TRAINING NOTES

CODE: D-206/001
IIAE
TECHNICAL RESEARCH CELL

Airworthiness requirements for structural strength

Introduction

The structure of an aircraft must be strong enough to carry all the loads to which it might
be subjected, including the repeated small to medium loads experienced in normal flight and the
big loads experienced during extreme conditions. To fly, an airplane's exterior must have an
aerodynamic shape. Into this shape must be fitted members having a high strength-to-weight
ratio that are capable of sustaining the forces necessary to balance the airplane in flight.
Airplanes are generally designed for a specific purpose that dictates the structural design
required.
The airplane structure must be capable of withstanding much more force than that
imposed by its own weight. When the purpose of a particular design is established, the
designers provide structure according to strict standards established by the Federal Aviation
Administration to ensure safety. In general, airplanes are designed to withstand one and
one-half times the maximum expected forces. To be certified by the Federal Aviation
Administration, the structural strength (load factor) on airplanes must conform to the standards
set forth by Federal Aviation Regulations.

Load factors and airplane design

The load imposed on the wings in flight is stated in terms of load factor. Load factor is
the ratio of the total load supported by the airplane's wing to the actual weight of the
airplane and its contents i.e., the actual load supported by the wings divided by the total
weight of the airplane. For example, if an airplane has a gross weight of 2000 lb [907 kg] and
during flight is subjected to aerodynamic forces that increase the total load the wing must
support to 4000lb.[1814 kg), the load factor is 2.0 (4000/2000 = 2). In this exam if the airplane
wing is producing lift that is equal to twice the gross weight of the airplane.
Another way of expressing load factor is the ratio of a given load to the pull of gravity,
i.e., to refer to a load factor of 3 as "three g's," where g refers to the pull of gravity. In this case
the weight of the airplane is equal to I g, and if a load of 3 times the actual weight of the airplane
were imposed upon the wing due to curved flight, the load factor would be equal to 3 g's.
All airplanes are designed to meet certain strength requirements, depending upon the
intended use of the airplane. Classification of airplanes as to strength and operational use is
known as the category system. Aircraft may be type-certificated as normal, utility, or
acrobatic.
The normal category is limited to airplanes intended for nonacrobatic operation and has
a load factor limit of 3.8(often referred to as the limit load factor). The utility category
applies to airplanes intended for limited acrobatic operations and has a load factor limit of4.4.
Acrobatic category aircraft may have a load factor of 6.0 and are free to operate without many
of the restrictions that apply to normal and utility category aircraft. Small airplanes may be
certificated in more than one category if the requirements of each category are met.
The normal category in which each airplane is certificated may be readily found in the
aircraft's Type Certificate Data Sheet or by checking the Airworthiness Certificate found in the
cockpit.
To provide for the rare instances of flight when a load greater than the limit is required, to
prevent a disaster an "ultimate factor of safety" is provided. Experience has shown that an
ultimate factor of safety of 1.5 is sufficient. Thus, the aircraft must be capable of
withstanding a load 1.5 times the limit load factor. The primary structure of the aircraft must
withstand this "ultimate load" (1.5 X limit load factor) without failure.
 TRAINING NOTES
CODE: D-206/001
IIAE
TECHNICAL RESEARCH CELL

Since the limit load factor is the maximum of the normally anticipated loads, the aircraft
structure must withstand this load with no ill effects. Specifically, the primary structure of the
aircraft should experience no permanent deformation when subjected to the limit load
factor. In fact, the components must withstand this load with a positive margin. This
requirement implies that the aircraft should withstand successfully the limit load factor and then
return to the original unstressed shape when the load is removed. If the aircraft is subjected
to a load in excess of the limit load factor, the overstress may cause a permanent
distortion of the primary structure-and require replacement of the damaged parts.
Aircraft loads-
Aircraft loads originate during two distinctly different operating conditions, in flight and on the
ground. These distinctly different flight and ground load condition must be considered to
understand the most critical conditions for the structural components.
Flight loads are also divided into two types: maneuvering loads and gust loads. The word
maneuvering does not necessarily imply acrobatic flight, since such routine actions as a banked
turn or a stall above landing speed are considered maneuvers in the sense that the airplane is
subject to loads greater than1 g. In level, trimmed, steady cruise flight, all parts of the airplane
and its contents are subject to gravitational loading of 1 g. A passenger weighing 170 lb will
exert a measured loading of 170 lb upon the airplane in level flight. This loading is carried into
the airframe through the seat and floor structure.
When the airplane is being maneuvered into a 2-g banked turn, a 170-lb body will load the
seat and supporting structure at 340lb instead of the original 170 lb, since 2 X 170 = 340. In
similar fashion, the turning maneuver that doubles the body load also doubles the load applied
to the wings and other parts of the airplane.
Gust loads, in general, are of shorter duration than maneuver loads, but their direction change
can be much faster and sometimes will appear to be almost instantaneous. It is during these
limes or instantaneous change that the load factors produced are the highest.
Each flight involves at least one takeoff, one landing, and usually some taxiing. Once again,
the purposes of the aircraft will determine, to a large extent, the amount of time to be spent in
the air and on the round. Usually the landing loads, rather than takeoff loads, govern the design
of the gear attachment structure of an airplane, even though the allowable takeoff weight may
be higher than the landing weight. Descent of the particular type of airplane as well as the wing
loading and the shock-absorption characteristics of the, landing gear, struts and tires will deter-
mine, in large part, the reaction at round contact. Total reaction force divided by the weight of
the aircraft is called the landing load factor.
"An airplane is designed and certificated for a specified maximum weight during flight. This
weight is referred to as the maximum certificated gross weight. It is important that the
airplane be loaded within the specified weight limits because certain flight maneuvers will
impose an extra load on the airplane structure, which, if the airplane is overloaded, may impose
stresses exceeding design capabilities of the airplane. If, during flight, severe turbulence or any
other condition causes excessive loads to be imposed on the airplane, a very thorough
inspection must be given to all critical structural parts before the airplane is flown again.
Damage to the structure is often recognized by bulges or bends in the skin, "popped" rivets, or
deformed structural members.