Load and Trim Answer Bank-1

VELS INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ADVANCED
STUDIES
DEPARTMENT: AVIATION
SEMESTER: V
TITLE OF THE PAPER: LOAD AND TRIM
SUBJECT CODE: 21DBAV55
TIME: 03 Hours Max. Marks: 100
SECTION – A (3 MARKS)
S. No Questions
1. Define centre of gravity.
The point through which the force of gravity is said to act on a mass (in
aircraft terms, the point on the aircraft through which the total mass is said to
act in a vertically downward manner). The centre of gravity is also the point of
balance and as such it affects the stability of the aircraft both on the ground
and in the air.
2. Define center of gravity limits.
The CG is not a fixed point; it has a range of movement between a maximum

forward position and a maximum rearward position which is set by the aircraft
manufacturer and cannot be exceeded. The CG must be on or within the limit
range at all times. The limits are given in the flight manual and are defined
relative to the datum. They may also be given as a percentage of the mean
chord of the wing. (The wing mean chord was called the Standard Mean Chord
but is now known as the Mean Aerodynamic Chord or more simply, the
MAC.)
3. Define datum.
A point along the longitudinal axis (centre line) of the aeroplane (or its
extension) designated by the manufacturer as the zero or reference point from
which all balance arms (distances) begin. By taking moments about the datum
the CG position of the aircraft can be determined. For the purposes of this
phase of study the lateral displacement of the CG from the longitudinal axis is
assumed to be zero.
4. Define moment.
To understand balance, it is necessary to have a working knowledge of

the principle of moments. For those unfamiliar with weight and balance terms,
the word moment is the product of a force or weight times a distance. The
distance used in calculating a moment is referred to as the arm or moment arm
and is usually expressed in inches. To calculate a moment, a force (or weight)
and a distance must be known. The weight is multiplied by the distance from
the datum and the result is the moment, which is expressed in inch-pounds (in-
lb.), a point through which the force acts. For the purpose of illustration,
compare an aircraft to a seesaw. Like the seesaw, for an aircraft to be in
balance, or equilibrium, the sum of the moments on each side of the balance
point must be equal. Therefore, the same weight that is different distances (in
inches) from the datum has greater moments.
5. Define arm.
The distance from the aircraft’s datum to the CG position or centroid of

a body or mass. For example, the centroid of a square or rectangle is the exact
centre of the square or rectangle and, in such cases; the balance arm is the
distance from the datum to the exact centre of the square or rectangle.
Unfortunately, cargo bays are seldom exact squares or rectangles and so the
centroid (the point the total weight acts through) is given by the manufacturer.
6. What is maximum weight of an aircraft?
The maximum weight is the maximum authorized weight of the aircraft and
its contents, and is indicated in the Aircraft Specifications or TCDS. For many
aircraft, there are variations to the maximum allowable weight depending on
the purpose and conditions under which the aircraft is to be flown.
7. What is empty weight of an aircraft?
The weight of an empty airplane including unusable fuel, full operating

fluids (hydraulic fluids) and full engine oil.
8. Define maximum take-off weight.
Maximum allowable mass for the initiation of a takeoff roll. Depending

on how big your airplane is, you may have a variety of MTOWs limited by:
structural limitations, runway distance, climb performance, or landing weight
limits.
9. Define maximum landing weight.
Maximum landing weight is usually a structural limit, but may include

calculations based on missed approach climb performance.
10. Define maximum taxi weight.
This is the maximum allowable weight mass for ground operations.

MRW assures acceptable ground maneuverability and includes fuel for taxi,
run-up and start.
11. Differentiate maximum take-off weight and maximum taxi weight.
Maximum allowable mass for the initiation of a takeoff roll.

Depending on how big your airplane is, you may have a variety of MTOWs
limited by: structural limitations, runway distance, climb performance, or
landing weight limits.
This is the maximum allowable weight mass for ground

operations. MRW assures acceptable ground maneuverability and includes
fuel for taxi, run-up and start.
12. What is useful load?
Useful load is total usable fuel, cargo, passengers, and drainable fuel.
Equation: Maximum Ramp Weight - Basic Empty Weight = Useful Load
13. What is payload?
This one is simple. Think of payload as what's "paying" for the flight:
passengers, bags, and cargo. Its how much weight you can carry besides basic
empty weight and fuel.
14. Differentiate useful load and payload.
Useful load is total usable fuel, cargo, passengers, and drainable fuel.
Equation: Maximum Ramp Weight - Basic Empty Weight = Useful Load
This one is simple. Think of payload as what's "paying" for the flight:
passengers, bags, and cargo. Its how much weight you can carry besides basic
empty weight and fuel.
15. What is load and trim sheets?
The traditional method for ensuring load and trim compliance dates
from the days when all load and trim sheets were completed manually on
specific forms designed for use with each aircraft type, and is as follows:
 The completed document is presented to the aircraft commander
 The aircraft commander checks that it is internally consistent by
carrying out some simple cross checks of input and calculated output
data for gross errors and,
 If the cross checks are satisfactory, the commander formally accepts the
load and trim sheet by means of a signature on at least two copies, one
being retained by the departure agent and the other by the flight crew.
16. What is an aircraft?
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air.
It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift of
an airfoil,[1] or, in a few cases, direct downward thrust from its engines.
Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships
(including blimps), gliders, paramotors, and hot air balloons.
17. Write the main components of an aircraft.
 Fuselage
 Wings
 Engine
 Landing gear
 Empennage
18. Write the control surfaces of an aircraft.
 Ailerons
 Rudder
 Elevator
 Flaps
 Trim taps
 Slats
 Spoilers
19. What are the forces acting on an aircraft?
 Lift
 Drag
 Weight
 Thrust
20. What is an airfoil?
Airfoil, also spelled Aerofoil, shaped surface, such as an airplane wing,

tail, or propeller blade that produces lift and drag when moved through the air.
An airfoil produces a lifting force that acts at right angles to the airstream and
a dragging force that acts in the same direction as the airstream.
21. What is departure control system?
A departure control system (DCS) automates processing an airline's

airport management operation, which includes managing the information
required for airport check-in, printing boarding cards, baggage acceptance,
boarding, load control and aircraft checks.
22. Define fuselage.
The fuselage is the main section, or body, of the airplane. This is where
you’ll find passengers, cargo, and the flight crew. The fuselage is the
foundation for the structure of the aircraft. The tail number, which identifies
each plane, is often located at the rear of the fuselage near the tail.
23. Define ailerons.
The ailerons, which is French for 'little wings,' are used to tilt the plane
from one side to the other, moving it along its longitudinal axis, producing
roll. They are attached to the outward edges of the aircraft wings and move in
opposite directions from one another to adjust the position of the plane. When
the flight deck control device is moved or turned, one aileron deflects up and
the other one downward. This causes one wing to generate more lift than the
other, which makes the plane roll and facilitates a curve in the flight path, or
what is known as a 'banked turn.' The aircraft will continue to turn until an
opposite motion returns the plane to straight along the longitudinal axis.
24. Define propeller.
A propeller is an aerodynamic device that converts rotational energy

into force. This force propels the airplane forward. This creates thrust that is
perpendicular to its plane of rotation. Propellers have two or more blades.
Propeller blades are spaced evenly around the hub. They are available in either
fixed pitch or variable pitch configurations.
25. Define engine.
An aircraft engine, or aero engine, is the power source for a plane. Most
are either piston engines or gas turbines. Some drones, or unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAV), have used electric motors. There are many manufacturers and
models of engines. Each is designed for specific aircraft, whether large or
small. Manufacturers recommend an engine overhaul at specified times after
an engine has flown a certain number of hours.
26. Define aircraft wing.
The wings of an aircraft serve the same purpose as the wings of a bird,
hence their name. Airplanes are considered fixed-wing aircraft. (Helicopters
are considered rotary-winged.) A plane is capable of flight because its wings
provide lift. Lift is created by the shape of the wings and the plane’s speed as
it moves forward. Wings include ailerons and flaps. “Aileron” is another
French word. It means “little wing” or “fin.” They are used in pairs to control
the airplane’s roll or bank.
27. Define spoilers.
Spoilers and air brakes are used to reduce the lift and slow down the
aircraft. They are used on approach and after landing. Spoilers are small panels
hinged on the upper surface of the wing and decrease lift by disrupting the
airflow. While spoilers may act as brakes, proper air brakes extend out from
the surface into the airstream in order to slow the aircraft down. Most often,
they are deployed symmetrically on each side.
28. Draw and mention the components of aircraft.
29. Draw and mention the control surfaces of an aircraft.
30. What is angle of attack?
The angle of attack is the angle at which the oncoming airflow meets the
wing. It is measured using the wing’s ‘chord line’, a straight line drawn from
its leading edge to the trailing edge. The angle of attack is independent of pitch
attitude, and many factors affect it.
31. Define empty weight.
The measured or computed weight of aircraft excluding all removable

equipment and other items of disposable load, but including all items of fixed
equipment which is mandatory for all operations.
32. What is weight schedule?
The document prepared in respect of an individual aircraft to provide basic

weight and center of gravity information for loading that aircraft.
33. Define operating weight.
The empty weight of an aircraft plus those items of removable equipment and
disposable load which remain constant for the type of operation being
conducted.
34. What is loading system?
The system for ensuring that an aircraft is loaded within approved limits at all
times during flight.
35. Define center of gravity.
and in the air.
36. Define center of pressure.
The center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where all of the

aerodynamic pressure field may be represented by a single force vector with
no moment.
37. What is center of gravity limits?
The CG is not a fixed point; it has a range of movement between a

maximum forward position and a maximum rearward position which is set by
the aircraft manufacturer and cannot be exceeded. The CG must be on or
within the limit range at all times. The limits are given in the flight manual and
are defined relative to the datum. They may also be given as a percentage of
the mean chord of the wing. (The wing mean chord was called the Standard
Mean Chord but is now known as the Mean Aerodynamic Chord or more
simply, the MAC.)
38. What is calibration of weighing scales?
 The weighing scales used for the purpose of weighing of passenger

baggage, goods etc. shall be calibrated at specified intervals to the
satisfaction of the QM/ DGCA. The QM is required to bring this
requirement to the notice of the concerned persons for compliance.
 The weighing scales used for the purpose of weighing the aircraft shall
be calibrated at specified intervals to the satisfaction of DGCA. This
requirement may be reflected in the MOE.
39. Mention the standard weight of passengers.
1. Crew 85 (75+10) kg.
2. Adult passenger (both Male & Female) 75 kg.
3. Child (Between 2 years and 12 years age) 35 kg.
4. Infant (Less than two years) 10 kg.

40. What is carry-on luggage?
Technically, any piece of luggage that you “carry on” to an airplane is a

carry-on bag. Most airlines allow one piece of carry-on luggage or “hand
baggage” that can fit in the overhead bin, plus a “personal item” (a smaller
purse, computer bag, diaper bag, small backpack, etc. which can go under
the seat in front of your).
41. Mention the carry-on luggage size and weight requirements.
 Domestic Airline Carry-on Size: 22 x 14 x 9 inches
 International Airline Carry-on Size: 21.5 x 15.5 x 9 inches

 Weight 10 to 40 kg
42. List out the persons who authorized to weigh and prepare weight
schedule.
 A person specifically authorized by DGCA for the purpose in any

organization.
OR
 A person specifically authorized by Quality Manager in an
organization approved under CAR 145 provided procedure for grant of
such approval is documented in Maintenance Organization Exposition.
43. What is removable equipment weight?
The items of equipment which are carried on some of the operations but which
are not included in the empty weight and which are not mandatory for the type
of operation being conducted.
44. What is the condition for reweighing the aircraft?
 Aircraft below 2000 Kg AUW need not be re weighed on routine

except when it has undergone major repair/modification.
 Aircraft above 2000 Kg AUW shall be weighed every 5 years.
45. What is record keeping?
The DAW (Region) and DAW (Hqrs) will establish a system to maintain
records of all documents generated and received. It may be ensured that all
related records are maintained in chronological manner and all the pages are
appropriately numbered. Traceability of all records should be ensured for
future reference.
46. Write the importance of load and trim sheet.
1. An aircraft filled with passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel could be too
heavy for the engines to lift it off the ground.
2. The balance of the aircraft is crucial, and the location of the passengers,
baggage, cargo and fuel will affect the aircraft trim.
3. The undercarriage can only support a certain amount of weight on
landing.
4. Loading too much weight into a particular part of the aircraft could
cause damage to the structure. Whilst this might not be evident straight
away it could over a period of time shorten the working life of the
aircraft.
47. Define fixed equipment weight.
Seats, galley, toilets including furnishings and emergency equipment

such as oxygen masks and bottles. Anything that is standard or fitted as an
optional extra to the aircraft is part of this calculation.
48. Define basic weight.
A combination of the aircraft weight and all its fixed equipment

provides the foundation necessary to calculate the four different stages of an
aircraft’s weight.
49. What is meant by pantry weight?
Consisting of any food, drink, provisions or objects used for servicing

passengers or crew. An example of items covered in the pantry could include
tea, biscuits, coffee pots and hot water. Whilst individually these items have a
negligible weight, when they are carried in bulk it will naturally add weight to
the aircraft in turn affecting its trim. It would be unfeasible to weigh every
item of pantry carried on board each flight therefore a standard weight is
created accounting for required provisions per flight. The weight and location
is recorded for trim purposes and absorbed into calculations for the operating
weights of the aircraft.
50. Define take-off fuel.
This is a different figure to the block fuel uplifted on the ramp. An

aircraft will burn fuel as it starts engines and moves off stand taxing to the end
of the runway, and lining up for take-off. Therefore the amount of fuel the
aircraft had prior to engine start will differ to the amount in tanks before take-
off. Subsequently take-off fuel is calculated by deducting the taxi fuel from the
block fuel. In commercial load control the taxi fuel is usually a standard figure
specified by the operator. Whilst this might seem inconsequential, in situations
where congestion or delays are incurred such as an aircraft operating out of
London Heathrow, block fuel and take-off fuel figures could differ greatly.
51. Differentiate between block fuel and take-off fuel.
Block Fuel: All fuel uploaded onto the aircraft before it has moved anywhere.
Take Off Fuel: Block fuel minus the taxi fuel.

52. Define trip fuel.
The actual fuel required from the take-off to the landing.

53. Differentiate between total traffic load and allowed traffic load.
Total Traffic Load: Total weight of all passengers, baggage, cargo and mail.
Payload (Allowed Traffic Load): How much weight could be carried.

54. What is under load?
Deducting the total traffic load from the allowed traffic load provides an under
load, this indicates how much weight is still available to carry anything.
If you have an extra passengers wishing to travel that requires a late

manual change (LMC) to the load sheet, you will know if you have the weight
available to accept them for carriage by looking at your under load.
55. Define dry operating index.
The fixed point on a numerical scale representing the balance point of the
empty aircraft, this includes crew and catering.
56. What is meant by NOTOC?
A dangerous good or any other special load is not generally carried

onboard a commercial aircraft unless a NOTOC has been completed, and this
is usually supported by an entry shown on the load sheet identifying its
location, weight and description.
57. Write the examples of special loads.
 Live animals
 Food stuffs
 Human remains
 Perishables
58. What is meant by LMC?
It is often necessary to adjust the load sheet after completion. These

adjustments are called last minute changes (LMC). The LMC process is a way
to enter late alterations/updates to a final manual or electronically produced
load sheet, without requiring revisions to the main body or the preparation of a
new document. Guidance material on the LMC is made available by UK
CAA: CAP 1008 Last minute changes (LMC). Any LMC increase or change
must not exceed the:
 Allowable under load calculation (Under load is the weight that still is
available until the first limiting maximum weight is reached).
 Maximum mass and balance limits for zero fuel, take-off or landing
 Limitation of any compartment that is intended to be used
59. Write the basic qualifications of L&T officer.
 Education- 10+2 level or holder of a flying license.

 Basic level courses in Load Control/Ramp Handling/Dangerous Goods
and basic knowledge of passenger services and Cargo handling.
 Experience in areas of Aircraft Loading Load Control and
Documentation.
 Experience within Load Control in providing aircraft Weight and
Balance services and preparing load and trim sheets.
 Be conversant with computerized departure control systems and with
producing load sheets manually
60. List out the training programme for L&T officer.
 Basic / Initial ground training,

 Conversion/Transition training,
 Refresher/Recurrent training,
 Differences training.
61. How cabin crew validate the passengers on board?
Routine ‘head counts’ of boarded passengers by cabin crew before

every departure will, if reported to the aircraft commander prior to their
acceptance of the final load sheet, ensure that a flight always departs with the
same number of passengers on board as has been recorded on the load and trim
sheet.
62. Write the operational safety issues of cargo loading.
In recent years security considerations have led to rigorous procedures

to ensure ‘baggage reconciliation’, which ensures only accompanied baggage
is loaded, unless a special additional validation process for each
unaccompanied bag has been followed.
Weight distribution between holds has a considerable effect upon
the Centre of Gravity (CG) of the aircraft; load distribution will be specified
on the Loading Instruction Form (LIF) by hold, or by hold compartment in the
case of larger under floor hold areas.
63. Write the safety precautions of physical loading of goods.
1. Physical distance should be kept when operational safety is
not compromised (encourage single person operations).
2. Close contact of personnel should be limited, and appropriate
PPE should be worn where necessary.
3. For "human chain" loading, appropriate PPE should be used
(non-medical or medical masks and disposable gloves) and
hygiene principles should be applied between operations.
64. Write the safety precautions of material handling equipment.
1. To avoid cross contamination, MHE/GSE should be cleaned

and disinfected between users.
2. All employees should be educated and should practice
personal hygiene principles.
3. Appropriate PPE should be worn where necessary.
65. What is observance of safety instructions?
The safety instructions required to be observed, as detailed in above,

shall be observed by Pilot-in-Command of non-scheduled operators, aerial
work aircraft operators including flying clubs and private aircraft operators. In
the case of scheduled operators, a comprehensive manual (Weight and Balance
Manual) shall be prepared describing the safety requirements of above for
compliance by the concerned staff.
66. What is meant by LIF?
A Loading Instruction Form (or LIF) is the usual description of the

specification for required aircraft Loading of Aircraft Holds that is completed
by the assigned dispatcher or equivalent agent and passed to the assigned hold
loading supervisor. Once compliant loading has been achieved, confirmation
of that fact is formalized by the physical return of the signed LIF to the
assigned dispatcher. That formalization is required prior to the dispatcher
presenting the final load and trim sheet to the aircraft commander. Alternative
electronic signaling of compliance may be substituted, as may similar
specification of the original loading instructions from the assigned Dispatcher
to the Loading Supervisor.
67. What is passenger cabin loading?
Some passenger aircraft cabins can be re-configured to carry cargo by

removal of all, or some, of their seats. Loading of the main cabin in such
circumstances raises similar issues of operational safety, and appropriate
procedure, as a dedicated freighter version of the same aircraft model and is
not considered here.
68. Write short note on cabin crew observation and reporting.
Senior cabin crew can assist operational safety by using their discretion
to report what they perceive to be abnormal seated passenger distribution prior
to take-off, especially if free seating is available. This is a particularly
important point in the case of flights which make an en route or ‘transit’ stop,
at which passengers either leave or join the flight, and where some through
passengers remain on board. This scenario has often led in the past to ground
staff preparing an incorrect load and trim sheet based on unchecked (and
undisclosed) assumptions about passenger seat occupancy when an aircraft
will be departing with only a part load. Either the seats occupied by passengers
remaining on board at the transit stop are not established, or the seats chosen
by the boarding passengers are not known, or both. Random assumptions are
then made for load and trim sheet purposes, which may not reflect the actual
longitudinal trim of the aircraft as actually loaded. This may result in a take-
off with the aircraft trim outside the envelope for permitted safe flight, or the
pitch trim setting made by the flight crew may be incorrect to a degree which
then affects normal aircraft control at and after the initiation of rotation.
69. What is meant by passenger weight and seat occupancy?
Standard Passenger weights are usually used for load and trim sheet
purposes and are often prescribed by the Regulatory Authority which has
issued the Air Operator Certificate (AOC) under which the flight is being
made. Longitudinal effects of passenger load may be allowed for by dividing
the cabin into sections and using standard loading index variations, pre-
calculated for each of these compartments. Departure control systems (DCS),
may, however, be programmed to use a different index correction for each seat
row. The accuracy of this calculation will rely on passengers sitting in the
seats assigned at check-in or, if free (unassigned) seating is used, the ground
crew or cabin crew will need to record the actual seating occupied, either by
cabin section, or, exceptionally, by seat row. In practice, low cost airlines,
which routinely offer free seating, also operate the majority of their flights
with a high load factor, so that identifying any unoccupied seats will be a
fairly simple matter. Where the load factor is medium or low, cabin crew may
sometimes be instructed to restrict free seating to the centre of the cabin in
order to keep the centre of gravity within limits.
70. Write short note on cabin baggage.
Standard passenger weights also include an allowance for permitted

cabin baggage. Restrictions on the maximum number of pieces, their
maximum weight and/or their maximum dimensions are likely to be imposed
by both the aircraft operator and the airport security screening process. This
usually means that available stowage in overhead lockers or on the floor
underneath the seat in front of that occupied will be sufficient. Any outsize
items should only be permitted on board if they can be safely stowed using
special wardrobe or locker space and by prior agreement of the senior cabin
crew who may seek the authority of the aircraft commander if in doubt as to
acceptance.
71. What is meant by bulk loading?
Many narrow body short haul aircraft are bulk loaded with loose
individual items of baggage and cargo. In this case, baggage loading will be by
item count, with prescribed assumptions about the average weight per bag
used to complete the load and trim sheet; precise figures will often vary
according to NAA regulations or be more restrictive to meet the aircraft
operator’s own checked baggage rules. Average checked baggage standard
weight assumptions usually vary depending on whether the flight is domestic,
international, charter (holiday flight) or scheduled. Standard baggage weights
must be applied with care. Incidents have occurred where standard weights
have seriously under-stated the actual mass of the loaded baggage causing
both an error in the total mass of the aircraft and a centre of gravity outside the
approved safe envelope.
72. Define unit load devices.
Most wide bodied aircraft, and increasingly some narrow bodies, are
able to use the much simpler system of aluminium containers called Unit Load
Devices (ULD). These can be used to consolidate baggage or cargo items
before being loaded into the aircraft hold by specialized hydraulic lift
equipment. The ULDs are then maneuvered manually to a final position on
board by use of a roller floor, before being finally secured in position.
73. List out the types of abnormal loads.
 Those covered by Dangerous Goods Regulations

 Heavy items
 Oversize items
 Items with have unusual dimensions/proportions.
74. Write the consequences of mis-loading.
 Loss of Control in flight

 Runway Excursion during take-off or landing
 Aircraft hold damage during flight
75. What is the condition to load the aircraft with cargo?
Safe operation of aircraft requires all hold cargo and baggage to be

weighed (or an accurate estimate of weight provided by using “standard”
values), it must be loaded correctly and secured to prevent movement in flight.
Loading should be in full accordance with the generally applicable
regulations and limitations, the operators loading procedures and in
accordance with the instructions given by the person with overall
responsibility for the loading process for a particular flight. These loading
instructions must match the requirements for baggage/cargo distribution stated
within the aircraft load and trim sheet.
SECTION – B (8 MARKS)
S. No Questions
76. Explain the importance of load and trim sheets.
It is a legal requirement and crucial to the safety and structural integrity

of an aircraft that it is loaded in such a way that the specified maximum
allowable weights are not exceeded and that the centre of gravity as loaded
will be within the permitted flight envelope and remain so for the entirety of
the intended operation. Once these conditions have been satisfied, it is equally
crucial that the flight crew are aware of the prevailing weight and centre of
gravity so that they can set aircraft equipment appropriately; these include take
off reference speeds, slat/flap position, and pitch trim or stabilizer position.
This is important to ensure that the aircraft will achieve published certified
performance and that the aircraft retains expected stability and control
characteristics. It is also very important that aircraft baggage and freight load
complies with the restrictions on carriage of dangerous goods.
77. Explain the effects of overloading.
 Performance is reduced:
 Take-off and landing distances will increase. V1 decision speed, VR
rotation speed, V2 takeoff safety speed, and the stopping distance will
all increase. The climb gradient, rate of climb and ceiling height will
also reduce.
 The rate of descent will increase.
 The stalling speed will increase and maximum speed will reduce.
 The safety margins and the effective speed range between low and high
speed buffet will reduce.
 Drag and fuel consumption will increase.
 Range and endurance will reduce.
 Wing root stresses will increase.
 Maneuverability will reduce. The aircraft will become less responsive to
control inputs and more difficult to fly.
 Wing root stresses and undercarriage loads will increase as will tyre and
brake wear.
78. Explain the loading procedure of an aircraft.
Loading Procedures
It is essential that the Dispatcher, or other official assigned
responsibility for overseeing aircraft loading, specifies the loading requirement
correctly and has a reliable method by which he/she can be satisfied that
his/her instructions have been carried out as requested. Whilst modern
automated systems may determine the seating options for passengers and the
load disposition, effective procedures and compliance remain the only way of
ensuring that what has been specified and passed to the aircraft commander
has actually been achieved. Specification of the hold compartment loading is
usually achieved by the completion of a Loading Instruction Form (LIF). The
LIF is given to the loading supervisor who certifies that it has been complied
with and returns it to the issuer as evidence that the work has been completed.
The completed load and trim sheet are then given to the aircraft commander.
The human supervisor must also have a reliable means of confirming that if
dangerous goods are loaded the dangerous goods regulations are complied
with and a Notification to Captain (NOTOC) is issued and duly signed by the
aircraft commander. The original NOTOC is retained by the aircraft
commander onboard and a copy is held at the departure point. The human
supervisor must also confirm that any special requirements for securing
unusual items in the holds or in the passenger cabin have been complied with.
Fuel Loading and Distribution
Many swept wing jet transport aircraft use fuel distribution to optimize
the centre of gravity in cruise to reduce fuel burn. This is achieved by keeping
the C of G towards the aft limits of the envelope by utilizing outboard wing,
aft body or horizontal stabilizer fuel tanks. It is the aircraft commander’s
responsibility to ensure that the fuel load prior to takeoff is correctly
distributed and reflected on the load/trim sheet and maintained within the
prescribed limits for the remainder of the flight.
79. Write short note on manual load sheets.
Manual Load sheets involve a pro forma calculation of Maximum Ramp

Weight (MRW), Maximum Take Off Weight (MTOW) and Maximum
Landing Weight (MLW) whilst the centre of gravity is located by marking the
requisite aircraft operating weight (vertical scale) on a ‘drop line’ located on a
centre of gravity ‘index’ scale which forms the horizontal axis. If the position
so found is within the areas shown as the permitted safe flight envelope, (and
remains within the safe area as fuel reduces to planned landing weight) then
operation as loaded is possible. Manual preparation of load and trim sheets
used to be commonplace but they are now used so infrequently that recalling
the necessary method can be challenging to ground staff and flight crew alike.
Many younger pilots have seldom or never prepared a manual load and trim
sheet or checked one for acceptance; this unfamiliarity significantly increases
the risk of undetected errors with significant consequences. It is good practice
to complete a manual load sheet once a month to develop and sustain
proficiency against the day one suddenly becomes essential at short notice.
80. Write short note on load and trim sheets.
81. Write short note on fuel loading and distribution.
Many swept wing jet transport aircraft use fuel distribution to

optimize the centre of gravity in cruise to reduce fuel burn. This is achieved by
keeping the C of G towards the aft limits of the envelope by utilizing outboard
wing, aft body or horizontal stabilizer fuel tanks. It is the aircraft commander’s
82. Write short note on EFB generation of load and trim sheet.
For some flights, especially but not only cargo flights, the flight crew
have an electronic flight bag (EFB) which they use to calculate aircraft
performance data, which takes account of the completed load and trim sheet.
They also use the EFB to make the load and trim calculations themselves, so
that once it has been checked, all that is required is that a copy be left with the
agent at the point of departure. Clearly, it is vital that a rigorous process of
crosschecking is included in the preparation of such documentation to avoid
input errors. Crosschecking does not mean simply repeating the numbers
selected/presented but also confirming that they make sense in relation to the
actual situation.
83. Write the regulatory requirements of load and trim.
 Training and qualification records.

 The load control process must have an audit trail for each departure.
 Weight and balance records must be retained.
 The operating airline will identify specific loading positions.
 The operating airline will specify requirements for presenting load
information.
 Weight determination of load and clearance measuring systems must be
calibrated and/or checked at intervals determined by the operating
carrier or state.
84. Write short note on LMC.

85. Write short notes on acceptance and provisional load and trim sheets.
The aircraft commander must be given a copy of the completed load and
trim sheet for the flight and should check and sign it, leaving a copy at the
point of departure. The aircraft commander is obliged to accept that the
aircraft is loaded as stated in respect of the hold loading. However, in respect
of Passenger Cabin Loading the senior cabin crew member usually confirms
the number of passengers actually on board by means of a headcount after
boarding has been completed.
DCS and the communication facility afforded by ACARS (Aircraft
Communications Addressing and Reporting System) has allowed aircraft
commanders to be given substantially complete and correct loading documents
with ‘provisional’ status in plenty of time before STD; ‘final’ status
documents with highlighted minor amendments (also known as Last Minute
Changes - LMC) can be generated as the aircraft leaves the gate for acceptance
via ACARS at any time before take-off commences.
86. Write short note on DCS.

Today, DCS mostly (98%) manage e-tickets using interfaces from a

number of devices, including check-in kiosks, online check-in, mobile
boarding cards, and baggage handling. DCS are able to identify, capture and
update reservations from an airline's computer reservation system for
passengers stored in a so-called passenger name record (PNR). A DCS is used
to update reservations, typically as checked-in, boarded, and flown or another
status.
Additionally and increasingly, a DCS for some city-pair sectors may
also interface with immigration control (such as Advance Passenger
Information System) for visa, immigration and passenger no-fly watch lists.
Historically, systems developed in North America have incorporated
DCS functions as part of the reservations systems with check-in being initiated
directly from the PNR. Load control (weight and balance) is then provided by
a standalone application. Systems developed by airlines outside North
America have traditionally had a separate database for DCS, requiring
passenger data to be transferred from the PNR into DCS records. These
systems have an integrated weight and balance capability.
"New generation" DCSs are being developed and deployed by vendors
such as Amadeus and SITA as part of the overall re-engineering of airline
Passenger Services Systems. These new systems typically use a common
database and a services oriented architecture that allows reservations, check-in
and other services to maintain a consistent view of passenger information.
Larger international airports will have a range of DCS or a single DCS
which each particular airline carrier can integrate with for streamlined
operations.
87. Explain the benefits of DCS.
 Fast and efficient check-in functionality
 Improves customer service
 Fast, accurate and secure
 Extensive configuration options to clients requirements
 Easy learning with reduced time of training
 Cute-less
 Integrated reservation module
 Cost effective
88. Explain the features of DCS.
 Fast Weight and Balance and easy load planning and load distribution
 Mail and Full Cargo flights management
 WEB applications available for check-in, boarding and load control

over CUTE certified application
 IATA 2D barcode functionality
 e-Ticket functionality through specific service providers
 Dispatch of all IATA-standard aircraft handling messages through

TypeB networks
 Automatic close out function with sophisticated standby acceptance

feature
 Baggage reconciliation and tracking covers all aspects of aircraft

security
 Type B and Email Messaging System
 Capability to redirect Type B messages physical or virtual printers

(including email addresses)
 Arrivals Flight Management: management of arrival flights information,

preparing and sending arrival messages such as MVT (AA) and Arrival
DUV.
89. Explain the forces acting on an aircraft.
The core forces acting on an aircraft are given as follows,
1. Lift
2. Weight
3. Thrust
4. Drag
Lift and drag are considered as the aerodynamic forces because they exist due
to the movement of the airplane through air.
Lift: Lift is produced by a lower pressure created on the upper surface of an

airplane’s wings compared to the pressure on the wing’s lower surfaces,
causing the wing to be lifted upward. The special shape of the airplane wing
(airfoil) is designed so that air flowing over it will have to travel a greater
distance and faster resulting in a lower pressure area thus lifting the wing
upward. Lift is that force which opposes the force of gravity (weight).
Lift depends on the
1) The shape of airfoil
2) Angle of attack
3) The area of the surface exposed to the airstream
4) The square of the airspeed
5) The air density
Weight: The weight acts vertically downward from the center of gravity of the
airplane.
Thrust: Thrust is defined as the forward direction pushing or pulling force

developed by an aircraft engine. This includes reciprocating engines, turbojet
engines, turboprop engines.
Drag: Drag is the force which opposes the forward motion of an airplane.
Specifically, drag is retarding force acting upon a body in motion through a
fluid, parallel to the direction of motion of a body. It is the friction of the air as
it meets and passes over an airplane and its components. Drag is created by air
impact force, skin friction, and displacement of the air.
90. Explain the primary control surfaces of an aircraft with neat diagram.
Aileron
Elevators
The elevators raise and lower the aircraft, moving the plane in its
transverse axis, producing pitch. Most aircraft have two elevators. They are
placed on the trailing edge on each half of the fixed horizontal stabilizer.
Manual or autopilot input moves the elevators up or down as needed by a
forward or aft movement of the control column or control stick. If it is moved
forward, the elevator deflects downward, which generates an increase in lift
for the tail surface. This, in turn, causes the nose of the plane to pivot along
the vertical axis and turn downwards. The opposite is true when the control
panel is pulled back.
Rudder
The rudder moves the aircraft in its horizontal axis, producing yaw. It
sits on the vertical stabilizer or tail fin. It is not used to directly steer the
aircraft, as its name might have one believe. Rather it is used to counteract
adverse yaw produced by turning the aircraft or to counteract an engine failure
on quad jets. It is also used in order to 'slip' and direct the trajectory of the
plane before landing during a heavy crosswind approach. The rudder is usually
controlled by the left and right rudder pedals in the cockpit.
91. Explain the secondary control surfaces of an aircraft with neat diagram.
Flaps
The flaps resemble the ailerons, but they sit closer to the fuselage. They
change the shape of the aircraft's wing and are utilized to both generate more
lift and increase drag, depending on their angle. Their setting is usually
between five and fifteen degrees, depending on the aircraft. Trailing edge flaps
extend and move downwards on the back of the wing. Leading-edge flaps
move out and forward on the front of the wing. However, the leading-edge
flaps and slats are not individually controlled but respond to the movement of
the trailing edge flaps.
Slats
Leading-edge slats extend out from the surface of the front of the wing
using hydraulic pressure. Altogether, they can change the shape and size of the
wing quite significantly. This lets pilots adapt the amount of drag and lift
needed for takeoff and landing procedures.
Spoilers
aircraft. They are used on approach and after landing. Spoilers are small
panels hinged on the upper surface of the wing and decrease lift by disrupting
the airflow. While spoilers may act as brakes, proper air brakes extend out
from the surface into the airstream in order to slow the aircraft down. Most
often, they are deployed symmetrically on each side.
Tabs
Tabs are small secondary flight control surfaces set into the trailing
edges of the primary surfaces. These are used to reduce the pilot’s work load
required to hold the aircraft in some constant attitude by “loading” the control
surface in a position to maintain the desired attitude. They may also be used to
aid the pilot in returning a control surface to a neutral or trimmed center
position.
92. Explain the following components with neat diagram:
1. Aircraft fuselage
2. Aircraft wings
Fuselage
Wings
1. Aircraft propeller
2. Aircraft engine
Engine
Propeller

1. Vertical stabilizer
2. Horizontal stabilizer
Vertical Stabilizer
The vertical stabilizer is an airplane component that many people

simply refer to as a “vertical tail.” It's located on the aft of an airplane's
fuselage where it extends vertically. Unlike the wings, the vertical stabilizer
doesn't create lift. Instead, it lives up to its namesake by stabilizing the
airplane.
Horizontal Stabilizer
In the conventional configuration the horizontal stabilizer is a small

horizontal tail or tailplane located to the rear of the aircraft. This is the most
common configuration. On many aircraft, the tailplane assembly consists of a
fixed surface fitted with a hinged aft elevator surface.
1. Aircraft landing gear

2. Aircraft wings
Landing Gear
The landing gear is the undercarriage of an airplane. It is used for both takeoff
and landing. The landing gear supports the plane when it is on the ground.
Landing gear allows the plane to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Most
landing gear has wheels. However, some aircraft use skis or floats to operate
on snow, ice, or water. Faster aircraft, such as many twin-engine or jet aircraft,
have retractable landing gear. Upon takeoff, the folding landing gear are
stowed away to reduce drag during flight.
Wings
The wings of an aircraft serve the same purpose as the wings of a bird, hence
their name. Airplanes are considered fixed-wing aircraft. (Helicopters are
considered rotary-winged.) A plane is capable of flight because its wings
96. What are the contents to be included in weight schedule?
(i) Type of Aircraft;
(ii) Registration Marking and Serial No. of aircraft;

(iii) Empty weight including weight of unusable quantity of fuel and
oil (Kg);
(iv) Item wise Weight and details of removable equipment (Kg)

including wireless equipment;
(v) Maximum fuel capacity (Usable) in liters and Kg;
(vi) Maximum oil capacity (Usable) in liters and Kg;
(vii) Maximum commercial weight with fuel and oil tanks full;
(viii) MTOW (as per Certificate of Airworthiness/ Flight Manual) in

kg;
(ix) Empty weight Centre of Gravity;
(x) Centre of Gravity Range and datum;
(xi) Maximum number of passengers;
(xii) Signature of appropriately licensed AME/ Approved person;
(xiii) Date of weighing

97. Explain the initial weighing procedure of an aircraft.
 All aircraft shall be weighed prior to the initial issue of a Certificate of

Airworthiness. In case a new aircraft is imported from outside the
country, weight schedules issued by the manufacturer or the previous
operator weight schedule based on the manufacturer's certificated
weight and balance documents would be acceptable.
 All aircraft shall be weighed when, as a result of a modification or
series of modifications incorporated since the last recorded weighing,
the following changes have occurred in the empty weight or empty
center of gravity position:
i) The empty weight has changed by more than ½ percent of the
maximum all up weight; or
ii) The empty center of gravity position has changed by more than
½ per cent of the mean aerodynamic chord.
 Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (b) above, if the Director

General of Civil Aviation is satisfied that adequate weight control has
been maintained over an aircraft throughout a modification or series of
modifications of any magnitude, the aircraft need not be re-weighed.
 Aircraft shall be weighed when in the opinion of the Director General
or his accredited representative weighing is necessary as a result of
changes in empty weight or empty center of gravity position or for any
other reason.
 Aircraft having AUW more than 2000 kg shall be re-weighed every
five years unless it is required to be re-weighed in accordance with
para 4.3 of CAR Sec 2 Series X Part-II. However operators may
approach Regional Airworthiness Offices (through the Sub- Regional
Airworthiness Offices wherever applicable) for an ad-hoc extension of
the weighment period of an aircraft by a maximum of 3 months to tide
over the operational exigencies. Such requests for extension may be
agreed upon by Regional Airworthiness Office, if satisfied with the
reasons advanced by the operator for his request. Extension of
weighment beyond 3 months may be granted by Director of
Airworthiness of the concerned region under intimation to
Headquarters promptly.
98. Explain the general weighing procedure of an aircraft.
 Weighing of aircraft shall be carried out by the person duly Authorized

for the purpose. Aircraft weighing procedures detailed in aircraft
weight and balance manual / aircraft maintenance manual shall be
followed. An approved person like Quality Manager or his
representative shall be present and take the responsibility of weighing.
Regional/ Sub- regional Airworthiness Office should be intimated
at least seven days prior to the due date of weighing and may associate
with the weighing process.
 Aircraft shall be weighed on weighing equipment of range and
accuracy as given by Manufacture. The owner or operator shall
provide personnel and sufficient equipment to complete the weighing
satisfactorily and shall be responsible for the safety of the aircraft and
personnel during weighing.
 Two independent weighing shall be performed and the longitudinal
datum line of the aircraft shall be horizontal in at least one of these
weighing.
 Any discrepancy between the total weights as determined by the two
weighing shall be performed and the longitudinal datum line of the
aircraft shall be horizontal in at least one of these weighing.
 The difference between the total weights obtained during two
consecutive weighing shall not exceed 0.2 per cent or 12 Kg,
whichever is greater. If this tolerance is exceeded further weighing
shall be performed until the total weights, as determined by two
consecutive and independent weighing, falls within that tolerance.
 An ‘Aircraft Weighing Summary’ shall be completed and, the same to
be forwarded along with weight schedule to the concerned Regional
office for approval.
 If there is any doubt regarding the accuracy of a weighing, the
Regional office may require the aircraft to be re-weighed.
99. Write short note on preparation and approval of loading sheet.
 After an aircraft has been weighed, the empty weight and

corresponding position of the center of gravity shall be calculated by
the operator.
 The operator shall prepare a loading system for each aircraft unless it
can be shown that the aircraft cannot possibly be loaded so that its
center of gravity falls outside the approved range, observing all
limitations on compartment loads.
 Two copies of calculations, loading system and weight schedule shall
be submitted by the operator to the Regional Airworthiness Office for
approval.
 The approved weight schedule shall be displayed in or at permanent
place in the cabin/cockpit of aircraft.
100. Write short note on carry-on luggage.

While measurement restrictions vary by airline, several major airlines use
the following size requirements:
Airlines calculate carry-on luggage size measurements using two methods:
 Height by width by depth: Most – but not all – airlines measure bags
by inches or centimeters using this formula: height by width by depth,
such as 22 x 14 x 9 inches. (Note: The dimensions in this article, which
are given according to that formula, may differ slightly from the way
each individual airline formats its size requirements.)
 Linear inches: A few airlines have linear inch restrictions for carry-on
baggage, meaning the airline gives one number for the total of all three
dimensions. As long as the combined height, width and depth don't
exceed that number, you're in the clear.
Most major domestic airlines do not impose a weight limit on carry-on

bags; however, several international airlines have weight restrictions for carry-
on luggage and in some cases, personal items.
101. Write short note on standard weight of crew and passengers.
The minimum standard weight (including handbag) as given below shall

be applied in all civil registered aircraft:
1. Crew 85 (75+10) kg.
Notwithstanding above conditions, the actual weight of the passenger

could be considered for aircraft MTOW up to 2000 kg provided the
arrangement for passenger weighment with sufficient accuracy is ensured.
102. Write short notes on approval of weight schedule and record keeping.
Approval by Airworthiness office

The weight schedule after being prepared and duly signed shall be
submitted to Regional Airworthiness Office who would approve the same by
affixing signature and stamp after satisfying himself of the procedure
followed and correctness of the figures of the weight schedule.
Record Keeping
The DAW (Region) and DAW (Hqrs) will establish a system to

maintain records of all documents generated and received. It may be ensured
that all related records are maintained in chronological manner and all the
pages are appropriately numbered. Traceability of all records should be
ensured for future reference.
103. Explain center of gravity and center of pressure with neat diagram.
Centre of Gravity
and in the air.
Center of Pressure

no moment.
104. Explain center of gravity limits with neat diagram.

simply, the MAC.)
105. What is meant by calibration of weighing scales? Also write its

importance.

106. Explain the important features of load sheet.
 Heading: Flight Number, A/C Registration, Aircraft Configuration,

Crew Version, Date
 Load sheet body: Follow the procedure in OMB 6.1.3.1
1. Adjusted DOW: Refer to the AHM to adjust DOW due to non-standard
configuration such as flight crew, catering...
2. Operating Weight: OW = Adj DOW + Take-off fuel
3. Maximum Allowed Take-off Weight: Is the lowest of: a) MZFW +
Take-off fuel b) MTOW from RTOW c) LW + trip fuel
4. Allowed Traffic Load: Allowed Traffic Load = MATOW – OW
5. Total Traffic Load:
 Passenger Weight = AD X 75 kg + Ch X 35 kg + I X 10 kg
 B/C/M Weight = Weight of Baggage + Cargo + Mail, if check
baggage is not weighted, the standard weight 15 kg/piece
 Total Traffic Load = Passenger Weight + B/C/M Weight
 Check against Allowed Traffic Load
6. Under load before LMC: Under load before LMC = Allowed Traffic
Load - Total traffic Load
7. Zero Fuel Weight: ZFW = Adj DOW + Total Traffic Load, Check
against MZFW
8. Take-off Weight: TOW = ZFW + Take-off Fuel, Check against MTOW
9. Landing Weight: LW = TOW - Trip Fuel, Check against MLW
10.Last minute change (LMC): If appropriate enter LMC details and sum
+/- weights and check result against under load Before LMC. The
maximum LMC index change is +/- 30 index units
11.Seating Conditions: Enter number of passengers on each section (infants
are not counted)
12.Total Person on board: POB = Pax + Crew
107. Explain the important features of trim sheet.
 Heading: Flight Number

 Trim sheet body: Follow the procedure in OMB 6.1.3.2
1. Enter the aircraft specific Adjusted DOI
2. Enter the aircraft specific Adjusted DOW
3. Enter the respective loads in COMPT-1, COMPT-2, COMPT-3 and
COMPT-4
4. Enter the respective passenger loads in the fields CABIN-A, B, C, D
5. Enter the FUEL/ (Correction) from the FUEL INDEX table
6. Enter the top scale with the adjusted DOI and move vertically down to
the COMPT-1 scale. Move in the direction of the arrow for the number
of the kilograms in the compartment. Once this is done move vertically
down to the next scale;
7. Continue through the remaining cargo and passenger scales in the same
manner paying attention to the scale units and direction
8. To obtain the Zero Fuel CG position draw a line from the CABIN-D
scale vertically down on to the Aircraft Weight vs CG (%MAC) plot.
The point where this line intersects the Zero Fuel Weight is the Zero
Fuel CG position
9. Check that the intersection is within the CG envelope. If not, payload
must be re-arranged
10.From the point where the zero fuel CG line intersects the FUEL
CORRECTION adjust for the fuel on board and draw a line vertically
down onto the weight vs CG envelope. The point where this line
intersects the takeoff weight is the takeoff weight CG position
11.Use the CG (%MAC) to determine the takeoff stabilizer trim setting and
record this setting
12.Complete the remaining fields on the Trim sheet
108. Write short notes on loading instruction report and manual load sheets.
Loading Instruction Report (LIR) or Load Plan (LP)
The purpose of this document is for the load controller to allocate the
load, and the loader to confirm where the actual load is located on the aircraft.
The LIR/LP is prepared by the load controller detailing where the planned
load is to be located in the holds, the loader then records where the actual load
and weight is distributed in the holds. Sometimes it is necessary for the
LIR/LP to be changed by the loader i.e. a hold is bulked out before it contains
the entire planned load. The amended LIR/LP is communicated to the load
controller enabling them to produce a load sheet that accurately reflects the
actual weights and locations of the load.
Manual Load Sheets

109. Write short notes on electronic flight bag and final load sheets.
Electronic Flight Bag generation of Load and Trim data

actual situation.
Provisional and Final Load Sheets
110. Write short note on last minute changes.

111. List out the common errors while preparing load and trim sheet.
 Apply wrong DOW/DOI (mostly by using wrong crew configuration)

 The quantity of Person on board (POB): should include CHD + Crew at
the bottom right side of load sheet
 Trim sheet index imprecise drawing
 %MAC
 Fail to complete all box since they think they are not necessary
 Equivalent PAX transforming for A320
 Final figure of cargo on board
 Incorrect LMC
112. Explain the duties and responsibilities of load & trim officer.
 Perform all aircraft Weight and Balance and Documentation activities

for the operator concerned.
 Ensure the provision of an accurate and punctual service and that
activities confirm to legal and safety requirements as outlined by
regulatory bodies such as IATA, DGCA, Aircraft Manufacturers,
Airline Weight and Balance manuals etc.
 Review existing operational practices, systems and procedures to create
work/ process efficiencies and source opportunities to maximize aircraft
space utilization and fuel uptake, in order to exploit maximum revenue
capacity and performance capability per aircraft.
 Co-ordinate the receipt, record and onward communication of relevant
information from various stakeholders including outstations required for
the preparation of weight and balance documentation (loading
instruction report, load sheet and trim sheet) for an aircraft.
 Build and maintain relationships with key stakeholders to enhance
customer service standards and facilitate the exchange of information &
ensure all under the wing activities are carried out in a safe & effective
manner.
113. Describe the different types of training programme for load & trim
officer.
Initial Training is the training required for L&T officer and dispatchers who
have not qualified and served in the same capacity on another airplane of the
same group at that carrier.
Transition Training is the training required for L&T officer and dispatchers
who have qualified and served in the same capacity on another airplane in the
Upgrade Training is the training required for L&T officer who have qualified
and served as second-in-command or flight engineer on a particular airplane
type, before they serve as pilot in-command or second-in-command,
respectively, on that airplane at that carrier.
Differences Training is the training required for L&T officer and dispatchers
who have qualified and served on a particular type airplane, when the FAA
determines that additional training is necessary before a crewmember serves in
the same capacity on a particular variation of that airplane at that carrier.
Recurrent training ensures each L&T officer or dispatcher is adequately

trained and currently proficient with respect to the type of airplane he or she is
L&T officer or dispatching.
114. Explain the general requirements of load and trim sheet.
 Before detailing a personnel for preparation of load / trim sheet, the

operator shall confirm to the DGCA that the personnel has successfully
undergone an approved course in accordance to the requirement laid
down in the CAR. They should also ensure that all such personnel
undergo periodic refresher and other training courses as stipulated in
this CAR.
 Aircraft weight and balance calculations should be conducted carefully
and load and trim sheets should be prepared ensuring that the correct
data is used. Gross error checks should be made at every stage.
 Communications should be established between ground crew and flight
crew, especially where last minute change procedures are used.
Passenger head counts and gender identification should be conducted
carefully in order to achieve accurate passenger figures.
 Operators must also ensure that the person responsible for supervising
the loading of the aircraft has inspected the load and reconciled the
actual load distribution with the aircraft loading instructions or load
report, has checked that the load is properly restrained throughout the
cargo compartments and then confirms, by signature, that the load and
its distribution are in accordance with the load and trim sheet. Sufficient
time must be available for such checks to be carried out properly.
115. List out the qualifications of load & trim officer.
Persons deputed by Operator for preparing load and trim sheet of aircraft shall
be:
PIC or co-pilot trained and current on type of aircraft,
OR
Possess the following minimum qualification and training requirements:

Documentation.
116. Write the instructions for safe loading.
 Specific seats shall be allotted to all passengers boarding at originating

stations of flights so that centre of gravity of the aircraft can be
calculated accurately and the C.G. is kept within the permissible limits.
 During loading, it must be ensured that aircraft cabin floor loading
limitations are not exceeded.
 The load must be securely tied so that there is no possibility of the load
shifting in flight and disturbing the calculated C.G. position.
 The load must be tied at the specified places provided in the aircraft and
the tying ropes must be of sufficient strength to withstand the loads
imposed on it in flight.
 While placing cargo in the passenger cabin during mixed version
(passenger cum freight) operation, the load must be placed ahead of the
passengers in the cabin, the load must not block "emergency exit" meant
to be used by the passengers during "emergencies".
117. Write short note on LIF.
A Loading Instruction Form (or LIF) is the usual description of the

specification for required aircraft Loading of Aircraft Holds that is completed
by the assigned dispatcher or equivalent agent and passed to the assigned hold
loading supervisor. Once compliant loading has been achieved, confirmation
of that fact is formalized by the physical return of the signed LIF to the
assigned dispatcher. That formalization is required prior to the dispatcher
presenting the final load and trim sheet to the aircraft commander. Alternative
electronic signaling of compliance may be substituted, as may similar
specification of the original loading instructions from the assigned Dispatcher
to the Loading Supervisor.
118. Write short note on passenger weights and seat occupancy.
119. Explain the procedure of loading and unloading of baggage in aircraft.
Standard passenger weights also include an allowance for permitted

cabin baggage. Restrictions on the maximum number of pieces, their
maximum weight and/or their maximum dimensions are likely to be imposed
by both the aircraft operator and the airport security screening process. This
usually means that available stowage in overhead lockers or on the floor
underneath the seat in front of that occupied will be sufficient. Any outsize
items should only be permitted on board if they can be safely stowed using
special wardrobe or locker space and by prior agreement of the senior cabin
crew who may seek the authority of the aircraft commander if in doubt as to
acceptance.
Emergency Evacuation rules usually require that during take-off and
landing, passengers are not permitted to have items in their laps; additionally,
items of baggage may not be placed under the seat in front of them if seated
immediately to the rear of a fixed bulkhead or at an emergency exit row.
120. Write short note on bulk loading.
individual items of baggage and cargo. In this case, baggage loading will be
by item count, with prescribed assumptions about the average weight per bag
Netting is used to restrain bulk loaded loose baggage items within holds
so that they do not move in flight. Any load that shifts in flight will move the
aircraft’s centre of gravity and can cause control difficulties (in extreme cases
causing loss of control) and prevent baggage door opening post flight. Cargo
netting may also be used to divide larger holds into sections.
Bulk loading is usually accomplished by delivery of items to the aircraft
in a baggage train of towed trailers. To help ensure each hold compartment is
loaded correctly, a particular trailer may only contain the baggage destined for
only one designated compartment. The trailer is unloaded into the aircraft hold
via conveyor belts and finally positioned in the hold by loaders working within
it. Usually, bulk loading of baggage items uses a system whereby loading
crews are informed that the last bag for loading on a particular flight has
arrived by use of an ‘End Bag’ identification tag - the tag is applied to the last
checked bag sent to the aircraft. A system of stickers and a reconciliation sheet
may also be used, where each printed baggage tag has a bar-coded sticker,
which is removed and stuck onto the re-conciliation sheet as the bag is loaded.
This helps ensure that all checked baggage for that flight has been loaded and
accounted for.
121. Write short note on mass and balance gross error checks.
A load instruction/report form will be issued for every aircraft departure

to instruct loading teams on the quantity of baggage/cargo to be loaded into
each hold. Where a computerized or electronic load and trim sheet is prepared
on behalf of the operating crew, usually the handling agent or airline will
produce the Load Instruction/Report Form with reference to the load and trim
sheet. The Load Instruction/Report form will then be given to the loading
supervisor to instruct the load team how the aircraft needs to be loaded and to
record formally the actual loading and any deviations.
When the operating crew produces a manual load and trim sheet, the
crew, in consultation with the loading supervisor, may also complete the Load
Instruction/Report Form.
Once the aircraft is loaded, the Load Instruction/Report Form is
generally provided to the crew for cross-checking against the load and trim
sheet, though sometimes the crew are provided with a certificate stating that
the baggage/cargo has been loaded in accordance with the load and trim sheet
instructions.
With numerous mass and balance documentation formats and different
industry procedures, it is very difficult to provide definitive details of how to
conduct gross error checks. In line with the best industry practices, UK CAA
guidance material - CAP 1009: Gross Error Checks provides information on
how any significant discrepancies in the loading process can be identified and
corrected before departure.
As with the load and trim sheet, there are a number of key entries on the Load
Instruction/Report Form that must be checked for accuracy:
 Airline/Operator
 Flight details (Routing, Flight number and Date)
 Aircraft type, variant and registration
 Distribution of hold loads (including baggage, cargo, ballast, spares,
COMAT, and mail etc.)
 Void/nil fit positions
 Bags per ULD/hold
 Weight allocation to each compartment does not exceed limits
 Document edition number (if applicable)
122. Write short note on principal hold loading risk.
The principal risks associated with loading of aircraft holds are as follows:
 Holds are not loaded by the loading crew in accordance with the
Loading Instructions provided - and the Load Instruction/Report Form
is not amended to reflect these changes.
 Where the loading has been different to the original Loading/Report
Form and the Loading/Report form is updated, the last minute change
(LMC) has not been correctly applied to the original load sheet
calculations and checked for mass and balance limits.
 The load is not secured or restrained appropriately
 Unauthorized items are loaded (e.g. dangerous goods).
 Aircraft structure (or propeller blades if applicable) is damaged by
unintended impact from mechanized loading equipment. Such impacts
may go unnoticed by the loading team or in some cases is noticed but
not reported. This may happen when the load team can see no apparent
damage so consider reporting the impact unnecessary. Where the
aircraft structure is formed using composite materials, all impacts must
be reported. While evidence of significant damage to a metal structure is
usually clearly visible, this is not necessarily true for composite
materials. Although the skin may appear to be undamaged, the core of a
composite structure may have deformed or have been significantly
weakened.
123. Write short note on passenger cabin loading risk.
 A partly-full cabin with passengers distributed differently to the load

and trim sheet presented to the aircraft commander - a particular
possibility when departing from an intermediate stop on a multi-stop
flight.
 Total number of passengers on board substantially different to the
number recorded on the load and trim sheet and the discrepancy not
detected by cabin crew head counting.
 Where there are financial disincentives to check baggage into the hold,
there is a risk that excessive cabin baggage will be brought on board.
This can be controlled by strict regulation of permitted size, weight and
number of items but if this does not occur, overloading of overhead
locker in respect of capacity or placarded maximum weight may occur.
124. Write short note on operational safety issues.

125. Explain the onsite bio-safety principles.
1. Physical distance should be kept at all times when

operational safety is not compromised or appropriate PPE
should be worn.
2. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer should be placed on entry into
common areas.
3. Regular cleaning and disinfection of surfaces (e.g. handles,
mobile devices, kiosks) should be established.
4. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer should be made available for
users of kiosks, shared mobile devices, etc.
5. Close proximity of staff for loading should be minimized or
appropriate PPE should be used particularly for passenger
cabin loading.
6. Ground personnel rotations should take into account the need
to avoid cross team infection.
SECTION – C (15 MARKS)

S. No Questions
126. Define the following terms:
1. Centre of gravity
2. Center of gravity limits
3. Datum
4. Arm
5. Moment
Centre of Gravity
and in the air.
Centre of Gravity Limits

simply, the MAC.)
Datum
A point along the longitudinal axis (centre line) of the aeroplane (or its
extension) designated by the manufacturer as the zero or reference point from
which all balance arms (distances) begin. By taking moments about the datum
the CG position of the aircraft can be determined. For the purposes of this
phase of study the lateral displacement of the CG from the longitudinal axis is
assumed to be zero.
Balance Arm
The distance from the aircraft’s datum to the CG position or centroid of

a body or mass. For example, the centroid of a square or rectangle is the exact
centre of the square or rectangle and, in such cases; the balance arm is the
distance from the datum to the exact centre of the square or rectangle.
Unfortunately, cargo bays are seldom exact squares or rectangles and so the
centroid (the point the total weight acts through) is given by the manufacturer.
Moment
To understand balance, it is necessary to have a working knowledge of

the principle of moments. For those unfamiliar with weight and balance terms,
the word moment is the product of a force or weight times a distance. The
distance used in calculating a moment is referred to as the arm or moment arm
and is usually expressed in inches. To calculate a moment, a force (or weight)
and a distance must be known. The weight is multiplied by the distance from
the datum and the result is the moment, which is expressed in inch-pounds (in-
lb.), a point through which the force acts. For the purpose of illustration,
compare an aircraft to a seesaw. Like the seesaw, for an aircraft to be in
balance, or equilibrium, the sum of the moments on each side of the balance
point must be equal. Therefore, the same weight that is different distances (in
inches) from the datum has greater moments.
127. Define the following terminologies:
1. Maximum weight
2. Empty weight
3. Maximum take-off weight
4. Maximum taxi weight
5. Maximum landing weight
Maximum weight
The maximum weight is the maximum authorized weight of the

aircraft and its contents, and is indicated in the Aircraft Specifications or
TCDS. For many aircraft, there are variations to the maximum allowable
weight depending on the purpose and conditions under which the aircraft is to
be flown.
Empty Weight
The weight of an empty airplane including unusable fuel, full operating
fluids (hydraulic fluids) and full engine oil.
Maximum Taxi Weight
This is the maximum allowable weight mass for ground operations.
MRW assures acceptable ground maneuverability and includes fuel for taxi,
run-up and start.
Maximum Takeoff Weight
Maximum allowable mass for the initiation of a takeoff roll. Depending
on how big your airplane is, you may have a variety of MTOWs limited by:
structural limitations, runway distance, climb performance, or landing weight
limits.
Maximum Landing Weight
Maximum landing weight is usually a structural limit, but may include
calculations based on missed approach climb performance.
128. Write short note on overloading also explain the effects of overloading.
The four forces of lift, weight, thrust and drag acting on an aircraft all
induces stress into the airframe structural members in the form of tension,
compression, torsion, bending etc. The structure may, at the same time of
absorbing these stresses, be subject to extremes of temperature ranging from
minus 56°C to plus 40°C.
The stress and temperature factors gradually fatigue the structure as

time progresses. Fatigue, in this sense of the word, is a permanent loss of the
physical properties (strength, durability, hardness etc.) of the materials
comprising the structure. Fatigue will, if left undetected or unattended,
eventually cause the structure to fail altogether – possibly with catastrophic
and/ or fatal consequences.
Fatigue is cumulative and non-reversible and the higher the fatigue level the
greater the risk of premature structural failure. Structure that is inadvertently
subject to additional fatigue may fail earlier than predicted or expected.
The aircraft designer must, for each individual part of the structure,
determine the frequency of application of the stress producing loads and,
together with the temperature factors, determine the types of stress involved.
Based on this data, a Design Limit Load (DLL) is calculated for each member
and for the complete structure. The DLL is the maximum load that can be
applied to the structure repeatedly during normal operations without inducing
excessive fatigue and the pilot must never deliberately exceed this value.
As a safeguard, the aviation authorities impose a factor of safety of 50%

to the DLL to produce a Design Ultimate Load (DUL). The DUL is the
minimum load the structure must be able to absorb in an emergency (heavier
than normal landing or flight in exceptional gusty wind conditions) without
collapsing. In order to keep weight to a minimum the aircraft’s structure is
manufactured from materials that are just capable of absorbing the DUL.
Structure subject to loads in excess of the DUL is likely to suffer some

permanent damage and may even collapse altogether.
An aeroplane’s principal function is to lift mass into the air, transport

that mass through the air and then land it back on the ground without damage.
Clearly, the greater the mass that has to be lifted the greater will be the loading
on each member of the aircraft structure. Overloading the aeroplane will
induce additional fatigue. For the purposes of cost efficiency it is important to
maximize the mass transported by the aeroplane but without overloading it.
The manufacturer of the structural parts of the aircraft is responsible for

determining the stresses the aeroplane will be subject to both on the ground
and in the air, and to impose suitable mass limits so that the integrity of the
structure is guaranteed throughout the aircraft’s working life. The limits
include: the maximum taxi mass (MTM); the maximum zero fuel mass
(MZFM); the maximum structural take-off mass (MSTOM) and the maximum
structural landing mass (MSLM). These values must never be exceeded in
normal operation.
It is necessary at this point to note that, in Mass & Balance terms; mass and
weight are synonymous (used to express the same thing).
Increasing age, inappropriate use, hostile environmental and climatic

conditions are all factors that induce stress and fatigue into the aircraft’s
structure. However, weight is the principal stress factor for inducing fatigue
into aircraft structure.
Weight also has pronounced effects on the aircraft’s performance,

handling and aerodynamic properties. With an increase in weight:
 Performance is reduced:
 Take-off and landing distances will increase. V1 decision speed, VR
rotation speed, V2 takeoff safety speed, and the stopping distance will
all increase. The climb gradient, rate of climb and ceiling height will
also reduce.
 The rate of descent will increase.
 The stalling speed will increase and maximum speed will reduce.
 The safety margins and the effective speed range between low and high
speed buffet will reduce.
 Drag and fuel consumption will increase.
 Range and endurance will reduce.
 Wing root stresses will increase.
 Maneuverability will reduce. The aircraft will become less responsive to
control inputs and more difficult to fly.
 Wing root stresses and undercarriage loads will increase as will tyre and
brake wear.
129. Write short note on load and trim sheets also explain the importance of
load and trim sheets.
Importance
It is a legal requirement and crucial to the safety and structural

integrity of an aircraft that it is loaded in such a way that the specified
maximum allowable weights are not exceeded and that the centre of gravity as
loaded will be within the permitted flight envelope and remain so for the
entirety of the intended operation. Once these conditions have been satisfied, it
is equally crucial that the flight crew are aware of the prevailing weight and
centre of gravity so that they can set aircraft equipment appropriately; these
include take off reference speeds, slat/flap position, and pitch trim
or stabilizer position. This is important to ensure that the aircraft will achieve
published certified performance and that the aircraft retains expected stability
and control characteristics. It is also very important that aircraft baggage and
freight load complies with the restrictions on carriage of dangerous goods.
130. Write short note on loading procedures of an aircraft also explain the
regulatory requirements of load and trim sheets.
Loading Procedures
Regulatory Requirements
 Training and qualification records.

 The load control process must have an audit trail for each departure.
 Weight and balance records must be retained.
 The operating airline will identify specific loading positions.
 The operating airline will specify requirements for presenting load
information.
 Weight determination of load and clearance measuring systems must be
calibrated and/or checked at intervals determined by the operating
carrier or state.
131. Explain the main components of an aircraft with neat diagram.
Fuselage
Wings
Cockpit
The cockpit of an airplane is also called the flight deck. This is where
the pilot controls the aircraft. The cockpit includes a seating area for the flight
crew, flight instruments, avionics, audio/radio communications, and flight
controls. Electronic flight instruments include a multi-function display (MFD).
This is used to control heading, speed, altitude, altimeter, etc. The Primary
Flight Display (PFD) typically includes attitude indicator, airspeed, heading,
and vertical airspeed indicator. A navigation display (ND) provides route
information, such as waypoints, wind speed, and wind direction.
Engine
Propeller

Empennage
The empennage, also called the tail or tail assembly, is located at the
rear of an airplane. The tail provides stability during flight. This is very similar
to how feathers on an arrow provide stability. The tail assembly consists of the
vertical stabilizer, rudder, elevator, horizontal stabilizer, and static wicks.
Landing Gear
The landing gear is the undercarriage of an airplane. It is used for both takeoff
and landing. The landing gear supports the plane when it is on the ground.
Landing gear allows the plane to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Most
landing gear has wheels. However, some aircraft use skis or floats to operate
on snow, ice, or water. Faster aircraft, such as many twin-engine or jet aircraft,
have retractable landing gear. Upon takeoff, the folding landing gear are
stowed away to reduce drag during flight.
132. Explain the control surfaces of an aircraft with neat diagram.
Aileron
Elevators
The elevators raise and lower the aircraft, moving the plane in its
transverse axis, producing pitch. Most aircraft have two elevators. They are
placed on the trailing edge on each half of the fixed horizontal stabilizer.
Manual or autopilot input moves the elevators up or down as needed by a
forward or aft movement of the control column or control stick. If it is moved
forward, the elevator deflects downward, which generates an increase in lift
for the tail surface. This, in turn, causes the nose of the plane to pivot along
the vertical axis and turn downwards. The opposite is true when the control
panel is pulled back.
Rudder
The rudder moves the aircraft in its horizontal axis, producing yaw. It
sits on the vertical stabilizer or tail fin. It is not used to directly steer the
aircraft, as its name might have one believe. Rather it is used to counteract
adverse yaw produced by turning the aircraft or to counteract an engine failure
on quad jets. It is also used in order to 'slip' and direct the trajectory of the
plane before landing during a heavy crosswind approach. The rudder is usually
controlled by the left and right rudder pedals in the cockpit.
Flaps
The flaps resemble the ailerons, but they sit closer to the fuselage. They
change the shape of the aircraft's wing and are utilized to both generate more
lift and increase drag, depending on their angle. Their setting is usually
between five and fifteen degrees, depending on the aircraft. Trailing edge flaps
extend and move downwards on the back of the wing. Leading-edge flaps
move out and forward on the front of the wing. However, the leading-edge
flaps and slats are not individually controlled but respond to the movement of
the trailing edge flaps.
Slats
Leading-edge slats extend out from the surface of the front of the wing
using hydraulic pressure. Altogether, they can change the shape and size of the
wing quite significantly. This lets pilots adapt the amount of drag and lift
needed for takeoff and landing procedures.
Spoilers
aircraft. They are used on approach and after landing. Spoilers are small
panels hinged on the upper surface of the wing and decrease lift by disrupting
the airflow. While spoilers may act as brakes, proper air brakes extend out
from the surface into the airstream in order to slow the aircraft down. Most
often, they are deployed symmetrically on each side.
Tabs
Tabs are small secondary flight control surfaces set into the trailing
edges of the primary surfaces. These are used to reduce the pilot’s work load
required to hold the aircraft in some constant attitude by “loading” the control
surface in a position to maintain the desired attitude. They may also be used to
aid the pilot in returning a control surface to a neutral or trimmed center
position.
133. Define the following aircraft components:
1. Fuselage
2. Engine
3. Wings
4. Landing gear
5. Empennage
Fuselage
Wings
Engine
Empennage
The empennage, also called the tail or tail assembly, is located at the
rear of an airplane. The tail provides stability during flight. This is very similar
to how feathers on an arrow provide stability. The tail assembly consists of the
vertical stabilizer, rudder, elevator, horizontal stabilizer, and static wicks.
Landing Gear
The landing gear is the undercarriage of an airplane. It is used for both

takeoff and landing. The landing gear supports the plane when it is on the
ground. Landing gear allows the plane to take off, land, and taxi without
damage. Most landing gear has wheels. However, some aircraft use skis or
floats to operate on snow, ice, or water. Faster aircraft, such as many twin-
engine or jet aircraft, have retractable landing gear. Upon takeoff, the folding
landing gear are stowed away to reduce drag during flight.
134. Explain in detail about departure control system.

Today, DCS mostly (98%) manage e-tickets using interfaces from a

number of devices, including check-in kiosks, online check-in, mobile
boarding cards, and baggage handling. DCS are able to identify, capture and
update reservations from an airline's computer reservation system for
passengers stored in a so-called passenger name record (PNR). A DCS is used
to update reservations, typically as checked-in, boarded, and flown or another
status.
Additionally and increasingly, a DCS for some city-pair sectors may
also interface with immigration control (such as Advance Passenger
Information System) for visa, immigration and passenger no-fly watch lists.
Historically, systems developed in North America have incorporated
DCS functions as part of the reservations systems with check-in being initiated
directly from the PNR. Load control (weight and balance) is then provided by
a standalone application. Systems developed by airlines outside North
America have traditionally had a separate database for DCS, requiring
passenger data to be transferred from the PNR into DCS records. These
systems have an integrated weight and balance capability.
"New generation" DCSs are being developed and deployed by vendors
such as Amadeus and SITA as part of the overall re-engineering of airline
Passenger Services Systems. These new systems typically use a common
database and a services oriented architecture that allows reservations, check-in
and other services to maintain a consistent view of passenger information.
Larger international airports will have a range of DCS or a single DCS
which each particular airline carrier can integrate with for streamlined
operations.
Benefits
 Cute-less
 Cost effective
Features


TypeB networks

feature

security


DUV.
135. What is DCS? Explain the benefits and features of DCS.

Benefits
 Cute-less
 Cost effective
Features


TypeB networks

feature

security


DUV.
136. Explain the weighing procedure of an aircraft?
Initial Weighing
 All aircraft shall be weighed prior to the initial issue of a Certificate of

Airworthiness. In case a new aircraft is imported from outside the
country, weight schedules issued by the manufacturer or the previous
operator weight schedule based on the manufacturer's certificated
weight and balance documents would be acceptable.
 All aircraft shall be weighed when, as a result of a modification or
series of modifications incorporated since the last recorded weighing,
the following changes have occurred in the empty weight or empty
center of gravity position:
iii) The empty weight has changed by more than ½ percent of the
maximum all up weight; or
iv) The empty center of gravity position has changed by more than
½ per cent of the mean aerodynamic chord.
 Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (b) above, if the Director

General of Civil Aviation is satisfied that adequate weight control has
been maintained over an aircraft throughout a modification or series of
modifications of any magnitude, the aircraft need not be re-weighed.
 Aircraft shall be weighed when in the opinion of the Director General
or his accredited representative weighing is necessary as a result of
changes in empty weight or empty center of gravity position or for any
other reason.
 Aircraft having AUW more than 2000 kg shall be re-weighed every
five years unless it is required to be re-weighed in accordance with
para 4.3 of CAR Sec 2 Series X Part-II. However operators may
approach Regional Airworthiness Offices (through the Sub- Regional
Airworthiness Offices wherever applicable) for an ad-hoc extension of
the weighment period of an aircraft by a maximum of 3 months to tide
over the operational exigencies. Such requests for extension may be
agreed upon by Regional Airworthiness Office, if satisfied with the
reasons advanced by the operator for his request. Extension of
weighment beyond 3 months may be granted by Director of
Airworthiness of the concerned region under intimation to
Headquarters promptly.
General Weighing
 Weighing of aircraft shall be carried out by the person duly Authorized

for the purpose. Aircraft weighing procedures detailed in aircraft
weight and balance manual / aircraft maintenance manual shall be
followed. An approved person like Quality Manager or his
representative shall be present and take the responsibility of weighing.
Regional/ Sub- regional Airworthiness Office should be intimated
at least seven days prior to the due date of weighing and may associate
with the weighing process.
 Aircraft shall be weighed on weighing equipment of range and
accuracy as given by Manufacture. The owner or operator shall
provide personnel and sufficient equipment to complete the weighing
satisfactorily and shall be responsible for the safety of the aircraft and
personnel during weighing.
 Two independent weighing shall be performed and the longitudinal
datum line of the aircraft shall be horizontal in at least one of these
weighing.
 Any discrepancy between the total weights as determined by the two
weighing shall be performed and the longitudinal datum line of the
aircraft shall be horizontal in at least one of these weighing.
 The difference between the total weights obtained during two
consecutive weighing shall not exceed 0.2 per cent or 12 Kg,
whichever is greater. If this tolerance is exceeded further weighing
shall be performed until the total weights, as determined by two
consecutive and independent weighing, falls within that tolerance.
 An ‘Aircraft Weighing Summary’ shall be completed and, the same to
be forwarded along with weight schedule to the concerned Regional
office for approval.
 If there is any doubt regarding the accuracy of a weighing, the
Regional office may require the aircraft to be re-weighed.
137. Explain the steps involved in preparation and approval of weight
schedule.
Preparation and approval of loading data

 After an aircraft has been weighed, the empty weight and
corresponding position of the center of gravity shall be calculated by
the operator.
 The operator shall prepare a loading system for each aircraft unless it
can be shown that the aircraft cannot possibly be loaded so that its
center of gravity falls outside the approved range, observing all
limitations on compartment loads.
 Two copies of calculations, loading system and weight schedule shall
be submitted by the operator to the Regional Airworthiness Office for
approval.
 The approved weight schedule shall be displayed in or at permanent
place in the cabin/cockpit of aircraft.
Form of weight schedule

After the aircraft has been weighed as required, Weight Schedule to
be prepared which will contain at least the following information:-
(xiv) Type of Aircraft;
(xv) Registration Marking and Serial No. of aircraft;
(xvi) Empty weight including weight of unusable quantity of fuel and

oil (Kg);
(xvii) Item wise Weight and details of removable equipment (Kg)

including wireless equipment;
(xviii) Maximum fuel capacity (Usable) in liters and Kg;
(xix) Maximum oil capacity (Usable) in liters and Kg;
(xx) Maximum commercial weight with fuel and oil tanks full;
(xxi) MTOW (as per Certificate of Airworthiness/ Flight Manual) in

kg;
(xxii) Empty weight Centre of Gravity;
(xxiii) Centre of Gravity Range and datum;
(xxiv) Maximum number of passengers;
(xxv) Signature of appropriately licensed AME/ Approved person;
(xxvi) Date of weighing
Approval by Airworthiness office

The weight schedule after being prepared and duly signed shall be
submitted to Regional Airworthiness Office who would approve the same by
affixing signature and stamp after satisfying himself of the procedure
followed and correctness of the figures of the weight schedule.
Display in the aircraft and preservation of record
A copy of the approved weight schedule must be displayed in the aircraft at
a suitable and prominent place. All persons concerned directly with the
loading of the aircraft shall be duly informed of the various weight figures for
exercising proper weight and balance control of the aircraft. A copy of the
weight schedule must be retained along with other documents of the aircraft
or in the aircraft logbook, till it is replaced by a fresh schedule.
Calibration of weighing scales
Record Keeping
The DAW (Region) and DAW (Hqrs) will establish a system to

maintain records of all documents generated and received. It may be ensured
that all related records are maintained in chronological manner and all the
pages are appropriately numbered. Traceability of all records should be
ensured for future reference.
138. Write short notes on standard weight of crew & passengers and carry-on
luggage.
Standard Weight of Flight Crew/ Passengers
The minimum standard weight (including handbag) as given below shall

be applied in all civil registered aircraft:
1. Crew 85 (75+10) kg.
Notwithstanding above conditions, the actual weight of the passenger

could be considered for aircraft MTOW up to 2000 kg provided the
arrangement for passenger weighment with sufficient accuracy is ensured.
Carry-on Luggage
While measurement restrictions vary by airline, several major airlines use
the following size requirements:

Airlines calculate carry-on luggage size measurements using two methods:
 Height by width by depth: Most – but not all – airlines measure bags
by inches or centimeters using this formula: height by width by depth,
such as 22 x 14 x 9 inches. (Note: The dimensions in this article, which
are given according to that formula, may differ slightly from the way
each individual airline formats its size requirements.)
 Linear inches: A few airlines have linear inch restrictions for carry-on
baggage, meaning the airline gives one number for the total of all three
dimensions. As long as the combined height, width and depth don't
exceed that number, you're in the clear.
Most major domestic airlines do not impose a weight limit on carry-on

bags; however, several international airlines have weight restrictions for carry-
on luggage and in some cases, personal items.
1. Empty weight: The measured or computed weight of aircraft excluding

all removable equipment and other items of disposable load, but
including all items of fixed equipment which is mandatory for all
operations.
2. Operating weight: The empty weight of an aircraft plus those items of
removable equipment and disposable load which remain constant for the
type of operation being conducted.
3. Weight schedule: The document prepared in respect of an individual
aircraft to provide basic weight and center of gravity information for
loading that aircraft.
4. Loading system: The system for ensuring that an aircraft is loaded
within approved limits at all times during flight.
5. Removable equipment weight: The items of equipment which are
carried on some of the operations but which are not included in the
empty weight and which are not mandatory for the type of operation
being conducted.
140. Explain center of gravity, center of gravity limits and center of pressure
with neat diagrams.
Centre of Gravity
and in the air.
Centre of Gravity Limits

simply, the MAC.)
Center of Pressure

no moment.
141. Explain the important features of load and trim sheet.
Important Features of Load Sheet
 Heading: Flight Number, A/C Registration, Aircraft Configuration,

Crew Version, Date
 Load sheet body: Follow the procedure in OMB 6.1.3.1
13.Adjusted DOW: Refer to the AHM to adjust DOW due to non-standard
configuration such as flight crew, catering...
14.Operating Weight: OW = Adj DOW + Take-off fuel
15.Maximum Allowed Take-off Weight: Is the lowest of: a) MZFW +
Take-off fuel b) MTOW from RTOW c) LW + trip fuel
16.Allowed Traffic Load: Allowed Traffic Load = MATOW – OW
17.Total Traffic Load:
 Passenger Weight = AD X 75 kg + Ch X 35 kg + I X 10 kg
 B/C/M Weight = Weight of Baggage + Cargo + Mail, if check
baggage is not weighted, the standard weight 15 kg/piece
 Total Traffic Load = Passenger Weight + B/C/M Weight
 Check against Allowed Traffic Load
18.Under load before LMC: Under load before LMC = Allowed Traffic
Load - Total traffic Load
19.Zero Fuel Weight: ZFW = Adj DOW + Total Traffic Load, Check
against MZFW
20.Take-off Weight: TOW = ZFW + Take-off Fuel, Check against MTOW
21.Landing Weight: LW = TOW - Trip Fuel, Check against MLW
22.Last minute change (LMC): If appropriate enter LMC details and sum
+/- weights and check result against under load Before LMC. The
maximum LMC index change is +/- 30 index units
23.Seating Conditions: Enter number of passengers on each section (infants
are not counted)
24.Total Person on board: POB = Pax + Crew
Important Features of Load Sheet
 Heading: Flight Number

 Trim sheet body: Follow the procedure in OMB 6.1.3.2
13.Enter the aircraft specific Adjusted DOI
14.Enter the aircraft specific Adjusted DOW
15.Enter the respective loads in COMPT-1, COMPT-2, COMPT-3 and
COMPT-4
16.Enter the respective passenger loads in the fields CABIN-A, B, C, D
17.Enter the FUEL/ (Correction) from the FUEL INDEX table
18.Enter the top scale with the adjusted DOI and move vertically down to
the COMPT-1 scale. Move in the direction of the arrow for the number
of the kilograms in the compartment. Once this is done move vertically
down to the next scale;
19.Continue through the remaining cargo and passenger scales in the same
manner paying attention to the scale units and direction
20.To obtain the Zero Fuel CG position draw a line from the CABIN-D
scale vertically down on to the Aircraft Weight vs CG (%MAC) plot.
The point where this line intersects the Zero Fuel Weight is the Zero
Fuel CG position
21.Check that the intersection is within the CG envelope. If not, payload
must be re-arranged
22.From the point where the zero fuel CG line intersects the FUEL
CORRECTION adjust for the fuel on board and draw a line vertically
down onto the weight vs CG envelope. The point where this line
intersects the takeoff weight is the takeoff weight CG position
23.Use the CG (%MAC) to determine the takeoff stabilizer trim setting and
record this setting
24.Complete the remaining fields on the Trim sheet
142. Explain the requirements of load and trim sheet.
 Before starting operation the operator shall prepare a load/trim sheet and
get the same approved from the DGCA (Directorate of Airworthiness).
 The operator shall compute the trim either manually or by use of a
computer system (e.g. ACARS) in accordance with a procedure
approved by the DGCA. A brief description of the ACARS is given in
Appendix – A.
 The operator shall ensure that the loading and distribution is in
accordance with the requirement of the Aircraft Rules and any special
direction issued by the DGCA in conformity with the Rules.
 It will be the responsibility of the operator to ensure that the weight of
the aircraft at the time of take-off does not exceed the RTOW.
 Each operator is responsible for the preparation and accuracy of the
load/ trim sheet.
 The load/ trim sheet must be prepared in duplicate and signed for each
flight by Personnel of the operator who have the duty of supervising the
loading of aircraft and preparing the load and trim sheet except that the
same is not required for each subsequent shuttle/ leg of a helicopter
flight provided:
1. Only passengers and their personal baggage are carried in
each such shuttle/ leg;
2. The pilot-in-command calculates and ensures that the
maximum AUW for the prevailing density altitude is not
exceeded;
3. The sequence of loading and passenger seating is specified
in the Flight and Operations Manual and is being followed
for the flight.
 The load and trim sheet must be signed by the pilot-in-command unless
the load and trim sheet is sent to the aircraft by electronic data transfer.
 When the load and trim sheet is sent to the aircraft by electronic data
transfer, a copy of the final load and trim sheet, as accepted by the pilot-
in-command, must be available on the ground. A load and trim sheet
sent by electronic data transfer shall be annotated as “final” to indicate
the version to be accepted by the PIC.
 The load and trim sheet should normally contain the following
information:
1. The aircraft registration and type;
2. The flight identification number and date;
3. The identity of the pilot-in-command;
4. The identity of the person who prepared the document;
5. The dry operating mass and the corresponding CG of the
aircraft;
6. The mass of the fuel at take-off and the mass of trip fuel;
7. The mass of consumables other than fuel;
8. The components of the load including passengers, baggage,
freight and ballast;
9. The take-off mass, landing mass and zero fuel mass;
10.The load distribution; he applicable aircraft CG positions;
11.The limiting mass and CG values.
 The load/trim sheet and passenger manifest must at least contain the
following information concerning the loading of the aircraft at take-off
time:
1. The weight of the aircraft, fuel and oil, cargo and baggage,
passengers and crew members.
2. The maximum allowable weight for that flight that must not
exceed the least of the following weights:
 Maximum allowable take-off weight for the runway
intended to be used (including corrections for altitude,
gradient, wind, and runway surface condition and
temperature conditions existing at the take-off time.
 Maximum take-off weight considering anticipated fuel
and oil consumption that allows compliance with
applicable en route performance limitations.
and oil consumption that allows compliance with the
maximum authorized design landing weight limitations
on arrival at the destination airport.
and oil consumption that allows compliance with
landing distance limitation on arrival at the destination
and alternate airports.
3. The total weight computed under approved procedures.
4. Evidence that the aircraft is loaded according to an approved
schedule that ensures that the centre of gravity is within approved
limits, during the flight.
5. Names of passenger including breakup of male, female,
child/infant.
 If after take-off, any discrepancy is observed in the load calculation by
the concerned personnel on the ground, the same should be intimated to
the Pilot-in-Command immediately using ACARS (if applicable)
 The load and trim sheet needs to be updated when:
1. A modification which changes the aircraft certified limits is
included or
2. A modification (cabin layout, cargo arrangement.) which
influences the operational limits is made.
 The form "Special Load – Notification to Captain” (NOTOC) is to be
used whenever it is necessary to inform the Captain of the presence of
specific nature load on board of the aircraft:
1. Dangerous goods,
2. Live animals,
3. Human remains,
4. Perishable cargo,
5. Valuable cargo,
6. Other special load.
Minimum of two copies of NOTOC are required; one for the Captain, and one
for the loading station’s file.
General Requirements
 Before detailing a personnel for preparation of load / trim sheet, the

operator shall confirm to the DGCA that the personnel has successfully
undergone an approved course in accordance to the requirement laid
down in the CAR. They should also ensure that all such personnel
undergo periodic refresher and other training courses as stipulated in
this CAR.
 Aircraft weight and balance calculations should be conducted carefully
and load and trim sheets should be prepared ensuring that the correct
data is used. Gross error checks should be made at every stage.
 Communications should be established between ground crew and flight
crew, especially where last minute change procedures are used.
Passenger head counts and gender identification should be conducted
carefully in order to achieve accurate passenger figures.
 Operators must also ensure that the person responsible for supervising
the loading of the aircraft has inspected the load and reconciled the
actual load distribution with the aircraft loading instructions or load
report, has checked that the load is properly restrained throughout the
cargo compartments and then confirms, by signature, that the load and
its distribution are in accordance with the load and trim sheet. Sufficient
time must be available for such checks to be carried out properly.
143. Explain the qualifications, duties and responsibilities of load & trim
officer.
Requirement of Qualified Personnel
Persons deputed by Operator for preparing load and trim sheet of aircraft shall
be:
PIC or co-pilot trained and current on type of aircraft,
OR
Possess the following minimum qualification and training requirements:

Documentation.
Duties & Responsibilities of Qualified Personnel
 Perform all aircraft Weight and Balance and Documentation activities

for the operator concerned.
 Ensure the provision of an accurate and punctual service and that
activities confirm to legal and safety requirements as outlined by
regulatory bodies such as IATA, DGCA, Aircraft Manufacturers,
Airline Weight and Balance manuals etc.
 Review existing operational practices, systems and procedures to create
work/ process efficiencies and source opportunities to maximize aircraft
space utilization and fuel uptake, in order to exploit maximum revenue
capacity and performance capability per aircraft.
 Co-ordinate the receipt, record and onward communication of relevant
information from various stakeholders including outstations required for
the preparation of weight and balance documentation (loading
instruction report, load sheet and trim sheet) for an aircraft.
 Build and maintain relationships with key stakeholders to enhance
customer service standards and facilitate the exchange of information &
ensure all under the wing activities are carried out in a safe & effective
manner.
Training Programme
1. The training programme for the persons engaged in preparing load and
trim sheet and supervising loading shall comprise of:
 Basic / Initial ground training,
 Conversion/Transition training,
 Refresher/Recurrent training,
 Differences training.
2. Each training shall include practical demonstration as applicable.
3. Each training should cover the differences between aircraft of the same
type operated by the operator to ensure that such personnel are
adequately trained to perform their assigned duties on different aircraft
being operated.
4. Upgrade training programme as required from time to time.
5. In addition to initial, transition, upgrade, recurrent and differences
training, each training programme must also provide specific ground
training, instruction and practice as necessary to ensure that each
personnel :-
 Remains adequately trained and currently proficient with respect
to each aircraft and type of operation in which the personnel is
involved.
 Qualifies in new equipment, facilities, procedures and techniques,
including change in loading / weight procedures as applicable to
personnel.
Initial Training is the training required for L&T officer and dispatchers who
have not qualified and served in the same capacity on another airplane of the
Transition Training is the training required for L&T officer and dispatchers
who have qualified and served in the same capacity on another airplane in the
Upgrade Training is the training required for L&T officer who have qualified
and served as second-in-command or flight engineer on a particular airplane
type, before they serve as pilot in-command or second-in-command,
respectively, on that airplane at that carrier.
Differences Training is the training required for L&T officer and dispatchers
who have qualified and served on a particular type airplane, when the FAA
determines that additional training is necessary before a crewmember serves in
the same capacity on a particular variation of that airplane at that carrier.
Recurrent training ensures each L&T officer or dispatcher is adequately

trained and currently proficient with respect to the type of airplane he or she is
L&T officer or dispatching.
Competency Check for Personnel
 Written test / Examination:
Each trainee after having undergone the prescribed training shall

appear in a written examination conducted by an instructor in co-ordination
with the DGCA. The examination shall consist of:
1. General subjects
2. Specific on type of aircraft.
 Oral and Practical test:
The personnel after having successfully undergone written test are

required to demonstrate their drill and skills. The assessment in this regard
shall be done by an instructor.
Operating Experience
The personnel must perform the assigned duties of preparing load and
trim sheet on at least two flights under the supervision of an authorized
instructor, who shall personally observe the performance of these duties.
However, such check is not required for personnel who have previously
acquired experience on any large passenger carrying aircraft of the same
group.
144. Explain the loading procedure of an aircraft.
Loading Procedures
Load and Trim Sheets
Manual Load Sheets

Aircraft Commanders' Acceptance of Load and Trim Sheets
The aircraft commander must be given a copy of the completed load and
trim sheet for the flight and should check and sign it, leaving a copy at the
point of departure. The aircraft commander is obliged to accept that the
aircraft is loaded as stated in respect of the hold loading. However, in respect
of Passenger Cabin Loading the senior cabin crew member usually confirms
the number of passengers actually on board by means of a headcount after
boarding has been completed.
Electronic Flight Bag generation of Load and Trim data
actual situation.
Provisional and Final Load Sheets
Adjustment of the Last Minute Changes (LMC)
1. Basic weight: A combination of the aircraft weight and all its

fixed equipment provides the foundation necessary to calculate
the four different stages of an aircraft’s weight.
2. Fixed equipment weight: Seats, galley, toilets including
furnishings and emergency equipment such as oxygen masks and
bottles. Anything that is standard or fitted as an optional extra to
the aircraft is part of this calculation.
3. Pantry weight: Consisting of any food, drink, provisions or
objects used for servicing passengers or crew. An example of
items covered in the pantry could include tea, biscuits, coffee pots
and hot water. Whilst individually these items have a negligible
weight, when they are carried in bulk it will naturally add weight
to the aircraft in turn affecting its trim. It would be unfeasible to
weigh every item of pantry carried on board each flight therefore
a standard weight is created accounting for required provisions
per flight. The weight and location is recorded for trim purposes
and absorbed into calculations for the operating weights of the
aircraft.
4. Crew weight: Generally commercial aircraft have a standard
operating crew compliment with standard crew weights used for
load sheets. As an example the Bombardier Q300 aircraft has a
standard crew compliment of 2 pilots and 1 flight attendant.
However, this can alter for training or checking purposes when an
additional pilot is carried on the jump seat or an extra flight
attendant is in the cabin. The load controller must adjust the crew
compliment as it will affect the weight and trim of the aircraft.
5. Passengers weight: The total weight of all passengers carried
including their hand baggage. These can be actual weights
whereby all passengers and their hand baggage are physically
weighed or, standard weights where an air operator has an
established and documented method and calculation in their air
operator’s exposition.
146. Explain the procedure of loading and unloading of passengers in aircraft.
Passenger Cabin Loading

Some passenger aircraft cabins can be re-configured to carry cargo by
removal of all, or some, of their seats. Loading of the main cabin in such
circumstances raises similar issues of operational safety, and appropriate
procedure, as a dedicated freighter version of the same aircraft model and is
not considered here.
Passenger Weights and Seat Occupancy
Cabin Crew Observation and Reporting
Senior cabin crew can assist operational safety by using their discretion
to report what they perceive to be abnormal seated passenger distribution prior
to take-off, especially if free seating is available. This is a particularly
important point in the case of flights which make an en route or ‘transit’ stop,
at which passengers either leave or join the flight, and where some through
passengers remain on board. This scenario has often led in the past to ground
staff preparing an incorrect load and trim sheet based on unchecked (and
undisclosed) assumptions about passenger seat occupancy when an aircraft
will be departing with only a part load. Either the seats occupied by passengers
remaining on board at the transit stop are not established, or the seats chosen
by the boarding passengers are not known, or both. Random assumptions are
then made for load and trim sheet purposes, which may not reflect the actual
longitudinal trim of the aircraft as actually loaded. This may result in a take-
off with the aircraft trim outside the envelope for permitted safe flight, or the
pitch trim setting made by the flight crew may be incorrect to a degree which
then affects normal aircraft control at and after the initiation of rotation.
Cabin Crew validation of total passengers on board
Routine ‘head counts’ of boarded passengers by cabin crew before
every departure will, if reported to the aircraft commander prior to their
acceptance of the final load sheet, ensure that a flight always departs with the
same number of passengers on board as has been recorded on the load and
trim sheet.
Cabin Crew checking of boarding passengers
Routine checks by cabin crew of the boarding cards of joining
passengers as they arrive at the aircraft, to check that they are getting on the
correct aircraft, can provide an extra check on the correct release of passengers
by ground crew at the boarding gate. Whilst computerized seat assignment and
passenger on-load validation built into many DCS systems has eliminated a lot
of errors made in the older manual processing systems, a new type of error is
now prevalent which occurs when ground staff manually override the
automatic system to accommodate late changes or other specific problems.
147. Explain the procedure of loading and unloading of cargo in aircraft.
Safe operation of aircraft requires all hold cargo and baggage to be

weighed (or an accurate estimate of weight provided by using “standard”
values), it must be loaded correctly and secured to prevent movement in flight.
Loading should be in full accordance with the generally applicable
regulations and limitations, the operators loading procedures and in
accordance with the instructions given by the person with overall
responsibility for the loading process for a particular flight. These loading
instructions must match the requirements for baggage/cargo distribution stated
within the aircraft load and trim sheet.
Operational Safety Issues
Bulk Loading
accounted for.
Unit Load Devices
ULDs must either be weighed, or the number of baggage items per
container must be within a specified range and standard baggage unit weights
applied.
Special Procedures
Under either system, special procedures may be prescribed for abnormal loads
such as:
 Those covered by Dangerous Goods Regulations
 Heavy items
 Oversize items
 Items with have unusual dimensions/proportions.
Heavy objects which exceed the hold floor-loading limit published in
the AFM may be able to be carried if prescribed arrangements for load
spreading are available and applied.
148. Explain the safety precautions for loading of aircraft.
Safety Precautions
 Onsite bio-safety principles
1. Physical distance should be kept at all times when
operational safety is not compromised or appropriate PPE
should be worn.
2. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer should be placed on entry into
common areas.
3. Regular cleaning and disinfection of surfaces (e.g. handles,
mobile devices, kiosks) should be established.
4. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer should be made available for
users of kiosks, shared mobile devices, etc.
5. Close proximity of staff for loading should be minimized or
appropriate PPE should be used particularly for passenger
cabin loading.
6. Ground personnel rotations should take into account the need
to avoid cross team infection.
 Physical Loading of goods
1. Physical distance should be kept when operational safety is
not compromised (encourage single person operations).
2. Close contact of personnel should be limited, and
appropriate PPE should be worn where necessary.
3. For "human chain" loading, appropriate PPE should be used
(non-medical or medical masks and disposable gloves) and
hygiene principles should be applied between operations.
 Material handling equipment (MHE) / ground support equipment
(GSE) usage
1. To avoid cross contamination, MHE/GSE should be cleaned
and disinfected between users.
2. All employees should be educated and should practice
personal hygiene principles.
3. Appropriate PPE should be worn where necessary.
149. Write short notes on bulk loading and unit load devices.
Bulk Loading
accounted for.
Unit Load Devices
ULDs must either be weighed, or the number of baggage items per
container must be within a specified range and standard baggage unit weights
applied.
150. Write short notes on mass and balance gross error checks and principal
hold loading risk.
Mass and Balance Gross Error Checks

A load instruction/report form will be issued for every aircraft departure
to instruct loading teams on the quantity of baggage/cargo to be loaded into
each hold. Where a computerized or electronic load and trim sheet is prepared
on behalf of the operating crew, usually the handling agent or airline will
produce the Load Instruction/Report Form with reference to the load and trim
sheet. The Load Instruction/Report form will then be given to the loading
supervisor to instruct the load team how the aircraft needs to be loaded and to
record formally the actual loading and any deviations.
When the operating crew produces a manual load and trim sheet, the
crew, in consultation with the loading supervisor, may also complete the Load
Instruction/Report Form.
Once the aircraft is loaded, the Load Instruction/Report Form is
generally provided to the crew for cross-checking against the load and trim
sheet, though sometimes the crew are provided with a certificate stating that
the baggage/cargo has been loaded in accordance with the load and trim sheet
instructions.
With numerous mass and balance documentation formats and different
industry procedures, it is very difficult to provide definitive details of how to
conduct gross error checks. In line with the best industry practices, UK CAA
guidance material - CAP 1009: Gross Error Checks provides information on
how any significant discrepancies in the loading process can be identified and
corrected before departure.
As with the load and trim sheet, there are a number of key entries on the Load
Instruction/Report Form that must be checked for accuracy:
 Airline/Operator
 Flight details (Routing, Flight number and Date)
 Aircraft type, variant and registration
 Distribution of hold loads (including baggage, cargo, ballast, spares,
COMAT, and mail etc.)
 Void/nil fit positions
 Bags per ULD/hold
 Weight allocation to each compartment does not exceed limits
 Document edition number (if applicable)
Principal Hold Loading Risks

The principal risks associated with loading of aircraft holds are as follows:
 Holds are not loaded by the loading crew in accordance with the
Loading Instructions provided - and the Load Instruction/Report Form
is not amended to reflect these changes.
 Where the loading has been different to the original Loading/Report
Form and the Loading/Report form is updated, the last minute change
(LMC) has not been correctly applied to the original load sheet
calculations and checked for mass and balance limits.
 The load is not secured or restrained appropriately
 Unauthorized items are loaded (e.g. dangerous goods).
 Aircraft structure (or propeller blades if applicable) is damaged by
unintended impact from mechanized loading equipment. Such impacts
may go unnoticed by the loading team or in some cases is noticed but
not reported. This may happen when the load team can see no apparent
damage so consider reporting the impact unnecessary. Where the
aircraft structure is formed using composite materials, all impacts must
be reported. While evidence of significant damage to a metal structure is
usually clearly visible, this is not necessarily true for composite
materials. Although the skin may appear to be undamaged, the core of a
composite structure may have deformed or have been significantly
weakened.

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