GENS 5001 Ð Flight and Civilisation

Basic Aeronautical Knowledge

Notes to support GENS 5001

1.0 Pilot Skills

The aims of flying an aircraft are to achieve a goal of arriving at a destination safely.
The basic requirements to achieve this are to:

• Aviate, or fly the aeroplane safely and precisely, so that you can
• Navigate, so you know where you are and are then able to
• Communicate, so that others know where you are and what you are doing

1.1 Aviate

• Fly the aircraft with precision according to the methods published by the
manufacturer (in both normal and emergency situations)

• Have the physical manipulative skill required to do this

• Have an awareness of aircraft systems (eg. engine limitations, speed limitations,

fuel systems) and the ability to operate of these at the correct time and place

1.2 Navigate

• Know and use the appropriate means of navigation, for example:

• Visual Map reading

Feature identification

• Instrument Navaid tuning and identification

Knowledge of personal and instrument limitations
Instrument interpretation and use

• Use appropriate work cycles to achieve navigation proficiency without affecting

flying precision

• Ability to adapt flight plan and flight path to account for conditions Òon the dayÓ

1.3 Communicate

Use published communications procedures to advise other aircraft, Air Traffic

Services and others of position, altitude and intentions.

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2.0 Units and Notation in Aviation

2.1 Units

Because of aviationÕs historical development, the units used are a mixture of the
metric and imperial systems. Additionally, the strong presence of American aircraft
manufacturers in the aviation industry means that there is a continuing strong
presence of imperial units.

A common situation is to buy fuel in litres, put it into the aircraft in kilograms for
weight calculation, then burn it in the engine in gallons per hour!

Some of the units have a basis in the Òreal worldÓ, for example the nautical mile and
the metric units, but for many of the imperial units this is not the case.

2.2 Notation

Each unit has a standard notation, usually an abbreviation. These generally relate
quite simply to the unit being described.

Quantity Units Comments

Altitude Feet (ft) Some countries use metres: 1 foot = 0.3048
metres
Distance Nautical Mile 1 nautical mile = 1 minute of latitude.
(nm) Also, 1nm = 1.852 km
Speed Knots (kt) 1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour
Direction Degrees Expressed as a three figure group with North =
000, East = 090, South = 180 and West = 270
degrees.
Temperature Degrees Celsius
Pressure Hectopascals Some countries and some aircraft use Òinches of
(hPa) mercuryÓ to measure pressure.
Volume Litres (L) American aircraft tend to use US Gallons for
volume. 1 USG = 3.785 Litres
Weight Kilogram (kg) American aircraft sometimes use pounds (lbs.) for
weight. 1 lb = 0.455 kg
Time Hours : Minutes All time is referenced to Universal Coordinated
Time (UTC), also known as Greenwich Mean Time.

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3.0 Aircraft Components and Nomenclature

Using correct terminology is important in any field. This section provides a basic
overview of the aircraft and the names of major components and controls. This is by
no means comprehensive: there are a multitude of different devices and aircraft-
specific features.

Fuselage

The main body of the aircraft is the fuselage. In a light single engine aircraft (as
displayed), the engine is mounted in the nose, passengers and cargo are placed in
the fuselage approximately near the wings, and the empennage is the section upon
which the tail and fin are attached.

Wings

These are designed to generate the upwards force required to make the aeroplane
fly. Additionally, they are usually where fuel tanks are placed, and on low-wing
aeroplanes, where the landing gear is attached. The trailing edge of the wing is
where the ailerons and flaps are attached (refer to the section on flight controls).

Tail

The tail generates forces that are used to maintain the nose of the aircraft in the
correct position. It is important that the tail be far enough away from the centre of
gravity to ensure the force will be effective.

Vertical Stabiliser

The vertical stabiliser (or fin) gives the aircraft directional stability, which is to say
the aircraft will stay pointing in the direction you place it. This surface also has the
rudder attached to give directional control.

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4.0 Aerodynamics and Control

To understand the operation and control of an aircraft Ð to satisfy the ÒAVIATEÓ

requirements Ð an understanding of the basic principles of lift generation and aircraft
control is required. No great knowledge of formulae is required to achieve this
understanding, however there are a few key equations that can greatly simplify
understanding.

4.1 Aerofoils, Lift and Drag

Aeroplanes essentially fly by creating a pressure differential between the upper and
lower surfaces of the wing, so that a net force acts upward (called lift) to oppose the
weight of the aeroplane.

Any fluid flow will follow BernoulliÕs Theorem, which essentially states that pressure
cannot be created or destroyed, but that there are two types of pressure: Static and
Dynamic. As the names suggest, dynamic pressure varies with speed but static does
not. Writing this as a formula, we get:

Pressuretotal = Pressurestatic + Pressuredynamic

The shape of the airfoil is designed so that the air must travel further over the top
surface of the wing in the same time Ð consequently, it must travel faster. When this
occurs, the dynamic pressure increases, and the static pressure decreases on the
upper surface. Graphically, we can draw this pressure distribution Ð note that the
negatives and positives in this diagram refer to pressure relative to the ambient
conditions.

As mentioned previously, the difference in pressure acting over the wings area will
produce a force acting upwards, but we find that we have a certain component that
also acts to the rear of the aerofoil, called drag. Drag is defined as the set of forces
acting against the aircraftÕs direction of travel, of which there are two families:

Induced drag Created as a consequence of lift production. Induced

drag is only created by the wings.

Parasite drag Drag from other factors not associated with any useful
function on the aircraft

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There are a number of contributors to parasite drag:

Skin Friction Due to the inherent roughness of any surface Ð similar

in nature to, for example, the friction you feel between
your shoe and a carpeted surface.

Form Drag Occurs as a consequence of the shape of the object in

the flow. Streamlining will reduce the impact of form
drag on any object.

Interference Drag When multiple flows collide, turbulence and drag is

created Ð this occurs on an aircraft where different plane
surfaces meet eg wings meeting fuselage.

It is important to note that as an aeroplane travels faster, the induced drag will
reduce (less angle of attack is required) but the parasite drag will increase. This
results in the curve below, where you can see an optimum speed

In general, both lift and induced drag increase as the angle of attack Ð the angle
between the aerofoil and the airflow Ð is increased. However, the air flowing over the
wing has momentum (or inertial properties) and at a certain angle, is no longer able
to flow over the surface (a function of itÕs fluid, or viscous properties). At this angle
the flow separates from the wing, becoming turbulent and the wing enters into a
ÒstalledÓ condition. In this condition, lift falls off rapidly Ð but NOT to zero! Ð and
drag increases rapidly.

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The majority of aircraft are not fitted with instruments or sensors that measure the
angle of attack, so we need to provide a means of assessing how close and
aeroplane is to being stalled. At this point, another formula needs to be introduced Ð

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L = CL _____v s (or, written more simply)

Lift = Coefficient of Lift * Dynamic Pressure * Wing Surface

Looking at the graph above of coefficient of lift in conjunction with this formula, you
can see that at a certain airspeed, to maintain height, the aeroplane will need to fly
at the maximum coefficient of lift. This speed is called the stall speed of the
aeroplane, and sets the lower limit of controllable flight for any given aeroplane.

Typical stall speedsÉ

Aircraft Type Stall Speed (approximate)

Light aircraft Ð 4 to 6 seats, single 50 knots
engine
Light aircraft Ð 6 to 8 seats, twin engine 80 knots
Executive Jet Ð for example, Learjet 100 knots
Heavy Jet Transport Ð Boeing 747, A340 120 knots

4.2 Control Surfaces

From the description of the aerofoil above, it should be obvious that the shape of the
aerofoil will determine the characteristics of the surface Ð for example, how much lift
and drag is generated. The function of a control surface is to essentially alter the
shape of an aerofoil and consequently change the balance of forces acting on the
aircraft.

You should remember that one of the main factors in determining the amount of lift
generated by the aerofoil relates to its angle of attack. If the trailing edge is moved
as in the diagram below right, the chord of the aerofoil changes also, and the angle
of attack can be decreased or increased at will. Control surfaces essentially act to
create an imbalance in forces so that the aeroplane will rotate around its centre of
gravity.

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Ailerons

By moving in different directions on each wing, the ailerons reduce the amount of lift
on the down going wing and increase the lift on the up going wing, causing the
aircraft to roll around itÕs longitudinal axis. Inclining the wings will tilt the lift force,
which is then used to turn the aeroplane.

Elevator

By altering the force acting on the tail, the elevators cause the nose to raise or lower
as required. Raising the nose will also increase the angle of attack on the wings and
can be used to put the aircraft into a climb or descent.

Rudder

The rudder generates an unbalanced side load on the tail of the aircraft, causing it to
yaw around the normal axis. Use of the rudder is sometimes referred to as
directional control.

Flap

Whereas the ailerons act differentially, the flaps act symmetrically to increase the
camber of the wing. This reduces the stall speed, increases the drag and allows a
lower nose attitude Ð all three effects being useful when conducting an approach to a
runway. Strictly speaking, flaps are not a control surface Ð they are mentioned here
because of the confusion that can sometimes arise between flaps and ailerons, their
appearance and operation being somewhat similar.

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To summariseÉ

Motion Axis Control Surface

Yaw Normal Rudder
Roll Longitudinal Aileron
Pitch Lateral Elevator

You may notice that none of these controls directly turn the aircraft. This is achieved
by inclining the lift force over, so that there is a net imbalance on the forces acting
on the aircraft overall. The following diagram shows this effect.

You can also see that the size of the lift force must increase to maintain the aircraft
in level flight. The ratio of the lift force to the weight of the aircraft is termed the
Òload factorÓ for the aircraft.

5.0 Propulsion

There are two families of engine in common use in modern aviation. The first derive
from the original internal combustion engine Ð these are quite similar to a car
engine, with pistons and cylinders. The second type, called gas turbines, were
originally developed around the time of the Second World War. Their methods of
operation are quite different but both have the same aim: to propel air backwards,
so that the resulting reaction force (thrust) pushes the aircraft through the air.

5.1 Reciprocating Engines

Aviation piston engines use the same principles of operation as a car engine, but
have a few key differences. Firstly, because they will be linked to a propeller, they
usually run slower that a car engine because of propeller efficiency considerations,
consequently producing less power than a similarly sized automotive engine.

The cycle used is known as the Otto cycle, after the German engineer who was
responsible for developing the engine initially. This cycle has four stages, and the
engines are commonly called four-stroke because it takes four strokes of the piston
to complete one cycle.

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Intake Air is brought into the engine. Usually, fuel is mixed with this
air prior to or as it is brought into the cylinder.

Compression The air is compressed to increase the power available when the
fuel is combusted.

Combustion The fuel is burnt, releasing heat energy which is converted into
mechanical energy.

Exhaust Products of the combustion are expelled from the engine,

clearing the cylinder readying it for the next cycle.

As an aeroplane gains altitude, the density of the air reduces also. The chemistry of
combustion depends on mass of fuel and oxygen rather than volume, but a given
engine intake air as volume. Consequently, an aero engine must be able to adapt to
this by supplying an appropriate amount of fuel. More advanced piston engines are
fitted with turbochargers (driven by exhaust gases) or superchargers (driven directly
by the engine) which compress the intake air, enabling the engine to produce full
power at greater altitudes.

5.2 Gas Turbines

The advantage of a gas turbine engine is that it works on a continuos combustion

process Ð it uses the same process of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust
but achieves these in different sections of the engine. Compare this to an Otto
engine which spends 3/4 of the cycle preparing for combustion, it is clear that more
power could be developed.

Having an axial flow through the engine also increases efficiency. Air does not need
to be forced through valves in the engine, there are no parts that change their
direction of travel, and each section of the engine can be optimised to perform itÕs
task. Problems do arise Ð for example; cooling the combustion zone (which is
continuously heated) becomes quite difficult where a reciprocating engine avoids this
problem.

As stated, thrust is produced as a reaction to air being propelled rearwards. An

increase in thrust can be attained by either increasing the mass of air being moved,
or by increasing the velocity it is expelled at. This leads to the three groups of
turbine engine used in aviation:

Turboshaft Used to drive a conventional propellor. Maximum aircraft speed is

limited due to propellor compressibility effects, but these installations
are very efficient in the speed rang 350-400 knots. Suited to aircraft
flying at 10,000 to 20,000 feet over shorter distances.

Turbofan This is the most commonly used engine on modern transports. A

ducted fan is attached to the front of a turbine engine to increase the
mass of air moved by the engine overall. The ratio of air moved by the
fan to air passing through the turbine is a significant measure of
efficiency, and is known as the bypass ratio.

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Turbojet More often seen in military installations, turbojets move relatively

small masses of air at very high velocity. They are well suited to very
high altitude and supersonic flight. Engine efficiency tends to be quite
poor.

6.0 Airport Basics

This section will cover a few basic terms that apply to airports Ð from naming the
airport, to naming runways, and operations near the airport.

6.1 Operations near an Airport

There are essentially two broad classes of operation near an airport Ð those aircraft
flying visually, and those who are flying instrument procedures. The former are
generally smaller aircraft, however, even large airliners will fly Òvisual approachesÓ if
the conditions are appropriate.

For visual approaches, an aircraft will fly with reference to ground features close to
the airport. Reporting points are established so that all aircraft approaching an
airport will be sequenced for landing when they get there, a technique known as
procedural control.

When an instrument or procedural approach is being conducted, aircraft fly a

procedure that is published in the DAPÕs Ð Departure and Approach Procedures. An
example of this is included in the information for Sydney Kingsford-Smith airport in
Appendix 2.

The actual flight paths followed are generated according to a number of criteria:

• Obstacle avoidance
• Political issues such as noise
• Traffic separation
• Wake turbulence

Airport capacity is (at a basic level) related to the number of aircraft you can land in
a given time on a runway, and the number of runways. There are clearly other
operational factors involved but these are outside the scope of the course.

6.2 Politics of Airport Operation

The politics of aircraft noise are playing an increasingly important role in determining
airport operations. In Sydney, a cap of 80 on the maximum allowable movements
has been imposed, along with a curfew from 2300 to 0600 every night for all but the
quietest aircraft. When you compare this to the theoretical capacity of some 100 plus
movements possible, it is clearly a significant factor in the operation of the airport,
and this experience can be translated to other airports also.

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The reasons for this are very complex, and at times quite sensitive. Arguments for
noise abatement procedures have been aired that range from the altruistic (why
donÕt we share noise fairly?) to the blatant Òvote buyingÓ (for example, those who
compare flight paths to electoral boundaries). It would appear that the reality lies
somewhere in between the two.

Some airports have avoided this issue quite neatly with some significant forethought.
The land surrounding MelbourneÕs Tullamarine airport, when it was built, had
covenants placed which now prevent residents (who have relocated to the area after
the airport was built) from impinging on the airportÕs operation.

Politically driven noise abatement procedures can also adversely impact the safety of
aircraft operations. Aircraft are most safely taken off and landed into wind, and (as
experience with ground transports would suggest) are most safely flown in the same
areas in the same direction. The current noise procedures at Sydney allow for
significant crosswinds and downwind components, even on wet runways. At night,
under curfew procedures, some aircraft are allowed to operate Ð but they land into
the north and take off to the south, with runways separated by only 972 metres.

Ultimately you cannot satisfy all of the people, all of the time: aircraft operators
would like to land into wind at all times, and fly whenever they wanted. Some
residents would like to have no aircraft operations at all. It is in the balancing act
that most residents must be satisfied, whilst still allowing commercially viable
operations to occur at the airport.

6.3 Naming Protocols

Airports are identified by a unique 4-digit code Ð for example, Sydney Kingsford-
Smith is identified as YSSY. These are generated as follows:

1st digit Identifies the country the airport is located in. Australia is ÒYÓ.

2nd digit Identifies the air traffic control centre that the airport is most
closely linked to. For smaller airports, this is often omitted and
the last three digits identify the airport itself. In Australia, there
is only ÒSÓ for Sydney, ÒMÓ for Melbourne, ÒBÓ for Brisbane and
ÒPÓ for Perth.

3rd and 4th digits These give the unique airport.

Some examples are listed in the table below. As you can see, the smaller airports
have no reference to the ATC unit they fall under.

Airport Code Explanation

Sydney Bankstown YSBK Australian airport, Sydney ATC, BK for Bankstown
Darwin YPDN Australian, Perth ATC, DN for Darwin
Melbourne YMML Australian, Melbourne ATC, ML for Melbourne
Lismore YLIS Australian, LIS for Lismore
Bathurst YBTH Australian, BTH for Bathurst
Wollongong YWOL Australian, WOL for Wollongong

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On a given airport, there may be more than one runway Ð in fact, one physical strip
of concrete or bitumen is in reality two runways, because you can land on it in two
directions. To distinguish between runways they are given a two-digit code relating
to the direction that you would be facing standing at the end of the runway. This is
the magnetic bearing of the runway rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, with the last
digit dropped. At some airports (YSSY being one), there are more than one runway
aligned in the same direction. In this case, the runway is additionally known as Left
or Right.

The reasons for this system are very practical. It provides pilots the opportunity to
check their compass prior to take off, it gives a definite indication of exactly which
runway is being used and also allows for quick interpretation of winds affecting the
runway.

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6.0 Glossary of BAK Terms

Aerofoil An two dimensional aerodynamic shape designed to create lift

Angle of Attack (AoA) The angle between the relative airflow and the chord of the
aerofoil.

Attitude The orientation of the aircraft in space

Centre of Gravity The point in a body that can be described as having the weight
vector drawn through it

Chord The imaginary line drawn from the trailing edge to the leading
edge of an aerofoil

Coefficient of Drag (CD) A dimensionless number specific to an aerofoil which, when

multiplied by the dynamic pressure and wing area, give the
amount of drag generated by the aerofoil.

Coefficient of Lift (CL) A dimensionless number specific to an aerofoil which, when

multiplied by the dynamic pressure and wing area, give the
amount of lift generated by the aerofoil.

Drag The force acting against the aircraftÕs direction of travel

Knot Nautical Mile per Hour

Lateral Axis The axis described by a line drawn from wingtip to wingtip,
passing through the centre of gravity

Lift The force acting vertically upwards on an aircraft, usually

created by aerodynamic means

Longitudinal Axis The axis described by a line drawn from nose to tail of the
aircraft, passing through the centre of gravity

Normal Axis The axis which is perpendicular to both the lateral and
longitudinal axes

Otto Cycle Four-stroke cycle used in most piston engines Ð intake,

compression, combustion and exhaust.

Relative Air Flow The undisturbed airflow at some point in front of the aircraft or
aerofoil

Rudder The control surface found on the tail of the aircraft which,
when used, causes the aircraft to yaw around its normal axis

Stall Speed The speed at which an aeroplane will reach its maximum angle
of attack to maintain straight and level flight
Thrust The force generated by the aircraftÕs power plant to propel it
through the air.

Wake Turbulence The disturbances left in air by the passage of an aeroplane,

usually related to large jet transports.

Wing 3-dimensional construction with an aerofoil cross section.

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