2
The Four Aircraft Center of Stalls Load Factor
Forces Components Gravity
Spins Stability Wake Left Turning Ground Effect
Turbulence Tendencies
3
Lift
Thrust Drag
Weight
4
5
Unrestricted tube
Restricted tube
6
Airfoil
An airfoil is a specially shaped
surface, designed to produce
aerodynamic lift as air flows
over it.
7
8
9
Layer of undisturbed air
LowConstriction Air molecules
pressure must accelerate
Higher
pressure,
thus lift
10
Lift is a function of camber and
Low airspeed.
pressure
Lift increases exponentially with
airspeed.
Higher A 210 square foot wing at 50
pressure, knots lifts a 2000 pound
airplane airborne.
thus lift
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Lift may be created as a result of
Bernoulli’s principle alone or…
Lift
by the effect of air striking the
bottom of the wing and deflecting
down, causing an upward
counterforce.
Lift
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13
14
15
Lift
Thrust Drag
Weight
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17
18
What is the relationship of lift, drag, thrust, and
weight when the airplane is in straight-and-level
flight?
A. Lift equals weight and thrust equals drag.
B. Lift, drag, and weight equal thrust.
C. Lift and weight equal thrust and drag.
Lift equals weight and thrust equals drag.
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20
21
22
Propeller
The propeller provides thrust,
one of the four forces.
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Cowling
The cowling protects the engine
and its shape cools the engine
by directing air through and
around the engine.
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Fuselage
The fuselage is the body of the aircraft. It starts at
the front of the cowling and goes back to the tail.
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Wing
The wings are airfoils attached to
each side of the fuselage.
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Airfoil
The curved shape of an airfoil
aids in the production of lift.
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Wing root
The wings are attached to the
fuselage at the wing root.
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29
Pitot tube
The pitot tube senses ram air
pressure.
30
Stall
Sensor
The stall sensor senses the critical
angle of attack
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Chord line
Leading edge
Trailing edge
The chord line runs from the leading
edge to the trailing edge of the wing.
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Ailerons
Ailerons
Ailerons affect movement around the
longitudinal axis.
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Flaps
The flaps are located at the trailing
edge of the wing.
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Chord line
The chord line with the flaps up.
35
Chord line
As the flaps are lowered the chord
line changes.
36
Static port
The static port provides an
undisturbed static air reference.
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The empennage – French for “tail
feathers”
Empennage
38
Elevators down
Elevators affect movement around
the lateral axis.
39
Elevators up
Elevators affect movement around
the lateral axis.
40
The rudder affects movement around
the vertical axis.
Left rudder
41
The rudder affects movement around
the vertical axis.
Right rudder
42
Landing gear
Landing gear
Most training airplanes have a fixed
landing gear.
43
What is the purpose of the rudder on an airplane?
A. To control yaw.
B. To control overbanking tendency.
C. To control roll.
The purpose of the rudder is to control yaw. Ailerons
control overbanking, as well as roll.
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Vertical
Center of
Gravity
45
46
47
48
Pitch is movement in which axis?
A. Lateral
B. Longitudinal
C. Vertical
Pitch is movement lateral axis (nose up and down).
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Upper Mean-camber - A line drawn from the
camber leading edge to the trailing edge of an
airfoil, that is equidistant at all points.
Leading
edge
Angle of
attack Trailing
edge
Relative wind
Chord line
Lower
camber
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Angle of
incidence
Angle of incidence is the angle at
which the wing is attached to the
aircraft fuselage. The pilot has no
control over this angle.
51
Angle of attack is defined as the angle between the
chord line of an airfoil and the:
A. Direction of the relative wind.
B. Pitch angle of the airfoil.
C. Rotor plane of rotation.
The direction of the relative wind defines the angle of
attack.
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Chord
line
Angle
of
attack
Relative wind
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Laminar
Flow
elative wind
Critical
Angle
elative wind
Wing
elative wind
Stalled
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1 2 3
Molecules Molecules Molecules
tightly packed slightly packed loosely packed
dense air moderate air low air density
density
Low air density is referred to as high density altitude.
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The indicated airspeed will be the same at higher
altitudes than at sea level. True airspeed will be
higher. You will not be able to tell from your indicated
airspeed that the aircraft is stalling at a higher true
airspeed.
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At high density altitude, the wing stalls at a higher
true airspeed because there are fewer air
molecules. The airplane must be flown at a greater
angle of attack. Thus, the wing will reach the critical
angle of attack at a higher airspeed.
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Wing stalled
High angle of
attack
A given wing will always stall at the same critical
angle of attack. The critical angle of attack can be
reached in any flight attitude and at any airspeed.
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In a turn, some vertical lift is diverted
into horizontal lift
To maintain altitude, the angle of attack
must be increased
Load factor is the load imposed on the
wing
A load factor of 1 G = the pull of gravity,
centrifugal force is also generated
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61
The angle of attack at which an airplane wing stalls
will:
A. Increase if the CG is moved forward.
B. Change with an increase in gross weight.
C. Remain the same regardless of gross weight.
A stall is a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation
of airflow from the wing’s surface, brought on by exceeding
the critical angle of attack. The indicated airspeed at which
a stall occurs will be determined by weight and load factor,
but the stall always occurs at the same angle of attack.
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Vertical
component of lift
Resultant lift
Horizontal
component of lift
Centrifugal
component of lift
Load Factor is the ratio between the
resultant lift and the aircraft’s weight.
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Load factor at 45o.
bank.
Aircraft gross weight
is 4,500 lbs
Using the load factor
graph, calculate:
4,500 lbs x 1.5
= 6,750 lbs
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Load factor at 60o
bank.
Using the load factor
graph calculate:
Load factor =2
Aircraft weight
Doubles!
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During an approach to a stall, an increased load
factor will cause the airplane to:
A. Stall at a higher airspeed.
B. Have a tendency to spin.
C. Be more difficult to control.
Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the
load factor. Thus, with a load factor of 4, an aircraft will stall
at a speed which is double the normal stall speed.
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Spins are the result of both wings stalling, but one wing stalling more.
As the angle of attack increases past the critical angle of attack, the
wing stalls. However, the airplane will roll and yaw towards the wing
that is in a greater stalled condition, and then will begin a rotation or
spin if the stall is not corrected.
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As a spin becomes fully developed, its path resembles a spiral as the
plane rapidly descends.
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To stop a spin:
Reduce the throttle to idle.
Apply rudder opposite to the direction of the spin.
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When the rotation stops, reduce the angle of attack by pushing the
yoke forward.
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To stop a spin a pilot should?
A. Add power, then pull the nose up.
B. Reduce power, then push the nose down.
C. Reduce power, apply rudder opposite the spin
direction, and release back pressure.
To stop a spin you must get the wings flying again. Thus,
stop the rotation first by applying opposite rudder, then
release back pressure to break the stall, and reduce power
to keep the aircraft from exceeding the normal airspeed.
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Stability is the tendency of the airplane to resist movement away from
its flight path.
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A well designed airplane is both maneuverable and stable.
The more stable an airplane, the less maneuverable it is.
The more maneuverable an aircraft is, the less stable it is.
An inherently stable airplane will requires less control effort.
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Center of lift(COL)
Center of gravity (CG)
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Down
force
Down
force
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Max forward
CG
Down
force
Lift
CG COL
Weight
Down
force
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Max aft CG
Down
force
Lift
CG COL
Weight
Down
force
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Past aft CG limit
Lift
force
Up
COL CG
force
Up
Weight
Extreme Danger – highly unstable
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What determines the longitudinal stability of an
airplane?
A. The location of the CG with respect to
the center of lift.
B. The effectiveness of the horizontal
stabilizer, rudder, and rudder trim tab.
C. The relationship of thrust and lift to
weight and drag.
It’s the location of the CG with respect to the center of lift,
or COL.
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80
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Five Knots Five Knots
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Quartering
tailwind
27
R
9
L
27
L
R
9
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Touchdown
Wake ends
84
Rotation
Wake starts
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When landing behind a large aircraft, the pilot should avoid
wake turbulence by staying
A. Above the large aircraft’s final approach path and landing
beyond the large aircraft’s touchdown point.
B. Below the large aircraft’s final approach path and landing
before the large aircraft’s touchdown point.
C. Above the large aircraft’s final approach path and landing
before the large aircraft’s touchdown point.
Don’t forget, to avoid wake turbulence caused by wingtip
vortices, stay above the large aircraft's final approach path and
land beyond the aircraft's touchdown point.
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“P” Factor
Aircraft motion
Angle of
attack
Relative Wind
Descending
Angle of blade
attack
Aircraft motion
Descending
blade
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Torque reaction
88
Spiraling slipstream
Yaw
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The left turning tendency of an airplane caused by P-factor is the
result of the:
A. Clockwise rotation of the engine and the propeller turning the
airplane counterclockwise.
B. Propeller blade descending on the right, producing more thrust
than the ascending blade on the left.
C. Gyroscopic forces applied to the rotating propeller blades acting
90 degrees in advance of the point the force was applied.
Propeller blade descending on the right, producing more thrust
than the ascending blade on the left.
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Less than one
wingspan length
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With less than the length of one wingspan above the
runway, the surface interferes with the airflow patterns
around the aircraft by reducing wingtip vortices. This
improves the aircraft’s aerodynamic performance.
Less than one
wingspan length
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This improvement is primarily caused by a reduction of
induced drag.
Less than one
wingspan length
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Any excess speed in landing causes the airplane to float
down the runway.
Less than one
wingspan length
95
Ground effect is most likely to result in which problem?
A. Settling to the surface abruptly during landing.
B. Becoming airborne before reaching recommended
takeoff speed.
C. Inability to get airborne even though airspeed is
sufficient for normal takeoff needs.
Remember, becoming airborne before reaching
recommended takeoff speed is something to be careful
of with ground effect.
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