuum equipment to release victims from entrapment.
• Describe considerations for disentanglement of a victim from objects in a
trench.
• Describe considerations when assessing an entrapped victim.
• Explain actions that can be taken to stabilize and protect an entrapped
victim.
• Explain victim packaging considerations in the trench rescue environment.
• Conduct a risk versus gain analysis to inform victim removal decisions.
• Identify victim packaging equipment for trench rescue incidents.
2
Introduction
 Trench incident categories to be considered:

 Cave-in (collapse)
 Non-collapse
 Types of injury
 Victim care
 Extrication
 Removal of the victim
• Trench incident categories to be considered:

• Cave-in (collapse)
• Non-collapse
• Types of injury
• Victim care
• Extrication
• Removal of the victim
3
Mechanism of Injury
 Cave-ins result in 75% fatalities
 Injuries result from:
 Solid or clay soil causing trauma
 Granular soil blocking the victim’s airway
 Moving or falling loads causing crush injuries or asphyxia
 Electrocution
Mechanism of Injury
The collapse of the soil walls (cave-in) is responsible for approximately 75% of fatalities reported at trench/excavation
sites.
• Large chunks of compact, clay soil break off in and compact when they hit the victim or trench floor with
thousands of pounds of force.
• Granular soils also hit with high impact but are also likely to block a victim’s airway.
• In a cave-in, victim injuries are most often crush or asphyxia related.
• Other serious injury-causing incidents include falling loads and electrocution.
4
Cave-in Incidents
 Partially buried
 Victim may be conscious
 Rescuers should look for signs of life, including:
 Chest movement, lack of cyanotic skin color, absence of traumatic head or chest
injuries, and lack of excessive bleeding
 Completely buried
 Low chance of survival
 Victims may survive if an object absorbs impact and/or there is an air pocket
 Risk vs gain analysis

 Being unable to make a visual assessment of the victim’s condition should result in
lower-risk tactics
Cave-in incidents can result in a victim being partially or completely buried.
• A partially buried victim may be conscious or talking.
• Rescuers should look for signs of life if they encounter a partially buried victim.
• Signs of life include chest movement, lack of cyanotic skin color, absence of traumatic head or chest injuries,
and lack of excessive bleeding.
• A completely buried victim that has been buried for several minutes has a low chance of survival.
• Victims may survive being completely buried if an object such as piping, plywood, or concrete absorbs some of the
impact and/or they created an air pocket where breathing is possible.
• Being unable to make a visual assessment of the victim’s condition should result in lower-risk tactics.
• A risk vs gain analysis is simpler when it is apparent that the victim is alive or dead.
5
Incidents Without Cave-in
 Incidents without cave-in made be due to:

 Falling equipment
 Medical emergency
 Important question:
 Why has trench not collapsed?
 Understand the protection requirements per OSHA

 Competent person must confirm trench is safe to enter
 Shoring plan may need to be implemented before entry operations may begin
 If the trench has collapsed
 If the trench has not collapsed, but is not properly protected
Incidents without a cave-in include victims experiencing a medical emergency.
• About 75 percent of trench/excavation incidents result from cave-ins.

• Of the remaining 25 percent, most of the injuries and fatalities result from moving or falling construction
equipment or electricity.
• At incidents without cave-ins, victims in a trench may have experienced a medical emergency such as a heart
attack, seizure, or blood glucose emergency.
• Rescuing a live victim, whether conscious or unconscious, raises the stakes to perform the rescue in a timely manner.
• At trench incidents without a collapse, it is important for rescuers to determine why the trench has not collapsed.
• The rescuer must understand the requirements for protection based on OSHA requirements.
• The competent person must confirm that the trench is safe for rescue personnel to enter.
• A shoring plan may need to be implemented before entry operations may begin.
6
• If the trench has collapsed
• If the trench has not collapsed, but is not properly protected
6
 Preferred because it reduces the

risk to rescuers
 Best case scenario
 Victim climbs out on fire service
ladder
 If victim is hurt but can help

themselves:
 Class 3 harness or LSP Cinch
Rescue Ring can be provided
 Rescuers may direct conscious
victim on how to secure these
devices
Courtesy of CMC Rescue, Inc.
Non-entry and victim self-rescue are preferred because they reduce the risk to rescuers.
• Best case scenario is victim using a fire service ladder to climb out unaided.
• If victim is hurt but can help themselves, a Class 3 harness or LSP Cinch Rescue Ring can be provided and
instructions may be provided to a conscious victim on how to secure these devices.
7
 Hauling device attached to an

elevated anchor
 Used in non-entry rescue to
vertically lift a victim from the
trench
 Rescuers should resist the
temptation to enter the trench
Courtesy of CMC Rescue, Inc.
• A hauling device attached to an elevated anchor can

be used in non-entry rescue to vertically lift a victim
from the trench.
• Rescuers should resist the temptation to enter the
trench.
8
Entry Operations: Considerations
 Entry operations are considered if:

 Victim self-rescue or non-entry are eliminated as options
 An incident plan necessary if shoring required
 An entry team is assembled per local standard operating guidelines
 An entry operation includes:
 Locating
 Accessing
 Stabilizing
 Transferring victims
The next several slide will review the entry operation. This will be discussed in
more detail during practical workshops.
9
Entry Operations: Pre-Entry Briefing
 Brief on the incident action plan required before operations

 Allows the incident commander, operations officer, or rescue team leader to
think out loud before executing plan
 Allows personnel to question the assumptions in the plan
 Rescuers need to understand:
 Desired outcome
 Steps of the overall rescue plan
10
Entry Operations: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
 Issues with firefighter PPE

 Can be too hot an bulky for trench operations
 Recommended PPE:
 Helmet
 Protective clothing
 Eye protection
 Gloves
 Footwear
 Respiratory protection
 Knee and elbow pads
11
Entry Operations: Entry Team Duties
 Locate
 Locate the victim
 Access
 Rescue teams enter the protected areas
 Stabilize
 Stabilize the victim
 Transfer
 Include extrication from entrapment and removal from the trench
12
Entry Operations: Extrication
 Operations level rescuers must be capable of victim extrication

 Shovels and buckets
 Entrenching tool
 Small size
 Collapsible
 Provides ”feel”
 Probes
 Vacuum trucks
13
Soil Entrapment
 Soil removal may take minutes or

hours
 Entrenching tools
 Tons of dirt may be removed by

hand
 Use extreme care around a victim Courtesy of Ron Zawlocki
 Never use a mechanical device or

backhoe to remove a buried victim
 Never attempt to pull out a partially
buried victim
 Use care when hand digging
around the victim
 Do not pull the victim before
completely freeing all body parts
from the entrapment mechanism
Soil Entrapment
Once soil is determined to be the entrapping mechanism, entrenching tools are used to begin the extrication process.
Often tons of soil must be removed from the trench by hand.
Important rules to consider when removing a buried victim:

• Never use a mechanical device or backhoe to remove a buried victim.
• Never attempt to pull out a partially buried victim.
• Use care when hand digging around the victim.
• Do not pull the victim before completely freeing all body parts from the entrapment mechanism.
14
Vacuum Systems
 Significantly expedites soil removal

 By 80%
 Owned by local utility companies or
municipalities
 Dispatch immediately upon incident
report
 Can be operated outside trench
 No need for rescue personnel to
enter trench Courtesy of Larry Collins.
 Process can begin before the

trench is secured through shoring
Mobile vacuum systems can reduce the time it takes to clear soil in a cave-in situation by almost 80%.
• Many utility companies and large municipalities have vacuum trucks available.
• Vacuum systems can be used to accelerate the process of soil removal and access to the victim.
15
Centrifugal Vacuum Trucks
 Average 5,000 cubic feet (141.6

m3) per minute airflow
 Have low vacuum pressure
 Work best with granular soil or
soil loose in consistency
 Must be positioned close the
trench
 Weigh between 50,000 and Courtesy of RescueVac.
60,000 lb
 Positioning presents a risk vs
gain challenge
Courtesy of Badger Daylighting.
Centrifugal vacuum trucks average 5000 cubic feet (141.6 m3) per minute airflow but have low vacuum pressure.
• Low vacuum pressure systems work best with granular soil or soil that is loose in consistency.
• Centrifugal vacuum trucks must be positioned close to the trench to be effective.

• These trucks weigh between 50,000 and 60,000 lb, so positioning them presents a risk versus gain
challenge.
16
Positive-Displacement Vacuum Trucks
 Not as common
 Used in situations requiring high lifting capacity
 Greater vacuum pressure
 High vacuum pressure at the hose tip can be dangerous
 Use with extreme caution
Positive-displacement vacuum trucks are less popular but have greater vacuum pressure than centrifugal vacuum trucks.
• Positive-displacement vacuum trucks are used in situations that require a high lifting capacity.
• The high vacuum pressure at the hose tip can be dangerous to victims and extreme caution should be used
to avoid injury.
17
Hydro Vacuum Truck
 Use water to reduce the soil

 Make it run off and then vacuumed
for removal
 Remember that water can be

destabilizing
Courtesy of RescueVac.
Hydro vacuum trucks use water to reduce the soil and make it run off and then vacuumed for removal.
• Remember that water can cause destabilization in a trench rescue.

• Minimal water should be used to reduce the soil.
18
Vacuum Nozzles
 Allow quick coupling
 Create a high vacuum
 Allow the truck to be further away
 Lessen vibrations, surcharge
loads, noise
Vacuum Nozzles
• Allow quick coupling
• Create a high vacuum
• Allow the truck to be further away

• Lessen vibrations, surcharge loads, noise
19
Vacuum System – Air Knife
 Air injected into soil
 100 pounds per square inch (7
kg/cm2)
 Breaks up soil into small particles
 Inherent risk involved
Vacuum System – Air Knife
• Air injected into soil
• 100 pounds per square inch
• Breaks up soil into small particles
• Inherent risk involved to the rescuer and victim
20
Vacuum Truck Response
 Advance planning between the trench

response team and department of
public works (DPW) workers
 Emergency response plan
 Cross-training
 Portable on demand storage (PODS)
 Quick load and unload
 On-scene considerations
 Vacuum truck hoses must be able
to reach the trench
 Vacuum truck must be able to
safely offload the soil
 A secure path ensures continuous
operation
 Constant water supply needed
21
Operations
 Group set up:

 Leader
 Operator
 Safety brake
 Additional support
 Communications
 Initial briefing
 Establishing the emergency stop
signal and type of communication
Communication includes the initial briefing and establishing the emergency stop signal and type of communication.
The vacuum system group performs the following:

• Layout hose extensions to find the best path before connecting.
• Clamps hoses to secure each extension.
• Add a nozzle and grab bar attachment.
The vibration and movement of soil by the vacuum system can create an additional hazard.
Soil can clog the hose and hold up operations.

• Water is used to create a soil/water mixture and keep the operation moving.
Rescuers can create a sump and use a handline to break up the soil and work the vacuum nozzle from the sump to the
victim.
• However, this process can injure the victim.
Vacuum system operations have inherent safety concerns that must be addressed:
22
• The pressure of the shoring system should be monitored for changes.
• Consideration should be made for supplemental shoring to minimize delays and maintaining safe shoring
practices.
Long-term considerations to maintain a continuous use of a vacuum system include:

• Water supply
• Vacuum truck tank
• Fuel
• Related safety issues
22
Victim Care Considerations
 Victim survivability profile

 Based on risk vs gain analysis and other incident factors
 Addresses the potential for a victim to survive or die with or without
rescue intervention
 Removal of a partially buried victim takes time

 Victim care starts before removal and continues during packaging
 The right people with the right medical skills should be part of any
trench response
 Victim care providers should be properly protected and know local
protocols
 Always protect the victim from further injury and proceed with caution
 Most trench rescue scenes will be cramped, slippery, and
uncomfortable
 Rescuers should block out these distractions and concentrate on Photo by Martin C. Grube.
victim care
Victim Care Considerations
Each rescuer helps to improve the victim survivability profile.

• The victim survivability profile based on a thorough risk versus gain analysis and other incident factors that
addresses the potential for a victim to survive or die with or without rescue intervention.
The removal of a partially buried victim takes time.

• Victim care typically starts before victim removal and continues during packaging.
• The right people with the right medical skills should be part of any trench response.
• A paramedic who is fit and nimble and comfortable with the trench environment should perform the primary
assessment and begin victim care.
Providers of victim care should be properly protected and know the standard precautions and practices of the local
authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).
• Such precautions cover protection of both the provider and the victim from exposure to blood and other body
fluids, and/or airborne products.
• Examples of these protections include handwashing, gloves, gowns, masks, eye protection, and
23
respiratory protection.
• Assuming rescuers are properly protected, the trench has been made safe, and rescuers are ready to enter
and begin the assessment and treatment of the victim, remember the first rule of medicine: Do no harm.
• Always protect the victim from further injury and proceed with caution.
• Most trench rescue scenes will be cramped, and there will be limited room in which to work, making
assessment and treatment a challenge.
• Often the trench will be muddy and contain water, creating a slippery, uncomfortable, and
intimidating situation.
• Rescuers should block out these distractions and concentrate on victim care.
23
Providing Victim Care
 Primary survey determines if the victim has experienced a trauma or medical

emergency
 Check CAB
 Circulation (extreme bleeding)
 Check for extreme bleeding and control it
 Airway
 Check and secure open airway
 Breathing
 Assess and assist
 Circulation
 Check capillary refill, pulse, and/or blood pressure
24
 Secondary survey
 Check for additional life-threats
 Victim stabilization
 Takes place in the trench
 Continues after the victim has
been removed from trench and
transported to trauma center
 Moderate bleeding stabilized
with a bulky pressure dressing
 Non-life-threatening fractures
Courtesy of Brad Ferguson.
stabilized by securing victim to
a backboard
25
 Hypothermia
 Most trench environments are cool and wet
 Inclement weather lowering a victim’s body temperature
 Lessen risk through:
 Blowers
 Heated intravenous (IV) fluids
 Insulation
 Isothermal blankets
 Heated oxygen
 Hot packs
 Keep victim as warm and dry as possible
Hypothermia is a concern because most trench environments are often cool and wet. Additionally, inclement weather
can be responsible for lowering a victim’s body temperature.
• Blowers, heated intravenous (IV) fluids, insulation, isothermal blankets, heated oxygen, and hot packs can all
be used to lessen the chances of a victim suffering from hypothermia (per local protocols).
• The victim should be kept as warm and dry as possible to prevent hypothermia.
26
Victim Care Involving a Collapse
 Uncover the victim’s head and chest
 Clear the airway
 Check for adequate breathing
 Place cervical collar to stabilize the spine
 Harness or sling
 Prevent victim from slipping
 Develop elevated attachment point

 Keeps the victim vertical
 Provide emotional support to the victim

 Impacts outcome
 EMS may:
 Insert an IV
Courtesy of Lance Cpl. Angel J. Velasquez/U.S. Marines.
 Place cardiac monitor
The first step to victim care involving a collapse, should be to determine where the victim’s head is located and clear
the head and chest first.
• The victim’s airway should be cleared as quickly as possible.

• Rescuers can use their fingers or a suction device to clear the airway.
• A victim’s breathing may be restricted and compromised if the abdomen is covered with soil.
• The dirt surrounding the victim should be cleared to allow for proper lung expansion.
• A cervical collar should be placed on the victim to stabilize the cervical spine.
• A harness connected to a sling and rescue-quality rope can prevent a victim from sliding deeper into the hole during the
recovery process.
• An elevated attachment point keeps the victim in a mostly vertical position throughout the extrication process.
• This allows for the victim to be removed from the trench and stay within the safe areas of the panels.
27
• Uncovering buried extremities can be a slow process and rescuers need to provide emotional support to the victim.
• Once the extremities are uncovered, EMS may establish an IV line of normal saline to replace fluids or administer
medicine (per local protocols).
• EMS may apply a cardiac monitor to keep track of the victim’s condition.
• Both physical and emotional support have a positive impact on the victim’s outcome.
27
Special Considerations
 Crush syndrome
 Occurs in prolonged entrapments
 Victim’s circulation to the body tissue is restricted
 Tissue builds up lactic acid
 Restoring blood circulation may cause cardiac arrhythmias and electrolyte
imbalances
 Compartment syndrome
 Related to increased pressure of a muscle swelling in the arm or leg
 Increase in pressure causes nerve damage
 Surgery is the only treatment
 Must be completed within 6 hours
Special considerations related to trench collapse involve life-threatening conditions related to the weight on the
victim’s body.
• Victim assessments must always include the mechanism of injury.
• Crush syndrome is a condition that occurs in prolonged entrapments where the victim’s circulation to the body tissue is
restricted.
• In the absence of blood flow, the tissue builds up lactic acid.
• A consequence of crush syndrome is that restoring blood circulation may cause cardiac arrhythmias and
electrolyte imbalances.
• Operations level rescuers should recognize the conditions of crush syndrome and have paramedics ready to
begin treatment and monitoring during removal of the load on the victim.
• Compartment syndrome is a condition related to the increased pressure of a muscle swelling in the arm or leg.
• The increase in pressure causes nerve damage due to decreased blood supply and is most common due to
physical trauma.
• Surgery is the only treatment for acute compartment syndrome and must be completed within 6 hours to
reduce the changes of permanent damage.
28
• Rescuers must be aware that a victim may deteriorate to a point where cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is
required and be aware of the hazards and consequences involved.
• The wet trench environment creates safety issues for defibrillation.
• Effective CPR is difficult to impossible to do when a victim is trapped in a trench environment.
• Careful consideration should be made to the termination of care protocol.
28
Removing Victim from a Trench
 Monitor changes in shoring

 Do not dislodge shoring
 Forecast movement patterns
 Utilize rope rescue techniques
 Package the victim and have all
equipment and personnel in place
before removal begins
 Determining removal speed and
mechanisms of removal
 Victim’s condition
Courtesy of Captain David Jackson, Saginaw Township Fire Department.
Trench rescue victim packaging and removal is similar to

other technical rescue situations but there are a few extra
considerations that require attention.
• Extreme care must be taken to not dislodge any of
the shoring material.
• Take the time to forecast movement patterns and how
the packaging device will affect the victim’s removal.
• Removing a properly packaged victim is best done
using rope techniques.
29
 Vertical lifts or diagonal slides

removal routes
 Vertical lift outs—the path can stay
within the protective system
 Diagonal slides—the victim’s route
may pass through an unprotected
area
Courtesy of Dennis Walus.
Vertical lifts or diagonal slides are common routes for removal.
• With vertical lift outs, the path can stay within the confines of the protective system that is in place.
• When diagonal slides (ladder slides) are used, the victim’s route may include passing through an unprotected
area of the trench, adding risk.
• If a path through an unprotected area of the trench is determined to be necessary, make sure that the path is
clear and unobstructed.
30
Victim Packaging Equipment
 Victim harness with integrated

cervical spine motion restrictors
 Litter basket compatible with
backboards and cervical collars
Courtesy of Yates Gear, Inc.
Victim packaging equipment is specialized and packaging an injured victim for removal from a trench is a rope rescue
skill (a prerequisite for trench rescue).
Two basic packaging options meet the criteria for victim packaging:
• A victim harness with integrated cervical spine motion restrictors
• A litter basket that is compatible with backboards and cervical collars
31

Student Review Guide Trench Ops

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Student Review Guide Trench Ops

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CHAPTER 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Trench Rescue

 Define the terms trench and an excavation.

• Define the terms trench and an excavation.

 Trench © Richard Thornton/Shutterstock

 A narrow underground excavation

 Exacvations and trenches are created at construction

• Trenches and excavations are built for a variety of reasons, including:

 Hundreds of injuries and dozens of

 Most fatalities occur in trenches

Incidence of Trench Collapse

• Hundreds of injuries and dozens of fatalities are

 Rescuers exposed to the same

Two categories lead rescuers to execute a simple assessment of the situation:

• Collapse (cave-in) situations are more common.

• Noncollapse situations are less common

 Rescuers must recognize and

• Review the photo on this slide

 OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P is federal law

 States may develop their own laws

OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P, Excavations:

• OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P is a federal law created for

 Rescuers should be familiar with state and federal OSHA standards

OSHA and Trench Rescue:

• OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P for braced (shored)

 Shoring for Construction Workers

 Shoring for Rescuers

Shoring Example: Construction Workers vs Rescuers

 Shoring guidance based on soil classifications and lateral soil forces

 Shoring designs created by rescuers

 To ensure a safe rescue plan

• The shoring guidance OSHA CFR 1926 Subpart P is

• A professional with geotechnical engineering and

 All first responders sent to a trench

NFPA 1670: Trench Rescue Levels

• Responsibilities of awareness level responders:

 Select personnel receive

• Select personnel receive training to the operations level.

• Responsibilities of operations level responders:

 Select personnel receive technician

• Select personnel receive training to the technician level.

• Responsibilities of technician level responders:

 Knowledge of soil mechanics and soil type helps

 The pressure or force on the wall is called lateral

 Soil strength depends on friction, cohesion, and

 The longer a trench sits open, the weaker it

 Every trench wall should be considered a

Soil Basics and Collapse Mechanics

• Every trench wall should be considered a potential collapse hazard.

 Responding to a trench emergency is a community endeavor

Responding to a trench emergency is a community endeavor.

• A well prepared AHJ

 Trenching and excavation present

Trench and Excavation Hazards

• A risk vs gain analysis helps rescuers assess the situation.

Sample OSHA Safety Measures

Courtesy of Greg Payeur

Soil and Collapse

Chapter 2 Soil and Collapse Mechanics

 Identify characteristics associated with soil types.

• Identify characteristics associated with soil types.

 OSHA standards related to trenches are written for construction

• Review the learning objectives.

 Requirements for excavation and trenching operations outlined in OSHA