ACPropSys PDF

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TECHNICAL RESEARCH CELL AIRCRAFT PROPELLER SYSTEM
Lesson 1
PROPELLER FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction
Throughout the development of controlled flight as we know it, every aircraft required some
kind of device to convert engine power to a usable form termed thrust. With few exceptions, nearly all
of the early practical a1rcraft designs used propellers to create necessary thrust. During the latter part of
the 19th century many unusual and innovative designs for propellers made their debut on the early flying
machines. These ranged from simple wood frame and fabric paddles to elaborate multi-bladed wire-
braced designs. Some of these designs were even used successfully as a means of propelling the early
dirigibles and heavier-than-air designs. As the science of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs
improved from flat boards which merely pushed air backward, to actual airfoil shapes that produced lift,
as do wings, to pull the aircraft forward by aerodynamic action. By the time the Wright brothers began
their first powered flights, propeller designs had evolved into the standard two-bladed style similar in
appearance to those used on today's modern light aircraft.
World War I brought about an increase in aircraft size, speed, and engine horsepower requiring
further improvements in propeller designs. The most widely used improvement during the war was a
four-bladed wood propeller. Other design improvements, which were developed during the war,
included an aluminum fixed-pitch propeller, and the two-position controllable propeller. These
improvements did not come into wide usage until the late 1920s.
As aircraft designs improved, propellers were developed which featured thinner airfoil sections,
and greater strength. Because of its structural strength, these improvements brought the aluminum
propeller into wide usage. The advantage of being able to change the propeller blade angle in flight, led
to wide acceptance of the two-position propeller, and later, the development of the constant-speed
propeller system. This same constant-speed propeller system is still in use on many propeller driven
aircraft being produced today.
Refinements of propeller designs and systems from the 1930s through World War II included the
featherable propeller for multi-engine applications, reversing propeller systems which allowed for
shorter landing runs and improved ground maneuverability, and many special auxiliary systems such as
ice elimination, simultaneous control systems, and automatic feathering systems. Moreover, with the
development of the Jet engine, propeller systems were adapted for use with these engines to allow their
efficient use at low altitudes and low airspeeds.
Today, propeller designs continue to be improved by the use of new airfoil shapes. Composite materials,
and multi-blade configurations. Recent improvements include the use of laminar and symmetrical
airfoils, fiberglass materials, and gull wing propeller designs.
Basic Principles
The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which the blades are
attached. Each blade of an aircraft propeller is essentially a rotating wing. As a result of their
construction, propeller blades produce forces that create thrust to pull or push the airplane through the
air.
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Power to rotate an aircraft's propeller blades is furnished by the engine. On low-horsepower

engines, the propeller is mounted on a shaft that is usually an extension of the crankshaft. On high-
horsepower engines, the propeller is mounted on a propeller shaft that is geared to the engine crankshaft.
In either case, the engine rotates the airfoils of the blade through the air at high speeds, and the propeller
transforms the rotary power of the engine into thrust.
Propeller Nomenclature
In order to explain the theory and construction of propellers, it is necessary first to define the
parts of various types of propellers and give the nomenclature associated with propellers. Figure shows
a fixed-pitch one-piece wood propeller designed for
light aircraft. Note the hub, hub bore, bolt holes, neck,
blade, tip, and metal tipping. These are the common
terms applied to a wood propeller.
The cross section of a propeller blade is shown

in Fig. This drawing is shown to illustrate the leading
edge of the blade, the trailing edge, the
cambered side, or back, and the flat side, or
face. This illustration shows that the
propeller blade has an airfoil shape similar
to that of an airplane wing. Since the
propeller blade and the wing of an airplane
are similar in shape, each blade of an
aircraft propeller may be considered as a
rotating wing. It is true that it is a small
wing, which has been reduced in length,
width, and thickness, but it is still a wing in
shape. At one end this small wing is shaped
into a shank, thus forming a propeller blade.
When the blade starts rotating, air flows
around the blade just as it flows around the
wing of an airplane except that the wing which is approximately horizontal is lifted upward whereas the
blade is lifted forward.
The nomenclature for an adjustable propeller, or ground-adjustable propeller, is illustrated.

This is a metal propeller with two blades clamped into a steel hub assembly. The hub assembly is the
supporting unit for the blades, and it provides the mounting structure by which the propeller is attached
to the engine propeller shaft.
The propeller hub is split on a plane parallel to the plane of rotation of the propeller to allow for
the installation of the blades. The blade root consists of machined ridges which fit into grooves inside
the hub. When the propeller is assembled, the sections of the hub are held in place by means of clamping
rings secured by means of bolts. When the clamping-ring bolts are properly tightened, the blade roots
are held rigidly so that the blades cannot turn and change the blade angle.
Figures show two views and various cross sections of a propeller blade. The blade shank is that
portion of blade near the butt of the blade. It is usually made thick to give it strength, and it is cylindrical
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where it fits the hub barrel, but the cylindrical

portion of the shank contributes little or nothing to
thrust. In an attempt to obtain more thrust, some
propeller blades are designed so that the airfoil
section (shape) is carried all the way along the blade
from the tip to the hub. In other designs, the airfoil
shape is carried to the hub by means of blade cuffs,
which are thin sheets of metal or other material, and
which function like cowling, as shown in Fig.
In Figure the tip section, the center of the hub,

and the blade butt are shown. The blade butt, or
base, is merely the end of the blade which fits into
the hub.
Propeller Terminology
1. Angle of attack: The angle between the chord line of a propeller blade section and the relative wind.
2. Back: The curved side of a propeller airfoil section that can be seen while standing in front of the
airplane.
3. Blade: One arm of a propeller from the hub to the tip.
4. Blade angle: The angle between the blade section chord line and the plane of rotation of the
propeller.
5. Blade index number: The maximum blade angle on a Hamilton-8tandard counterweight propeller.
6. Blade paddle: A tool used to turn the blades in the hub.

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7. Blade root: The portion of a blade which is nearest the hub.
8. Blade station: A distance from the centre of the propeller hub measured in inches.
9. Chord line: The imaginary line which extends from the leading edge to the trailing edge of a blade
airfoil section.
10. Effective pitch: The distance forward that an aircraft actually moves in one revolution of the
propeller.
11. Face: The flat or thrust side of a propeller blade.
12. Feathering: The rotation of the propeller blades to an angle of about 90 degrees which will
eliminate the drag of a wind milling propeller.
13. Geometric pitch: The theoretical distance that an aircraft will move forward in one revolution of
the propeller.
14. Leading edge: The forward edge of a propeller blade.
15. Plane of rotation: The plane in which the propeller rotates, 90 degrees to the crankshaft centerline.
16. Propeller: A device for converting engine horsepower into usable thrust.
17. Propeller disc: The disc-shaped area in which the propeller rotates.
18. Propeller track: The arc described by a propeller blade as the propeller rotates.
19. Pitch: Distance traveled by the propeller in one revolution.
20. Pitch Distribution: Pitch distribution is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank to tip.
21. Shank: The thickened portion of the blade near the centre of the propeller.
22. Tip: The portion of the blade farthest from the hub.
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Lesson 2
The Blade-Element Theory
The first satisfactory theory for the design of aircraft propellers was known as the blade-element
theory. This theory was evolved in 1909 by a Polish scientist named Dryewiecki, therefore, it is
sometimes referred to as the Dryewiecki theory.
This theory assumes that the propeller blade from the end of the hub barrel to the tip of the blade is
divided into various small, rudimentary airfoil sections. For example, if a propeller 10ft [3 m] in
diameter has a hub 12 in [30.48 cm] in diameter, then each blade is 54 in
[137.16 cm] long and can be divided into 54 I-in [2.54-cm] airfoil sections. Figure 19-6 shows one of
these airfoil sections located at a radius r from the axis of rotation of the propeller. This airfoil section
has a span of I in and a chord C. At any given radius r, the chord C will depend on the plan form or
general shape of the blade.
According to the blade-element theory, the many airfoil sections, or elements, being joined
together side by side, unite to form an airfoil (the blade) that can create thrust when revolving in a plane
around a central axis. Each element must be designed as part of the blade to operate at its own best angle
of attack to create thrust when revolving at its best design speed.
The thrust developed by a propeller is in accordance with Newton's third law of motion: For every
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and the two are directed along the same straight line. In
the case of a propeller, the first action is the acceleration of a mass of air to the rear of the airplane. This
means that if a propeller is exerting a force of 200 Ib [889.6 N] in accelerating a given mass of air, it is,
at the same time, exerting a force of 200 Ib in "pulling" the airplane in the direction opposite that in
which the air is accelerated. That is, when the air is accelerated rearward, the airplane is pulled forward.
The quantitative relationships among mass, acceleration, and force can be determined by the use of the
formula for Newton's second law: F =ma. In words: Force is equal to the product of mass and
acceleration. This principle is discussed further in the chapter on the theory of jet propulsion.
A true-pitch propeller is one that makes use of the blade-element theory. Each element (section) of
the blade travels at a different rate of speed-that is, the tip sections travel faster than the sections close to
the hub. When the elements (sections) are arranged so that each is set at the proper angle to the relative
airstream, they all advance the same distance during any single revolution of the propeller.
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Lesson 3
Blade Angle
Technically, the blade angle is defined as
the angle between the face or chord of a particular
blade section and the plane in which the propeller
blades rotate. Figure is a drawing of a four-blade
propeller, but only two blades, are shown in order to
simplify the presentation. The blade angle, the plane
of rotation, the blade face, the longitudinal axis, and
the nose of the airplane are all designated in this
illustration. The plane of rotation is perpendicular to
the crankshaft.
In order to obtain thrust, the propeller blade must
be set at a certain angle to its plane of rotation, in
the same manner that the wing of an airplane is set
at an angle to its forward path. While the propeller
is rotating in flight, each section of the blade has a
motion that combines the forward movement of the
airplane with the circular or rotary movement of the
propeller. Therefore, any section of a blade has a path through the air that is shaped like a spiral or a
corkscrew, as illustrated in Fig. B. The amount of bite (amount of air) taken by each blade is determined
by its blade angle.
An imaginary point on a section near the tip of the blade traces the largest spiral, a point on a section
midway along the blade traces a smaller spiral, and a point on a section near the shank of the blade
traces the smallest spiral of all.
In one turn of the blade, all sections move forward the
same distance, but the sections near the tip of the blade move a
greater circular distance than the sections near the hub.
If the spiral paths made by various points on sections of the
blade are traced, with the sections at their most effective angles,
then each individual section must be designed and constructed so
that the angles gradually decrease toward the tip of the blade and
increase toward the shank. This gradual change of blade section
angles is called pitch distribution and accounts for the pronounced
twist of the propeller blade. Since the blade is actually a twisted
airfoil, the blade angle of any particular section of a particular
blade is different from the blade angle of any other section of the
same blade.
The blade angle is measured at one selected station when
the blade is set in its hub, depending on the propeller diameter. If the blade angle at this station is
correct, then all blade angles should be correct if the blade has been carefully designed and accurately
manufactured.
The blade angle is so important that a change in blade angle of only 1° will decrease the
rotational speed of a direct-drive engine by 60 to 90 rpm. The effect that it would have on an engine
with propeller-gear reduction would depend on the gear ratio. In some installations, a deviation of I° or
less in blade-angle setting is occasionally permitted by specific instructions, but this is by no means a
common practice.
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The reason for the variation of the propeller blade

angle from the blade hub to the blade tip is demonstrated in
Fig. The three triangles show the relative movement of the
airplane and a particular section of the propeller blade during
flight at 150 mph [241.40 km/h] with the propeller turning at
2000 rpm. The triangle in Fig. A represents the movement of
the blade section 36 in [91.44 cm] from the propeller hub.
The diameter of the circle traversed by the blade section at
36 in from the hub is 3 x 21tft, or 18.85 ft [5.75 m]. With the
propeller turning at 2000 rpm, the section of the blade
travels37,700ft/min [11 490.96mlmin]or about 628 ft/s
[191.41 m/s].
If the airplane is traveling at a true airspeed of 150 mph [241.40 km/h], it is moving through the air
at 220 ft/s [67.06 m/s]. This means, then, that the airplane travels 220 ft while the blade section is
moving 628 ft. From these data we can determine that, while the airplane is moving 1 ft [0.30 m], the
propeller blade section at 36 in from the hub is moving slightly less than 2.9 ft [0.88 m]. This is
illustrated in Fig. A, which shows blade section distance in its plane of rotation as BC and shows the
airplane distance as CA. The actual track of the propeller blade section is BA, and the relative wind
direction is along the line AB. The angle of attack of the propeller blade is the difference between the
angle of AB with respect to the plane of rotation and the propeller blade angle.
From a table of tangents or by measuring, we can find that the angle ABC is a little more than 19°. If
the blade angle is set at 22°, the angle of attack of the blade
will be somewhat more than 3°.
The triangle in Fig. B represents the travel of a blade
section at 24 in [60.96cm] from the hub when the airplane is
moving at 150 mph TAS (true airspeed) and the propeller is
turning at 2000 rpm. By using the same methods of
computation, we find that the angle at B is about 27°, and that
to provide an angle of attack of 3° the blade angle would have
to be set at 30°. Under the same conditions, we will find that
a blade section located 12 in [30.48 cm] from the hub will
move at an angle of 46° from the plane of rotation, as shown
in Fig. C. It is apparent that a fixed-pitch propeller will be
efficient only through a narrow range of operating conditions.
A fixed-pitch propeller is therefore designed to operate most
efficiently at the cruising speed of the airplane on which it is
installed.
Blade Angle & Angle of Attack in Flight and on the Ground

The angle of attack of a propeller blade section is the angle between the face of the blade section
and the direction of the relative air stream. The direction of the relative air stream depends on the
direction that the airfoil moves through undisturbed air and the velocity of forward movement.
The blade airfoil section M of the rotating propeller travels from A to B when the airplane is parked
on the ground. The trailing edge of the propeller determines the plane of rotation represented by the line
AB.
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The relative wind is the direction of the air with respect to the
movement of the airfoil, as shown in Fig on next page. When the
airplane is in the air, the relative wind results from the forward
motion of the airplane and the circular motion of the propeller
blade sections. When the engine is run on the ground, there is no
forward movement of the airplane (on the assumption that the
airplane is standing) but there is a relative wind caused by the air
flowing through the propeller. There is also a certain amount of
pitch angle of the air motion with regard to the blade sections. The
angle of attack is therefore represented in Fig. by the angle C. This
is the angle at which the propeller section meets the relative air
stream. Also with respect to Fig. in flight the airplane moves
forward, and as it moves forward from N to 0, the airfoil section M will travel from A to D. The trailing
edge follows the path represented by the line AD, which represents the relative air stream. The angle of
attack then becomes smaller and is represented by E in the illustration. the normal in-flight angle of
attack of the propeller blades form any airplanes varies from 0 to 15°. Referring to Fig.19-14, we see
that in a power dive the acceleration due to the force of gravity may give the airplane a speed greater
than the speed which the propeller tends to reach. The angle of attack, represented by the letter E, is then
negative and tends to hold back the airplane.
In a steep climb with the forward speed reduced, the angle of attack is increased, whether the
airplane is in a power dive or in a steep climb, the aerodynamic efficiency of the propeller is low. Note
that the propeller blade angles in the foregoing illustrations appear to be high, because they have been
exaggerated in these views for the purpose of illustration.
Tip Speed
Flutter or vibration may be caused by the tip of the propeller blade traveling at a rate of speed
approaching the speed of sound, thus causing excessive stresses to develop. This condition can be
overcome by operating at a lower speed or by telescoping the propeller blades-that is, reducing the
propeller diameter without changing the blade profile.
Tip speed is actually the principal factor determining the efficiency of high-performance
airplane propellers of conventional two- or three-blade design. It has been found by experience that it is
essential to keep the tip speed below the speed of sound, which is about 1116.4 ft/s [340.28 m/s] at
standard sea-level pressure and temperature and varies with temperature and altitude. At sea level, the
speed of sound is generally taken to be about 1120 ft/s, but it decreases about 5 ft/s [152.4 cm/s] for each
increase in altitude of 1000 ft [304.80 m].
The efficiency of high-performance airplane propellers of conventional two- or three-blade
design may be expressed in terms of the ratio of the tip speed to the speed of sound. For example, at sea
level, when the tip speed is 900 ft/s [274.32 m/s], the maximum efficiency is about 86 percent, but when
the tip speed reaches 1200 ft/s [365.76 m/s], the maximum efficiency is only about 72 percent.
It is often necessary to gear the engine so that the propeller will turn at a lower rate of speed in order
to obtain tip ratios below the speed of sound. For example, if the engine is geared in a 3:2 ratio, the
propeller will turn at two-thirds the speed of the engine.
When the propeller turns at a lower rate of speed, the airfoil sections of the blades strike the air at a
lower speed, and they therefore do not do as much work in a geared propeller as they would do in one
with a direct drive. It is necessary in this case to increase the blade area by using larger- diameter or
additional blades.
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Ratio of Forward Velocity To Rotational Velocity

The efficiency of a propeller is also influenced by the ratio of the forward velocity of the airplane
in feet per second to the rotational velocity of the propeller. This ratio can be expressed by a quantity
called the V-over-nD ratio (or the slip function, as discussed previously), which is sometimes expressed
as a formula, V/(nD), where V is the forward velocity of the airplane in feet per second, n is the number
of revolutions per second of the propeller, and D is the diameter in feet of the propeller. Any fixed-pitch
propeller is designed to give its maximum efficiency at a particular aircraft speed, which is usually the
cruising speed in level flight, and at a particular engine speed, which is usually the speed employed for
cruising. At any other condition of flight where a different value of the V/(nD) ratio exists, the propeller
efficiency will be lower.
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Lesson 4
Forces Acting on a Propeller in Flight
The forces acting on a propeller in flight are as following:
(1) Thrust - It is the component of the total air force on the propeller and is parallel to the direction of
advance and induces bending stresses in the propeller;
(2) Centrifugal force- It is caused by the rotation of the propeller and tends to throw the blade out from
the central hub and produces tensile stresses.
3) Torsion, or twisting- It is in the blade itself, caused by the fact that the resultant forces do not go
through the neutral axis of the propeller producing Torsional stresses.
Forces to Which Propellers Are Subjected at high Speeds
A figure illustrates
the general type forces to
which propellers rotating at
high speeds.
1. Centrifugal force -It is a

physical force that tends to
throw the rotating propeller
blades away from the hub.
The hub resists this tendency,
and there blades "stretch"
slightly.
2. Torque bending force -It

is in the form of air
resistance, tends to bend the
propeller blades in a direction
that is opposite to the
direction of rotation.
3. Thrust bending force -It

is the thrust load that tends to
bend propeller blades
forward as the aircraft is
pulled through the air.
Bending forces caused by
other factors, such as the drag caused by the resistance of the air, but these are of small importance in
comparison with the bending stresses caused by thrust forces.
4. Aerodynamic twisting force -It tends to turn the blades to a high blade angle.
5. Centrifugal twisting force -It is greater than aerodynamic twisting force, tries to force the blades
toward low blade angle. In some propeller control mechanisms, this Centrifugal twisting force is
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employed to aid in turning the blades to a lower angle when such an angle is necessary to obtain greater
efficiency in flight ,thus putting a natural force to work. Torsional forces (ATM&CTM) with the square
of the rpm. For example, if the propellers rpm is doubled, the forces will be four times as great.
Vibrational Force & Critical Range
When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are present which
cause the blades to vibrate, If not compensated for in the design. These vibrations may cause excessive
flexing. Work-hardening of the metal and result in sections of the propeller blade breaking off during
operation.
Aerodynamic forces have a great vibration effect at the tip of a blade where the effects of
transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration. These vibrations may be decreased by use of the proper
airfoils and tip designs.
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Lesson 5
Pitch
Effective Pitch
The effective pitch is the actual distance the airplane moves forward during one revolution
(360°) of the propeller in flight. "Pitch" is not a
synonym for "blade angle," but the two terms are
commonly used interchangeably because they
are so closely related. Figure shows two different
pitch positions. The heavy black airfoil drawn
across the hub of each represents the cross
section of the propeller to illustrate the blade
setting. When there is a small blade angle, there
is a low pitch and the airplane does not move
very far forward in one revolution of the
propeller. When there is a large blade angle,
there is a high pitch and the airplane moves
forward farther during a single revolution of the
propeller.
Geometric Pitch
A distinction is made between effective pitch and other kinds of pitch. The geometric pitch is the
distance an element of the propeller would advance in one revolution if it were moving along a helix
(spiral) having an angle equal to its blade angle. Geometric pitch is a linear measurement, measured in
units of inches. Geometric pitch can be calculated by multiplying the tangent of the blade angle by 2πr, r
being the radius of the blade station at which it is computed for example, if the blade angle of a propeller
is 20° at the 30-in [76.2-cm] station, we can apply the formula GP =21t X 30 x 0.364 =68.61 pitch
inches [174.27-cm] The tangent of 20° is 0.364. The geometric pitch of the propeller is therefore 68.58
in. This is the distance the propeller would move if it were going forward through a solid medium with
no slippage.
Slip
Slip is defined
as the difference
between the geometric
pitch and the effective
pitch of a propeller. It
may be expressed as a
percentage of the
mean geometric pitch
or as a linear
dimension.
The slip function is
the ratio of the speed
of advance through
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undisturbed air to the product of the propeller diameter and the number of revolutions per unit time. This
may be expressed as a formula, V (nD), where V is the speed through undisturbed air, D is the propeller
diameter, and n is the number of revolutions per unit time.
The word "slip" is used rather loosely by many people in aviation to refer to the difference between
the velocity of the air behind the propeller (caused by the propeller) and that of the aircraft with respect
to the undisturbed air well ahead of the propeller. It is then expressed as a percentage of this difference
in terms of aircraft velocity.
If there were no slippage of any type, and if the propeller were moving through an imaginary solid
substance, then the geometric pitch would be the calculated distance that the blade element at two-thirds
the blade radius would move forward in one complete revolution of the propeller (360°).
Zero-Thrust Pitch
The zero-thrust pitch, also called the experimental mean pitch, is the distance a propeller would
have to advance in one revolution to produce no thrust.
Pitch Ratio
The pitch ratio of a propeller is the ratio of the pitch to the diameter. Terms Used in Describing
Pitch Change. The principal terms used in describing propeller-pitch change are: (1) two-position, which
makes available only two pitch settings; (2) multi position, which makes any pitch setting within limits
possible; (3) automatic, which provides a pitch-setting control by some automatic device; and (4)
constant speed, which enables pilots to select and control, during flight, the exact conditions at which
they want the propeller to operate. A constant speed propeller uses a governor to maintain speed,
regardless of aircraft altitude.
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Lesson 6
Propeller Load
A propeller being driven at a given speed will absorb a specific amount of power. It requires
more power to drive a propeller at high speeds than at low speeds. Actually, the power required to drive
a propeller varies as the cube of the, rpm. This is expressed by the formula hp =Kx rpm3 where K is a
constant whose value depends on the propeller type, size, pitch, and number of blades. Another formula
that can be used to express the same principle is hp2 [W2] = hpl [W1] = ( rpm2/rpm1 )3
It requires eight times as much power to drive a propeller at a given speed than to drive it at half
that speed. If the speed of a propeller is tripled, it will require 27 times as much power to drive it as it
did at the original speed.
Propeller Load Curves
This chart shows the manifold pressure, the power output, and the brake specific fuel consumption
(bsfc) at different rpms when the engine is operated at full throttle with a particular fixed-pitch propeller.
At the top of the chart, it will be noted that MAP (manifold absolute pressure) decreases at full
throttle as rpm increases. From
the prop load curve at the top
of the chart, we can see that the
propeller can be turned at 1950
rpm with a manifold pressure
of 20 inHg [67.72 kPa], at
2200 rpm at a manifold
pressure of 22 inHg [74.49
kPa], and at 2600 rpm with a
manifold pressure of 27.8 inHg
94.13 kPa]. This is the
maximum output available
with this propeller, because the
load curve meets the manifold
pressure curve at this rpm.
From the curves in the
middle portion of the graph,
we can see that the engine
power output increases as rpm
increases. The increase is not
proportional because of the
decrease in manifold pressure
which takes place as rpm
increases. We also note from
the prop load curve that the
propeller can be driven at 2100
rpm with l42 hp
[105.89 kW], at 2400 rpm with 202 hp [150.63 kW], and at 2600 rpm with 248 hp [184.93 kW].
Another way of saying the same thing is that the propeller absorbs 248 hp at 2600 rpm.
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The curves at the bottom of the graph in Fig show the specific fuel consumption (sfc) under
various conditions of rpm and prop load. It will be observed that the best fuel consumption takes place at
approximately 2200 rpm when the propeller is absorbing 160 hp [119.31 kW]. The bsfc at this point is
about 0.52 lb/hp/h [0.316 kg/kW/h]. If the engine were operated at full throttle with the rpm at 2200, the
bsfc would be about 0.6llb/hp/h [0.371 kg/kW/h].
Propeller Torque Reaction

Torque reaction involves Newton's third law of physics: for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. As applied to the airplane, this means that as the internal engine parts and propeller
revolving in one direction, an equal force is trying to rotate the airplane in the opposite direction
Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)

When an airplane is flying at a high angle of attack (climbing), the load of the downward moving
propeller blade is greater than the load on the upward-moving propeller blade. This moves the center of
Thrust to the right of the propeller center, thus causing a yawing moment toward the left around the
vertical axis of the aircraft. With the airplane being flown at positive angles of attack, the right or down-
swinging propeller blade is passing through an area of resultant velocity which is greater than that
affecting the left or up-swinging blade. Since the propeller blade is an airfoil, increased velocity means
increased lift. Therefore, the down-swinging blade, having more lift, tends to pull the aircraft's nose to
the left (all directional references are from the pilot's seat looking forward).
Propeller Efficiency
Some of the work performed by the engine is lost in the slipstream of the propeller, and some is
lost in the production of noise. The lost work cannot be converted to horsepower for turning the
propeller. The effect of tip speed on propeller efficiency has already been examined. In addition, the
maximum propeller efficiency that has been obtained in practice under the most ideal conditions, using
conventional engines and propellers, has been only about 92 percent, and in order to obtain this
efficiency it has been necessary to use thin airfoil sections near the tips of the propeller blades and very
sharp leading and trailing edges. Such airfoil sections are not practical where there is the slightest danger
of the propeller picking up rocks, gravel, water spray, or similar substances that might damage the
blades.
The thrust horsepower is the actual amount of horsepower that an engine-propeller unit
transforms into thrust. This is less than the brake horsepower developed by the engine, since propellers
are never 100 percent efficient.
In the study of propellers, two forces must be considered: thrust and torque. The thrust force acts
perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the propeller, and the torque force acts parallel to the plane of
rotation of the propeller. The thrust horsepower is less than the torque horsepower. The efficiency of the
propeller is the ratio of the thrust horsepower to the torque horsepower:
Propeller efficiency = thrust horsepower /torque horsepower
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Lesson 7
PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
In the early days of aviation, all propellers were made of wood, but the development of larger
and higher-horsepower aircraft engines made it necessary to adopt a stronger and more durable material;
therefore, metal is now extensively used in the construction of propellers for all types of aircraft. Some
propeller blades have been made of plastic materials, specially treated wood laminations, and plastic
coated wood laminations. For most purposes, however, metal propellers have been most satisfactory
where cost has not been a primary consideration.
Almost all propellers produced are made of wood, steel, aluminum or composite material. In the
early years of aircraft development all propellers were made of wood. However since wood is
susceptible to damage, steel propellers from their way in to aviation. Aluminum alloys are the
predominate material used in the construction of both fix and adjustable-pitch propellers. Composite
materials are also used because of their light weight and flexibility.
Construction of Wooden Propellers

The first consideration in the construction of a wood propeller is the selection of the right
quality and type of wood. It is especially important that all lumber from which the propeller laminae
(layers) are to be cut be kiln-dried. A wood propeller is not cut from a solid block but is built up of a
number of separate layers of carefully selected and well seasoned hard woods, as illustrated in Fig..
Many types of wood have been used in making
propellers, but the most satisfactory are sweet or yellow
birch, sugar maple, black cherry, and black walnut. In
some cases, alternate layers of two different woods have
been used to reduce the tendency toward warpage. This
is not considered necessary, however, because the use
of laminations of the same type of wood will effectively
reduce the tendency for a propeller to warp under
ordinary conditions of use.
The spiral or diagonal grain of propeller wood
should have a slope of less than 1 in 10 when measured
from the longitudinal axis of the laminae.
Propeller lumber should be free from checks, shakes, excessive pinworm holes, unsound and
loose knots, and decay. Sap stain is considered a defect. The importance of selecting a high grade of
lumber to reduce the effect of the internal variations present in all wood cannot be too strongly
emphasized.
As shown in Fig. the laminations of wood are given a preliminary shaping and finishing and then
are stacked together and glued with high-quality glue. Pressure and temperature are carefully controlled
for the prescribed time. After the glue has set according to specifications, the propeller is shaped to its
final form using templates and protractors to ensure that it meets design specifications.
After the propeller is shaped, the tip of each blade is covered with fabric to protect the tip from
moisture and reduce the likelihood of cracking or splitting. The fabric is thoroughly waterproofed.
Finally, the leading edge and tip of each blade are provided with a sheet-brass shield to reduce damage
due to small rocks, sand, and other materials encountered during takeoff and taxiing. The metal tipping
and leading-edge shield are shown in Fig.
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The centerbore of the hub and the mounting-bolt holes are very carefully bored to exact dimensions,
which is essential to good balance upon installation. A hub assembly is inserted through the hub bore to
facilitate the installation of the mounting bolts and face-plate.
Construction of Aluminum Propellers & Blades

Aluminum propellers are the most widely
used type of propellers in aviation. Aluminum
propellers are more desirable than wood
propellers because thinner, more efficient
airfoils may be used without sacrificing
structural strength. Better engine cooling is also
achieved by carrying the airfoil sections Close
to the hub and directing more air over the
engine. These propellers require much less
maintenance than wood propellers, thereby
reducing the operating cost.
Aluminum propellers are made of aluminum
alloys and are finished to the desired airfoil
shape by machine and manual grinding. The
pitch is set by twisting the blades to the desired
angles.
As the propeller is being finished by
grinding, its balance is checked and adjusted by
removing metal from the tip of the blade to
adjust horizontal balance and the boss or
leading and trall1ng edges of the blades to
adjust vertical balance. Some fixed-pitch
propeller designs have their horizontal balance
adjusted by placing lead wool in balance holes
near the boss and their vertical balance
corrected by attaching balance weights to the
side of the boss.
Once the propeller is ground to the desired
contours and the balance is adjusted, the
surfaces are finished by plating, chemical
etching And or painting. Anodizing is the most commonly used finishing process.
Construction of Steel Propellers & Blades

Steel propellers and blades are found primarily on antiques and transport aircraft. These are
normally of hollow construction. The primary advantage of the hollow blades is in the reduced weight.
Steel blades, whether solid or hollow are very durable and resistant to damage.
Solid steel propellers are forged and machined to the desired contours and the proper pitch is
achieved by twisting the blades. One method of constructing hollow steel blades is by assembling a rib
structure, attaching steel sheets to the structure, and filling the outer sections of the blade with a foam
material to absorb vibration and maintain a rigid structure.
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Advantages of Metal Propeller

The advantages of single piece fix pitch metal propeller are (1) simplicity of maintenance, (2)
durability, (3) resistance top weathering, (4) light weight, (6) minimum service requirement. Such a
propeller is efficient for a particular set of operating condition.
Composite Propellers & Blades

Being the composite material light in weight and durable, absorb vibration and are resilient,
making them resistance to damage and corrosion composite propellers are gaining popularity now days.
Much research has been devoted to development of the technology required to produce blades from
composite materials. In comparison to the more traditional aluminum alloys, the composite blade
material offers not only a significant weight reduction, but also improved repairability, damage
tolerance, vibration damping, and design
flexibility. The advantages this construction
method offers in terms of reduced weight
compared with light alloy propellers. Note that the
weight advantage increase sharply with diameter.
This sharp increase is due not only to the blade
weight, but also to the impact the reduced blade
weight has on hub and counterweight design.
Counterweights become prohibitively heavy on
large diameter metal-blade propellers. Composite
blade construction involves the use of various
plastic resins reinforced with fibers or filaments
composed of glass, carbon, Kevlar, or boron. The
resin matrix may be of epoxy, polyester, or
polyamide. Glass fiber with epoxy was used
extensively for many years to manufacture a wide
variety of lightweight high-strength structures.
Graphite or carbon filament with epoxy was
developed more recently and has proven even
stronger and more durable than glass fiber
composites. Other combinations of fibers and
resins have followed, with the result that there has
been a continual improvement in propeller design,
particularly with respect to weight. Among
propeller companies that manufacture propellers
having composite blades are Hamilton Standard,
Hartzell, and Dowty Blade construction and design vary among the companies; however, similar results
are achieved.
A composite propeller blade designed and manufactured by the Hamilton Standard Company consists
of a solid aluminum- alloy spar around which a fiberglass shell with the correct airfoil shape is placed.
The space between the spar and the shell is filled with plastic foam that provides a firm support for the
shell. The outer surface of the shell is given a coating of polyurethane. The term spar/shell is used to
describe this type of construction. A cross section of the spar/shell propeller blade .The spar/shell design
is one of several modified-monocoques types of propeller blades.
Another type of modified-monocoque composite propeller blade, this blade consists of a laminated
Kevlar shell into which is placed a foam core. The Kevlar shell consists of both unidirectional and
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multidirectional layers of material bonded with epoxy to form the shell laminate. The leading and
trailing edges of the blade are reinforced with solid unidirectional Kevlar.
Two unidirectional Kevlar shear webs are placed between the camber and face surfaces of the
shell to provide resistance to flexing and buckling. The polyurethane foam that fills the spaces inside the
shell supplies additional resistance to any distortion that could be caused by operating stresses.
The construction and configuration of the blade, illustration shows the metal cap that is bonded to
the leading edge of the blade. This cap serves to reduce the erosive and damaging effects of sand, gravel,
rain, and other materials that may be encountered during operation. A Kevlar cuff is attached at the base
of the blade to improve aerodynamic efficiency.
The composite blade is attached to (retained by) the aluminum-alloy blade shank. The Kevlar blade
shell is flared at the butt end to conform'
to the shape of the blade shank. The
blade clamp then holds the flared end of
the shell firmly against the shank. This
arrangement provides the secondary
retention. The primary retention is
accomplished by a winding of Kevlar
roving impregnated with epoxy resin.
The primary retention winding holds the
shell tightly against the blade shank.
This ensures that the composite blade
cannot separate from the shank even
under the most extreme operating
stresses.
The ball bearing between the blade
clamp and the shoulder of the hub
spider supports the centrifugal load of
the rotating propeller and permits the
blade to rotate axially for changes in
pitch.
Dowty Turbopropeller Composite Blades

The constructions of Dowty composite blades is illustrated in Fig. two carbon fiber spars, separated
by polyurethane foam, carry the main centrifugal and bending loads, while a glass-and-carbon fiber shell
provides torsional stiffness and forms the airfoil shape. Additional layers of glass fiber around the
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leading edge strengthen this area so that it can withstand the impact of foreign objects. Lightning
protection is provided by light alloy braiding laid into both faces of the blade, as shown. As the carbon
fiber spars approach the blade shank, their leading and trailing edges are gradually brought together until
they join and enter the metal root components as a cylinder. At the inner end of this cylinder, the carbon
fiber layers are opened out by the insertion of glass fiber wedges.
These annular wedges, once formed, are trapped between the inner and outer metal sleeves.
Structural integrity is ensured by this wedge formation, which is resin-injected in one operation. These
wedges, which a pulled tight by centrifugal forces acting on the blade, can carry loads in any direction
and do not depend on adhesion to the metal components for structural strength. The complete fiber
content of the blade is laid up dry, and hot resin is injected under vacuum, so the complete structure is
molded in one operation. The cuff, which is molded onto the blade after resin injection, is constructed of
high-density structural foam which forms a hard skin. This method of composite-blade manufacture has
been developed over 20 years and is unique to Dowty. As stated, it involves resin injection into the
carbon-and-glass fiber lay-up so that, when cured, the blade shell, spars, and annular wedges form a
single component permeated by the resin.
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Lesson 8
Propeller Design
Starting from the centerline of the hub of a propeller, each blade can be marked off in one-
inch increments known as blade stations. If the blade angle is measured at each of these stations, the
blade angle near the centre of the propeller will be highest with a decrease in blade angle toward the tip.
This decrease in blade angle from the hub to the tip is known as pitch distribution.
A cross section of each blade station will show low-speed airfoils near the hub and high-speed
airfoils toward the tip. The pitch distribution and the change in airfoil shape along the length of the blade
are necessary because each section is moving at a different velocity with the slowest speeds near the hub
and the highest speeds near the tip.
To illustrate the
difference in the speed of airfoil
sections at a fixed RPM,
consider three airfoil sections
on a propeller blade. If a
propeller is rotating at 1,800
RPM, the ten-inch station will
travel 5.25 feet per revolution
(107 MPH), while the twenty
inch station must travel 10.5
feet per revolution (214 MPH),
and the thirty-inch station has to
move 15.75 feet per revolution
(321 MPH). The airfoil that
gives the best lift at 107 MPH
would be inefficient at 321
MPH. Thus the airfoil is
changed gradually throughout
the length of the blade.
Blade Stations
Blade stations are designated
distances, in inches, measured along the blade from the center of the hub. The location of a point on the
blade at the 42-in station. This division of a blade into stations provides a convenient means of
discussing the performance of the propeller blade, locating blade markings and damage, finding the
proper point for measuring the blade angle, and locating antiglare areas.
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Lesson 9
Propeller Clearances
Certain minimum clearances have been established with respect to the distances between an
aircraft's propeller and the ground, the water, and the aircraft structure. These clearances are necessary to
prevent damage during extreme conditions of operation and to reduce aerodynamic interference with the
operation and effectiveness of the propeller. The minimum clearances are set forth in Federal Aviation
Regulations (FAR).
Ground Clearances
Aircraft equipped with tricycle landing gear must have a minimum clearance of 7 in [17.78 cm]
between the tips of the propeller blades and the ground when the aircraft is in the taxiing or takeoff
position with the landing gear deflected. Aircraft with tail-wheel landing gear must have a minimum
clearance of 9 in [22.86 cm] between the tips of the propeller blades and the ground under the same
conditions- that is, with the aircraft in the position where the propeller blade tips would come nearest the
ground during operation. This would normally be during takeoff for an aircraft equipped with tail-wheel
landing gear.
Water Clearance
Seaplanes or amphibious aircraft must have a clearance of at least 18 in [45.72 cm] between the
tips of the propeller blades and the water unless it can be shown that the aircraft complies with the
regulations regarding water spray characteristics set forth in FAR.
Structural Clearances
The tips of the propeller blades must have at least 1 in [2.54 cm] of radial clearance from the
fuselage or any other part of the aircraft structure. If this is not sufficient to avoid harmful vibrations,
additional clearance must be provided.
Longitudinal clearance (fore and aft) of the propeller blades or cuffs must be at least ½ in [12.70 mm]
between propeller parts and stationary parts of the airplane. This clearance is with the propeller blades
feathered or in the most critical pitch configuration.
There must be positive clearance between the spinner or rotating parts of the propeller, other than
the blades or cuffs, and stationary parts of the aircraft. The stationary part of the aircraft in this case
would probably be the engine cowling or a part between the cowling and the spinner.
General Classification of Propellers

Tractor Propellers
Tractor propellers are propellers mounted on the front end of the engine structure. Most aircraft
are equipped with this type (location) of propeller. A major advantage of the tractor propeller is that
relatively low stresses are induced in the propeller as it rotates in relatively undisturbed air.
Pusher Propellers
Pusher propellers are propellers mounted on the rear end of the engine behind the supporting
structure. Seaplanes and amphibious aircraft use a greater percentage of pusher propellers than do other
kinds of aircraft.
On land planes, where propeller-to-ground clearance is less than propeller-to-water clearance of
watercraft, pusher propellers are subject to more damage than tractor propellers. Rocks, gravel, and
small objects, dislodged by the wheels, quite often may be thrown or drawn into a pusher propeller.
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Similarly, seaplanes with pusher propellers are apt to encounter propeller damage from water spray
thrown up by the hull during landing or takeoff. Consequently, the pusher propeller quite often is
mounted above and behind the wings to prevent such damage.
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Lesson 10
Types of Propellers
In designing propellers, engineers try to obtain the maximum performance of an airplane from
the horsepower delivered by the engine under all conditions of operation, such as takeoff, climb, cruise,
and high speed.
Fixed Pitch
A fixed-pitch propeller is a rigidly constructed propeller on which the blade angles may not be
altered without bending or reworking the blades. When only fixed blade-angle propellers were used on
airplanes, the angle of the blade was chosen to fit the principal purpose for which the airplane was
designed. The fixed-pitch propeller is made in one piece with two blades which are generally made of
wood, aluminum alloy, or steel. Fixed pitch propellers are in wide use on small aircraft.
With a fixed blade-angle propeller, an increase in engine more thrust, but it also creates more drag
from the airfoil and forces the propeller to absorb the additional engine power. In a similar manner, a
decrease in engine power causes a decrease in rotational speed and consequently a decrease in both
thrust and drag from the propeller.
When an airplane with a fixed blade-angle propeller dives, the forward speed of the airplane
increases. Since there is a change in the direction of the relative wind, there is a lower angle of attack,
thus reducing both lift and drag and increasing the rotational speed of the propeller. On the other hand, if
the airplane goes into a climb, the rotational speed of the propeller decreases, the change in the direction
of the relative wind increases the angle of attack, and there is more lift and drag and less forward speed
for the airplane. The propeller can absorb only a limited amount of excess power by increasing or
decreasing its rotational speed. Beyond this point, the engine will be damaged. For this reason, as
aircraft engine power and airplane speeds both increased, engineers found it necessary to design
propellers with blades that could rotate in their sockets into different positions to permit changes in the
blade-angle setting to compensate for changes in the relative wind brought on by the varying forward
speed. This made it possible for the propeller to absorb more or less engine power without damaging the
engine.
Ground-Adjustable
The pitch setting of a ground-adjustable propeller can be adjusted only with tools on the ground,
when the engine is not operating. This older-type propeller usually has a split hub. On some airplanes it
may be necessary to remove a ground-adjustable propeller from the engine when the pitch is being
adjusted, but on other airplanes this is not necessary.
Two-Position Pitch
On this type of propeller, the blade angle may be adjusted during operation to either a preset low-
angle setting or a high-angle setting. A low angle setting is used for takeoff and climb, and then a shift is
made to a high-angle setting for cruise. Only high-angle or low-angle settings may be selected on this
older-type propeller.
Controllable Pitch
A controllable-pitch propeller is one provided with a means of control for adjusting the angle of
the blades during flight. The pilot can change the pitch of a controllable-pitch propeller in flight or while
operating the engine on the ground by means of a pitch changing mechanism that may be mechanically,
hydraulically, or electrically operated. Pitch may be set at any position between high and low pitch.
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Automatic Pitch
With automatic-pitch propellers, the blade-angle change within a preset range occurs
automatically as a result of aerodynamic forces acting on the blades. The pilot has no control over the
angle changes. This type of propeller is not widely used.
Constant Speed
The constant-speed propeller utilizes a hydraulically or electrically operated pitch-changing
mechanism controlled by a governor. The setting of the governor is adjusted by the pilot with the
propeller rpm lever in the cockpit. During operation, the constant-speed Propeller automatically changes
its blade angle to maintain a constant engine speed. In straight and level flight, if engine power is
increased, the blade angle is increased to' make the propeller absorb the additional power while the rpm
remains constant. The pilot may select the engine speed desired for any particular type of operation.
Feathering Constant Speed

A feathering propeller is a constant-speed propeller that has a mechanism for changing the pitch
to an angle such that forward aircraft motion produces no windmilling. Feathering propellers are
generally used on multiengine aircraft to reduce propeller drag under engine-failure conditions. The term
feathering refers to the operation of rotating the blades of a propeller to an edge-to-the-wind position for
the purpose of stopping the rotation of the propeller whose blades are thus "feathered" and thereby
reducing drag. A feathered blade is in an approximate in-line-of-flight position, streamlined with the line
of flight. Some, but not all, constant-speed propellers can be feathered.
Feathering is necessary when an engine fails or when it is desirable to shut off an engine in flight.
The pressure of the air on the face and back of the feathered blade is equal, and the propeller will stop
rotating. If it is not feathered when its engine stops driving it, the propeller will "windmill" and cause
excessive drag, which may be detrimental to aircraft operation. This is the primary reason for feathering
a propeller. Another advantage of being able to feather a propeller is that a feathered propeller creates
less resistance (drag) and disturbance in the flow of air over the wings and tail of the airplane.
Furthermore, a feathered propeller prevents additional damage to the engine if the failure has been
caused by some internal breakage, and it also eliminates the vibration which might damage the structure
of the airplane.
The importance of feathering the propeller of an engine which has failed on a multi engine airplane
cannot be overemphasized. If the propeller cannot be feathered at low aircraft speeds, such as during
takeoff, the aircraft could stall. Another problem that could occur during cruise flight if the propeller
cannot be feathered is engine "runaway"- that is, overspeeding to the point where great damage may be
caused. The lubrication system of the engine may fail because of the excessive speed, and this will cause
the engine to "burn up." The heat generated may set the engine on fire, in which case the airplane itself
may be destroyed. The excessive speed of the engine could result in the propeller losing a blade, thus
bringing about an unbalanced condition which will cause the engine to be wrenched from its mounting.
Numerous cases of runaway engines resulting in airplane crashes are on record.
Feathering a propeller when an engine failure occurs not only reduces drag but also allows for better
performance on the part of the remaining engines and better aircraft control. Because of these
advantages, an airplane suffering engine failure can usually be flown safely to a point where an
emergency landing can be made.
Reverse Pitch
A reverse-pitch propeller is a constant- speed propeller for which the blade angles can be
changed to a negative value during operation. The purpose of a reversible-pitch feature is to produce a
high negative thrust at low speed by using engine power. A reverse-pitch propeller is used principally as
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an aerodynamic brake to reduce ground roll after landing. Practically all feathering and reverse-pitch
propellers are of the constant-speed type; however, some constant-speed propellers are not of the
feathering and reversing type. When propellers are reversed, their blades are rotated below their positive
angle (that is, rotated through "0 thrust" pitch) until a negative blade angle is obtained which will
produce a thrust acting in the opposite direction to the forward thrust normally produced by the
propeller.
This feature is helpful for landing multiengine turboprop airplanes because it reduces the length
of the landing roll, which in turn reduces the amount of braking needed and substantially increases the
life of the brakes and tires. Almost all turboprop-equipped aircraft use reversing propellers.
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Lesson 11
Controllable-Pitch Propellers
As the name implies, a controllable-pitch propeller is one on which the blade angle can be
changed while the aircraft is in flight. Propellers of this type have been used for many years on aircraft
for which the extra cost of such propellers was justified by the improved performance obtained.
Advantages
The controllable-pitch feature makes it possible for the pilot to change the blade angle of the
propeller at will in order to obtain the best performance from the aircraft engine. At takeoff, the
propeller is set at a low blade angle so that the engine can attain the maximum allowable rpm and power.
Shortly after takeoff, the angle is increased slightly to prevent overspeeding of the engine and to obtain
the best climb conditions of engine rpm and airplane speed. When the airplane has reached the cruising
altitude, them propeller can be adjusted to a comparatively high pitch for a low cruising rpm or to a
lower pitch for a higher cruising rpm and greater speed.
Two-Position Propellers
A two-position propeller does not have all the advantages mentioned in the foregoing paragraph;
however, it does permit a setting of blade angle for best takeoff and climb (low-pitch, high rpm) and for
best cruise (high-pitch, low rpm). A schematic
diagram of a two-position propeller pitch-
changing mechanism is shown in Fig. The
principal parts of this assembly are the hub
assembly, the counterweight and bracket
assembly, and the cylinder and piston
assembly. The blade angle is decreased by the
action of the cylinder and piston assembly
when engine oil enters the cylinder and forces
it forward. The cylinder is linked to the blades
by means of a bushing mounted on the cylinder
base and riding in a slot in the counterweight
bracket. As the cylinder moves outward, the
bracket is rotated inward, and since the bracket
is attached to the base of the blade, the blade is
turned to a lower angle.
When the oil is released from the cylinder by
means of a three-way valve, the centrifugal
force acting on the counterweights moves the counterweights outward and rotates the blades to a higher
angle. At the same time, the cylinder is pulled back toward the hub of the propeller.
The basic high-pitch angle of the propeller is set by means of four blade-bushing index pins which are
installed in aligned semicircular notches between the counterweight bracket and the blade bushing when
the two are assembled. The pitch range is set by adjusting the counterweight adjusting screw nuts in the
counterweight bracket.
A counterweight-type propeller may also be designed as a constant-speed propeller to be controlled
by a propeller governor. In this case, the governor controls the flow of oil to and from the propeller
cylinder in accordance with engine rpm. The governor is adjusted for the desired engine rpm by means
of a control in the cockpit.
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Lesson 12
Constant-Speed Propellers
Hartzell, Sensenick, and McCauley propellers for light aircraft are similar in operation. All use
centrifugal force acting on blade counterweights to increase blade pitch. A description of a Hartzell
constant speed propeller is used for exemplary purposes. The manufacturer's specifications and
instructions must be consulted for information on specific models.
Constant-Speed Propellers for Light Aircraft

Many types of light aircraft use governor regulated, constant-speed propellers in both two- and
three-bladed versions.
These propellers may be the non feathering type, or they may be capable of feathering and
reversing. The steel hub consists of a central spider which supports aluminum blades with a tube
extending inside the blade roots. Blade clamps connect the blade shanks with blade retention bearings. A
hydraulic cylinder is mounted on the rotational axis connected to the blade clamps for pitch actuation.
The basic hub and blade retention is common to all models described. The blades arc mounted
on the hub spider for angular adjustment. The centrifugal force of the blades, amounting to as much as
25 tons, is transmitted to the hub spider through blade clamps and then through ball bearings. The
propeller thrust and engine torque is transmitted from the blades to the hub spider through a bushing
inside the blade shank.
Propellers, having counterweights attached to the blade clamps, utilize centrifugal force derived
from the counterweights to increase the pitch of the blades. The centrifugal force, due to rotation of the
propeller tends to move the counterweights into the plane of rotation, thereby increasing the pitch of the
blades.
In order to control the pitch of the blades, a hydraulic piston-cylinder element is mounted on the
front of the hub spider. The piston is attached to the blade clamps by means of a sliding rod and fork
system for non-feathering models and a link system for the feathering models. The piston is actuated in
the forward direction by means of oil pressure supplied by a governor, which overcomes the opposing
force created by the counterweights.
Constant Speed, Non-Feathering

If the engine speed drops below the r.p.m. for which the governor is set, the rotational force on
the engine driven governor flyweights becomes less. This allows the speeder spring to move the pilot
valve downward. With the pilot valve in the downward position, oil from the gear type pump flows
through passage to the propeller and moves the cylinder outward. This in turn, decreases the blade angle
and permits the engine to return to the onspeed setting. If the engine speed increases above the r .p.m.
for which the governor is set, the flyweights move against the force of the speeder spring and raise the
pilot valve. This permits the oil in the propeller to drain out through the governor drive shaft. As the oil
leaves the propeller, the centrifugal force acting on the counterweights turns the blades to a higher angle,
which decreases the engine r.p.m. When the engine is exactly at the r.p.m. set by the governor, the
centrifugal reaction of the flyweights balances the force of the speeder spring, positioning the pilot valve
so that oil is neither supplied to nor drained from the propeller. With this condition, propeller blade
angle does not change. Note that the r.p.m. setting is made by varying the amount of compression in the
speeder spring. Positioning of the speeder rack is the only action controlled manually. All others are
controlled automatically within the governor.
Constant-Speed Feathering Propeller

The feathering propellers operate similarly to the non-feathering ones except the feathering
spring assists the counterweights to increase the pitch.
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Lesson 13
Principles of Operation of Constant Speed Propeller
A constant-speed propeller is controlled by
a speed governor which automatically adjusts
propeller pitch to maintain a selected engine speed.
If the rpm of the propeller increases, the governor
senses the increase and responds by causing the
propeller blade angle to increase. If the propeller
rpm decreases, the governor causes a decrease in
propeller blade angle. An increase in blade angle
will cause a decrease in engine rpm, and a decrease
in blade angle will cause an increase in engine rpm.
The pitch-changing devices for constant-speed
propellers include electric motors, hydraulic
cylinders, devices in which centrifugal force acts
on flyweights, and combinations of these methods.
The forces used to change blade angle on constant-
speed propellers can be divided into fixed and
variable. Some types of fixed forces that are used
to move propeller blades are counterweights,
springs, centrifugal twisting moments (CTM), and
air-nitrogen charges. All of these forces increase
blade angle except CTM, which decreases blade
angle. The main variable force used to change
blade angle is governor oil pressure, which is metered
by the speed-sensing section of the propeller governor,
as illustrated in Fig.
The blade-angle changes of the propeller are
dependent on the balance between governor-boosted oil
pressure and the inherent centrifugal tendency of the
propeller blades to maintain a low-pitch angle. The
balance differential is maintained by the governor,
which either meters oil pressure to, or allows oil to
drain from, the propeller cylinder in the quantity
necessary to maintain the proper blade angle for
constant-speed operation. A drawing of the governor is
shown in Fig.
Within the governor, the L-shaped flyweights are
pivoted on a disk-type flyweight head coupled to the
engine gear train through a hollow drive-gear shaft.
The pilot valve plunger extends into the hollow shaft
and is so mounted that the pivoting motion of the
rotating flyweights will raise the plunger against the
pressure of the speeder spring or allow the spring
pressure to force the plunger down in the hollow shaft.
The position assumed by the plunger determines the flow of oil from the governor to the propeller.
Governor oil is directed to a transfer ring on the engine crankshaft and then into the crankshaft tube,
which carries it into the rear side of the piston cylinder arrangement in the propeller hub. The linear
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motion of the piston is

changed to rotary motion of
the blades. Since the
centrifugal twisting force of
the propeller blades is
transmitted to the propeller
piston, the governor-boosted
oil pressure must overcome
this force to change the
engine rpm. Forward motion
of the piston increases pitch
and decreases engine rpm,
while rearward motion of the
piston decreases pitch and
increases engine rpm.
The action of the pitch-
changing mechanism is
shown in Fig. 2. As governor
oil pressure enters the
cylinder to the rear of the
piston, the piston moves
forward. This motion is
transmitted through the
piston shaft to each actuator
bushing mounted on the butt
of each blade, and when the
bushings are moved forward,
the blades are forced to rotate.
During operation of the
propeller in flight, the
governor flyweights react to
engine rpm. If the engine is
turning faster than the
selected rpm, the flyweights
will move outward and cause
the pilot valve in the governor
to move upward, or toward
the governor head. The
resulting overspeed condition
is illustrated in Fig.3. With
this valve position, the oil
pressure from the governor
pump is directed to the
propeller and the propeller
piston moves forward to
increase the blade angle and decrease the rpm.
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When the engine is

"on speed," as shown
in Fig. 4, the governor
flyweights are in a
neutral position and the
pilot valve seals the oil
pressure in the
propeller system so that
there is no movement
in either direction. The
oil pressure prevents
the piston from moving
backward, and
therefore the blade
angle cannot decrease.
If engine rpm falls
below the selected
speed (an underspeed
condition, shown in
Fig.5), the flyweights
of the governor move
inward and allow the
pilot valve to move
toward the base of the
governor. This position
of the pilot valve opens
a passage which
permits oil to flow from the propeller to the engine, thus allowing the blade angle to decrease and the
rpm to increase. The blade angle tends to decrease because of the centrifugal twisting force, as explained
previously.
Propeller Governor
We have discussed the propeller governor
previously and described its operation to some degree
in explaining the operation of constant-speed
propellers; however, it will be beneficial to examine
Fig. 6 in order to gain a more complete understanding
of governor operation.
The governor is geared to the engine in order to
sense the rpm of the engine at all times. The speed
sensing is accomplished by means of rotating
flyweights in the up per part of the governor body. As
shown in Fig. 6, the flyweights are L-shaped and
hinged at the outside where they attach to the
flyweight head. The toe of each flyweight presses
against the race of a bearing at the upper end of the
pilot valve. Above the bearing are the speeder-spring
seat and the speeder spring, which normally holds the
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pilot valve plunger in the down position. Above the speeder spring is the adjusting worm, which is
rotated by means of the speed-adjusting lever. The speed-adjusting lever is connected to the propeller
control in the cockpit.
As the speed-adjusting lever is moved, it rotates the adjusting worm and increases or decreases
the compression of the speeder spring. This, of course, affects the amount of flyweight force necessary
to move the pilot-valve plunger. To increase the rpm of the engine, the speed-adjusting control lever is
rotated in the proper direction so as to increase speeder-spring compression. It is therefore necessary that
the engine rpm increase in order to apply the additional flyweight force to raise the pilot-valve plunger
to an "onspeed" position.
In the top drawing in Fig. 6, the governor is in the overspeed condition. The engine rpm is greater
than that selected by the control, and the flyweights are pressing out-ward. The toes of the flyweights
have raised the pilot-valve plunger to a position which permits oil pressure from the propeller to return
to the engine. The propeller counter weights and feathering spring can then rotate the propeller blades to
a higher angle, thus causing the engine rpm to decrease.
When the governor is in an underspeed condition-that is, when engine rpm is below the selected
value-the governor flyweights are held inward by the speeder spring and the pilot-valve plunger is in the
down position. This position of the valve directs governor oil pressure from the governor gear pump to
the propeller cylinder and causes the propeller blades to rotate to a lower-pitch angle. The lower pitch
angle allows the engine rpm to increase.
The governor shown in Fig. 6 is equipped with a lift rod to permit feathering of the propeller. When
the cockpit control is pulled back to the limit of its travel, them lift rod in the governor holds the pilot-
valve plunger in an overspeed position. This causes the blade angle of the propeller to increase to the
feathered position regardless of flyweight or speeder-spring force.
Note the effect of the speeder spring on governor operation. If the speeder spring were to break, the
pilot-valve plunger would be raised to the overspeed position, which would call for an increase in
propeller pitch. This, of course, would allow the propeller to feather. If the speeder spring were to break
in a governor for a nonfeathering, constant speed propeller, the propeller blades would rotate to
maximum high-pitch angle.
Propeller governors similar to the one described above are also arranged for double-acting
operation in which governor pressure is directed to the propeller through different passages for both
increasing and decreasing rpm. This is accomplished merely by utilizing the oil passages in a different
manner. A study of Fig.6 will show that some of the passages are plugged, and if the use of passages' is
changed, the governor may be adapted to different types of systems. The arrangement for any particular
propeller system is shown in the manufacturer's manual for the propeller under consideration.
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Lesson 14
Propeller Installations
The three types of propeller installations
Flanged-Shaft Installations
Flanged propeller shafts are found on horizontally
opposed and some turboprop engines. The front of the
crankshaft is formed into a flange four to eight inches across
and 90 degrees to the crankshaft centerline. Mounting bolt
holes and dowel pin holes are machined into the flange and,
on some flanges, threaded inserts are pressed into the bolt
holes.
1. Preparation For Insta1lation

Before the propeller is installed, the flange should be inspected for corrosion, nicks, burrs, and other
surface defects. The defects should
be repaired in accordance with the
engine manufacturer's
recommendations. Light corrosion
can be removed with very fine
sandpaper. If a bent flange is
suspected, a run-out inspection
should be performed on the
crankshaft flange. The bolt holes
and threads of inserts should be
clean and in good condition. With
the flange area clean and smooth, a
light coat of oil or anti-seize
compound is applied to prevent
corrosion and allow easy removal
of the propeller.
The mounting surfaces of the
propeller should be inspected and
prepared in a manner similar to
that used with the flange.
The bolts to be used should be
in good condition and inspected
for cracks with a dye-penetrant or
magnaflux process. Washers and
nuts should also be inspected and
new fiber locknuts should be used if required in the installation.
2. Installation
The propeller is now ready to mount on the crankshaft. If dowel pins are used, the propeller will fit
on the shaft in only one position. If no dowel pins are used, the propeller should be installed in the
position called for in the aircraft or engine maintenance manual. Propeller installation position is critical
for maximum engine life in some installations. If no position is specified on a four-cylinder horizontally-
opposed engine, the propeller should be installed so the blades are at the ten o'clock and four o'clock
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position when the engine stops. This reduces Vibration in many instances and puts the propeller in
position for hand-propping the airplane.
The bolts, washers, and nuts are installed next, according to the particular installation. The bolts
should be tightened slightly. Use an alternating torquing sequence to tighten the bolts to the desired
value. Refer to the appropriate manufacturer’s service information for specific values of propeller
torque.
When a skull cap spinner is
used, the mounting bracket is
installed with two of the
propeller mounting bolts. If a
full spinner is used, a rear
bulkhead is installed on the
flange before the propeller is
installed, and a front bulkhead
is installed on the front of the
boss before the bolts are placed
through the propeller boss. The
spinner is now installed using
screws.
If a wood propeller is being
installed, a faceplate is
normally placed on the front of
the propeller boss before installing the bolts. The faceplate distributes the compression load of the bolts
over the surface of the boss.
Spacers between the propeller and flange are installed in accordance with the aircraft manufacturer's
manual.
Once the bolts are installed and properly torqued, the propeller is tracked and safetied.
Tapered-Shaft Installations
Tapered-shaft crankshafts are found on older model
horizontally-opposed engines of low horsepower. This
style of crankshaft requires the use of a hub to adapt the
propeller for mounting on the shaft.
1. Pre-Installation Checks
Before the propeller is installed on the crankshaft, the
shaft should be inspected carefully for corrosion, thread
condition, cracks and wear in the area of the keyway. The
keyway inspection is critical as cracks can develop in the
corners of the keyway and result in the crankshaft's
breaking. A dye-penetrant inspection of the keyway area is advisable at each 100-hour and annual
inspection, and each time the propeller is removed. If surface irregularities are found, dress or polish out
the defects as the engine manufacturer recommends.
The hub components and mounting hardware should be inspected for wear, cracks, corrosion, and
warpage. Correct defects as necessary. A dyepenetrant or magnetic inspection of the hub and bolts is
recommended.
The fit of the hub on the crankshaft should be checked by the use of a liquid transfer ink such as
Prussian Blue. The Prussian Blue is applied in a thin, even coating on the tapered area of the crankshaft.
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With the key installed in the keyway, the hub is then installed on the shaft and the retaining nut is
tightened to the installation torque.
The hub is then removed and the amount of ink transferred from the crankshaft to the hub is noted.
The ink transfer should indicate a minimum contact area of 70%.if less then 70% contact area is
indicated, the hub and crankshaft should be checked for surface irregularities such as dirt, wear and
corrosion. The surface may be lapped to by removing the key from the crankshaft and lapping the hub to
the crankshaft with a policing compound until a minimum of 70% contact area is achieved.
This inspection and corrective action may be done with the propeller Installed on the hub, if desired.
Once sufficient contact is obtained, the hub and shaft are cleaned of Ink and polishing compound.
Place the propeller on the hub and, if a wood propeller is used, position the faceplate on the front of
the boss. Make sure that the propeller is installed on the hub with the blades in the correct position In
relation to the keyway if specified by the engine manual. Install the bolts, washers, and nuts as required
to mount the propeller on the hub. Tighten the bolts in the same manner as for a flanged-shaft
Installation. Check the propeller balance with the hub Installed and correct the balance by placing
approved balancing washers under the bolt head or nut at the light position on the hub.
2. Installation
Apply oil or anti-seize to the crankshaft, making sure that the key is installed properly, and place the
propeller-hub assembly on the shaft. Install the retaining nut and torque the nut to the proper value.
Install the snap ring, track, and safety the propeller.
3. Removal
To remove the propeller from the tapered shaft, remove the safety; back the retaining nut off with a
bar to pull the propeller from the shaft. A snap ring is required so that the retaining nut can be connected
to the hub and pull the hub of the shaft as the nut is unscrewed. If the snap ring is not installed, hub
removal may be very difficult.
Splined-Shaft Installations
Splined crankshafts are found on most radial engines and some opposed, In-line, and turboprop
engines. The Splined shaft is characterized by splines and voids of equal dimensions and on many
engines a master spline formed between two splines so that a
hub will fit on the shaft in only one position.
1. Pre-Installation Checks
Inspect the crankshaft for cracks, surface defects, and
corrosion. Repair defects In accordance with the engine
manufacturer's directions.
The splines on the crankshaft and on the hub should be
inspected for wear by the use of a go no-go gauge. The
gauge is 0.002 inches larger than the maximum space
allowed between the splines. The crankshaft or hub is
serviceable if the gauge cannot be inserted between the
splines for more than 20% of the spline length. If the 20%
value is exceeded, the hub or crankshaft is worn excessively and should be replaced.
The hub and bolts should be inspected in the same manner as for a tapered-shaft installation.
Cones are used to center the hub on the crankshaft and should be inspected for general condition. The
rear cone is made of bronze with a cut at one place to allow flexibility during Installation and assure a
tight fit when installed.
The front cone is in two pieces that are a matched set and must be used together. The front cones
are made of steel and are marked with a sertal number to identify the mates in a set.
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If the front cone is new, the halves will be joined together and will have to be separated with a
hacksaw. After the halves are separated, the cut surfaces will have to be filed and polished smooth. In
addition, they may have to be marked with an arbitrary sertal number by the use of an engraving tool.
2. Trial Installation
The rear cone and, in some installations, a bronze spacer, is place on the crankshaft and pushed all the
way back on the shaft. A coat of Prussian Blue Is applied to the rear cone. The hub is then placed on the
shaft, with care taken to align the hub on the master spline, and the hub is pushed against the rear cone.
The front cones are placed around the lip on the retaining nut, coated with Prussian Blue, installed In the
hub, and the nut is tightened to the proper torque.
The retaining nut and front cone are removed and the amount of
Prussian Blue transferred to the hub is noted. A minimum of 70%
contact is required. The hub is then pulled from the crankshaft and the
transfer from the rear cone is checked. Again, a minimum of 70%
contact is required. If contact is insufficient, the hub can be lapped to
the cones by the use of a special lapping fixture.
If no transfer to the rear cone occurs during the transfer check, a
condition known as rear cone bottoming exists. This happens when
the apex, or point, of the rear cone contacts the land on the rear seat
of the hub before the hub can seat on the rear cone. Rear cone
bottoming is corrected by removing up to 1/16of an Inch from the
apex of the cone. Sandpaper placed on the surface plate may be used
to assure an even removal of metal.
Front cone bottoming
It occurs when the front cone bottoms on the splines of the crankshaft before contacting the seat on
the hub. Front cone bottoming is indicated by the hub's being loose on the shaft when the retaining nut
is tight and no transfer of Prussian Blue to the front hub seat. Front cone bottoming is corrected by
placing a spacer of no more than 1/8-inch thickness behind the rear cone. This moves the hub forward
and allows the front cone to seat properly. Some installations require a thick spacer (one inch or more)
behind the rear cone to assure proper mounting. The corrections noted above are In addition to the
spacers called for in the manufacturer's manual. If front and rear cone bottoming cannot be corrected as
stated above, and no reason can be determined for the improper seating, consult the manufacturer.
3. Installation
The propeller is installed on the hub in the same manner as used for a tapered-shaft Installation.
The position of the propeller on the hub in relation to the master spline is critical. Some installations
require that one blade align with the master spline while other Installations require that the blades be
perpendicular to the master spline position. Consult the engine maintenance manual for the requirements
of a particular installation.
Once the propeller is mounted on the hub, the crankshaft is coated with oil or an anti-seize compound
and the propeller-hub assembly is placed on the shaft. The retaining nut and front cone are installed and
torqued. The snap ring is installed, the propeller track is checked. And the installation is safetied.
Propeller removal is the same as for a tapered shaft
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Lesson 15
PROPELLER PITCH CONTROL
Introduction
The propeller pitch and speed can be controlled mechanically or electrically/electronically for the
purpose of various operation of the propeller
Operation of Mechanical Pitch Control

In a turbo-propeller installation the power control lever is often connected to both the fuel control
unit and the propeller control unit (PCU), so that fuel flow and engine speed are selected at the same
time. The PCU is basically a CSU as illustrated in, Figure 4, but the PCU includes a number of
additional features. Constant speed operation is controlled in a similar manner to that on the single-
acting propeller; the governor weights opposing control spring force to raise or lower the governor
valve, and to supply oil to the
appropriate side of the pitch change
piston, whenever engine speed
varies from the speed selected.
Figure .illustrates the PCU.
(a) In the 'on speed' condition,
centrifugal force on the flyweights
balances the force of the control
spring, and the governor valve traps
oil in both sides of the pitch change
cylinder.
(b) In the 'underspeed' condition,
control spring force is greater than
the centrifugal force on the
flyweights, and the governor valve
is lowered, supplying oil to the rear
of the pitch change cylinder, and
providing a drain for oil from the
front of the cylinder. Blade angle
decreases, and the engine speeds up
until centrifugal force on the
flyweights balances the force of the
control spring, and the governor
valve is returned to the 'on speed'
condition.
(c) In the 'overspeed' condition,
control spring force is less than the
centrifugal force on the flyweights,
and the governor valve is raised,
directing oil to the front of the' pitch
change cylinder, and providing a
drain for oil in the rear of the
cylinder. Blade angle increases, and
the engine speed decreases because
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of the added load, until the flyweights and control spring are once more in balance.
Fine Pitch Stops

During starting and
ground running, a very
fine propeller pitch
may be required, to
minimize propeller
load, and to prevent
engine overheating;
however, during flight,
this very fine pitch
would lead to engine
overspeeding, and
excessive drag if the
PCU were to fail. To
cater for both these
requirements, the pitch
change piston on the
type of propeller
illustrated in Figure 6,
is provided with two
fine pitch stops, the
flight fine pitch stop,
being withdrawn for
starting and ground
operations. The flight fine pitch stop is in the form of a spring collet, the prongs of which are designed to
spring inwards. When the collet is operating as a stop, the pitch-lock piston is held in the forward
position by a spring, forcing the spring collet open, and preventing the pitch change piston from moving
forward further than the flight fine pitch position. When ground fine pitch is required, a solenoid in the
PCU is energized (normally by operation of both a stop withdrawal lever and a throttle operated switch)
and oil pressure is ducted through the third oil line to the front of the pitch lock piston; as the piston
moves rearwards, support for the collet is withdrawn and the prongs spring inwards, allowing the pitch
change piston to move fully forward to the ground fine pitch position. The pitch lock solenoid is
disarmed when the throttles are moved forward for take-off, and, when the propeller has coarsened into
the constant speed range, the pitch lock piston moves forward under spring pressure and opens the
spring collet to form the flight fine pitch stop.
Note: The term 'pitch lock' is used, in the above paragraph, to describe a means of holding
the fine pitch stop in a prescribed position. Some manufacturers use the term to describe a device
which locks the blades at whatever angle they happen to be, should failure of the pitch change
mechanism occur.
The entire power-unit and the aircraft must be safeguarded in the event of the failure of the pitch-
lock unit to operate, and a safety system is operated in the PCU. If during flight, the propeller blades
move to a pitch finer than flight fine pitch, a switch fitted to one blade closes, and completes the circuit
through an isolating switch to a solenoid in the PCU. This solenoid directs oil pressure to a valve-lift
piston, which lifts the governor valve and directs oil to the front bf the pitch change piston. This action
coarsens the propeller blade angle, and breaks the circuit to the valve-lift solenoid. If the pitch-change
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piston does not latch over the spring collet as it moves rearwards, the sequence will be repeated as the
blades fine-off past flight fine pitch again. An isolation switch prevents operation of this safety system
when ground-fine pitch is purposely selected.
Feathering
Facilities for the manual feathering of the propeller are provided on all large piston and turbo-
propeller engines. With some turbo-propeller installations, however, the drag from a
windmillingprope11erin fine pitch could be very dangerous, particularly with a twin-engine aircraft, and
for these aircraft automatic feathering is also provided.
(a) Manual feathering of the propeller on a piston engine is normally carried out by movement of
the propeller control lever to the 'feather' position, and operation of the feathering pump. These actions
raise the governor valve, and supply oil under pressure to the appropriate side of the pitch-change piston.
On a turbo-propeller installation, manual feathering is carried...put by an interconnection between the
PCU, and the high pressure fuel cock. When the fuel cock is moved to the 'feather' position, linkage to
the PCU lifts the governor valve independently of the governor control, and oil is directed to the front of
the pitch change piston to turn the blades fully coarse. Since the oil pump in the PCU is driven by the
engine, the oil supply may be insufficient to feather the propeller completely, and operation of the
electrically-driven feathering pump may be necessary.
(b) Automatic feathering is initiated by means of a torque switch. Whenever the power levers are
positioned above the idling range, and the engine torque falls below a specified amount, the torque
switch closes and completes a circuit to the feathering pump and the valve-lift solenoid in the PCU. The
solenoid directs oil to the valve lift piston, which raises the governor valve, and opens the oil ports from
the feathering pump to the front of the pitch change piston, thus feathering the propeller.
Unfeathering
On turbo-propeller engines, when the high pressure fuel cock is open and the power levers
closed, the governor valve is in a suitable position to direct oil from the feathering pump to the rear of
the pitch change piston. Selection of the feathering pump switch (which is often incorporated in the fire
control handle), supplies oil to the PCU and thence to the propeller, and activates the engine ignition
system. When the propeller blades have turned from the feathered position, the airstream commences to
windmill the propeller and rotate the engine, and normal oil pressure builds up to complete the
unfeathering operation.
Reversing
In a reversing propeller, the propeller mechanism includes a removable ground fine pitch stop,
which enables the propeller to fine-off to a negative pitch when certain actions have been taken and
certain conditions are fulfilled. Various safeguards are incorporated to prevent selection during flight.
The means of achieving negative pitch vary considerably, but operation of a typical hydraulically
operated propeller is described in the following paragraphs.
(a) Electrical control is exercised by throttle-mounted switches, weight contact switches on the
landing gear, and a master switch or lever to arm the circuit.
With the throttle levers closed beyond normal idling to a datum position, 'reverse' selected, and the
weight of the aircraft on its wheels, electrical power is supplied to a pitch-stop withdrawal solenoid, and
oil pressure is directed to withdraw the fine-pitch stop and move the pitch-change piston forward to the
reverse stop, where it is held by hydraulic pressure. Operation of the 'reverse' lever also changes the
sense of operation of the throttle levers, which are pulled further back to increase power ill reverse pitch.
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(b) Indication of stop withdrawal, and movement of the blades to negative pitch, is provided by hub-
mounted switches, which illuminate appropriate warning lamps on the flight deck.
(c) Re-selection of positive blade angle is achieved by moving the throttle into the normal idling
range, and by moving the master lever out of the reverse position. Oil is ducted to the front of the pitch
charge piston, and the blades move to a positive angle the stop returns to normal operation once the
blades have moved past the ground fine pitch angle.
'Beta' Control
On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known as 'beta', or blade angle control, is used
for ground operations, and may be applied to either single-acting or double-acting propellers. With this
system, the throttles (usually known as power levers) operate in a gated quadrant. During flight these
levers cannot be closed below the 'flight idle' gate, and the CSU operate~ normally to maintain any pre-
selected propeller speed. In the ground idling and reversing range, the power levers control propeller
pitch to vary power at both positive and negative blade angles, at constant propeller speed, and the
governor mechanism is overridden. An overspeed sensors, and mechanical pitch stop, prevent operation
in the ground (fine pitch) range during flight. In the beta range, the pitch stop is withdrawn, and
movement of a power lever rotates a setting earn in the associated CSU, which raises or lowers the
governor valve according to whether a coarser or finer pitch is required. A mechanical feed-back
mechanism, operated by linkage from the propeller blades, resets the governor valve via a follow-up
cam, and pitch change ceases when the angle scheduled by the power lever is achieved.
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Lesson 16
Electrically Operated Propellers
As with other types of variable-pitch propellers, a hub is mounted on the engine reduction gear
shaft, the individual blades are fitted into the hub, and the pitch change mechanism is fitted to the front
of the hub. In this type, however, the pitch change mechanism consists of a reversible electric motor,
driving a bevel gear through a gear train with a very high reduction ratio. The bevel gear meshes with a
bevel gear segment attached to the root of each blade, and, when rotated, turns the blades to alter
propeller pitch. Electric power to the motor is provided through a brush and slip-ring arrangement at the
rear of the hub. A motor brake is provided to prevent overrun, and normally consists of two friction
discs, one fixed to the rotating motor shaft, and the other keyed to the stationary motor casing. The brake
is applied (discs held together) by spring pressure, and released by means .of a solenoid whenever a
pitch change is initiated.
Some electrically operated propellers are controlled 'by an engine-driven CSU, and switches are
also provided which enable propeller pitch to be controlled manually. The CSU is similar to those fitted
to hydraulically operated propellers, but the governor valve supplies oil to the appropriate side of a
piston contained in the CSU, which is connected to the central contact of a switch unit. Movement of
this piston in either direction completes a circuit to the pitch change motor, and alters blade angle as
required.
On some multi-engine aircraft an electrical control system is used. A single propeller pitch lever
controls the speed of a master electric motor, which is used as a reference for engine speed, and which
drives the stator of a contactor unit for each engine. Each engine drives an alternator, which supplies
three-phase alternating current to the stator windings of the appropriate contactor, the frequency being
proportional to engine speed. During operation, a magnetic field is built up round the stator with a phase
rotation opposite to that of the stator. If the stator speed and alternator speed are the same, the magnetic
field will, therefore, be stationary; any variation in alternator speed will result in rotation of the magnetic
field, the direction of rotation depending on whether the alternator is rotating faster or slower than the
stator. Rotation of the magnetic field influences a concentric rotor, which rotates with it, and closes a
pair of contacts to complete the circuit to the appropriate windings in the propeller pitch change motor.
Switches are normally provided to enable pitch changes and feathering to be carried out manually.
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Lesson 17
Propeller Feathering System
Feathering propellers are used on all modem multi-engine aircraft and on all but a few vintage
multi-engine airplanes. The primarily purpose of a feathering propeller is to eliminate the drag created
by a windm1l11ngpropeller when an engine falls. There are no current production single-engine aircraft
equipped with feathering propellers other than a few special purpose airplanes using turboprop
installations (such as the PT6-powered Thrush Commander agricultural aircraft).
Feathering propeller systems are constant-speed systems with the additional capability of feathering
the propeller. This means they have the ability to rotate the propeller blades to an approximate 90-
degree blade angle. The constant-speed controls and operational events covered in Chapter X apply to
the feathering propeller system. The cockpit propeller control lever incorporates an additional range of
movement to allow feathering the propeller or a separate push-button control may be used to operate the
feathering mechanism.
Feathering operations are independent of constant- speed operations and can override the constant-
speed operation to feather the propeller at any time. The engine does not have to be developing power
and in some systems the engine does not have to be rotating to feather the propeller. In short, propellers
are feathered by forces which are totally independent of engine operation.
It should be noted that when the propeller is feathered, the engine stops rotating.
Propeller Feathering
Hamilton Standard Hydromatic Propeller

The following description is typical of most of the various models of the Hamilton Standard hydromatic
propeller-
The hydromatic propeller is composed of four major components:

(1) The hub assembly.
(2) The dome assembly.
(3) The, distributor valve assembly (for feathering on single-acting propellers) or engine shaft- extension
assembly (for nonfeathering or double-acting propellers)-
(4) The anti-icing assembly
The hub assembly is the basic propeller mechanism. It contains both the blades and the mechanical
means for holding them in position. The blades are supported by the spider and retained by the barrel.
Each blade is free to turn about its axis under the control of the dome assembly.
The dome assembly contains the pitch-changing mechanism for the blades. It consists of several
major components:
(1) Rotating cam.
(2) Fixed cam.
(3) Piston.
(4) Dome shell.
When the dome assembly is installed in the propeller hub, the fixed cam remains stationary with
respect to the hub. The rotating cam, which can turn inside the .fixed cam, meshes with gear segments
on the blades. The piston operates inside the dome shell and is the mechanism that converts engine and
governor oil pressure into forces that act through the cams to turn propeller blades.
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The distributor valve or engine-shaft-extension assembly provides oil passages for governor or
auxiliary oil to the inboard side of the piston and for engine oil to the outboard side. During unfeathering
operation, the distributor shifts under auxiliary pressure and reverses these passages so that oil from the
auxiliary pump flows to the outboard side of the piston. Oil on the inboard side flows back to the engine,
the engine-shaft-extension assembly is used with propellers that do not have feathering capabilities.
Many structural features of most hydromatic propeller sand other constant-speed propellers are
similar. The blade and hub assemblies are almost identical, and the governors are also similar in
construction and principle of operation. The major difference is in the pitch-changing mechanism. In the
hydromatic propeller no counterweights are used, and the moving parts of the mechanism are
completely enclosed. Oil pressure and the centrifugal twisting moment of the blades are used together to
turn the blades to a lower angle. The main advantages of the hydromatic propeller are the large blade-
angle range and the feathering and reversing features.
Principle of Operation
The pitch-changing mechanism of hydromatic propellers is a mechanical-hydraulic system in
which hydraulic forces acting on a piston are transformed into mechanical twisting forces acting on the
blades. Linear movement of the piston is converted to rotary motion by a cylindrical cam. A bevel gear
on the base of the cam mates with bevel-gear segments attached to the butt ends of the blades, thereby
turning the blades. This blade pitch-changing action 'can be understood by studying the schematic in
figure
The centrifugal force, acting on a rotating blade includes a component force that tends to move the
blade toward low pitch, a second force, engine oil pressure, is supplied to the outboard side of the
propeller piston to assist in moving the blade toward low pitch.
Propeller governor oil, taken from the engine oil supply and boosted in pressure by the engine-
driven propeller, governor, is directed against the inboard side of the propeller piston. It acts as the
counter-force which can move the blades toward higher pitch. By metering this high pressure oil to, or
draining it from, the inboard side of the propeller piston by means of the constant-speed control unit, the
force toward high pitch can balance and control the two forces toward low pitch. In this way the
propeller blade angle is regulated to maintain a selected r.p.m.
The basic propeller control forces acting on the Hamilton Standard propeller are centrifugal twisting
force and high-pressure oil from the governor. The centrifugal force acting on each blade of a rotating
propeller includes a component force that results in a twisting moment about the blade center line which
tends, at all times, to move the blade toward low pitch.
Governor pump output oil is directed by the governor to either side of the propeller piston. The oil
on the side of the piston opposite this high pressure oil mums to the intake side of the governor pump
and is used over again. Engine oil at engine supply pressure does not enter the propeller directly but is
supplied only to the governor.
During constant-speed operations, the double-acting governor mechanism sends oil to one side or
the other of the piston as 'needed to keep the speed at a specified setting.
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Feathering Operation
A typical hydromatic
propeller feathering installation.
When the feathering push-
button switch is depressed, the
low-current circuit is
established from the battery.
Through the push button
holding coil and from the bat.
Try through the solenoid relay.
As long as the circuit remains
closed, the holding coil keeps
the push button in the depressed
position. Closing the solenoid
c3tablishes the high-current
circuit from the battery to the feathering motor pump unit. The feathering pump picks up engine oil from
the oil supply tank, boosts its pressure, if necessary, to the relief valve setting of the pump, and supplies
it to the governor high pressure transfer valve connection.
Auxiliary oil entering the high-pressure transfer valve connection shifts the governor transfer
valve, which hydraulically disconnects the governor from the propeller and at the same time opens the
propeller governor oil line to auxiliary oil. The oil flows through the engine transfer rings, through the
propeller shaft governor oil passage, through the distributor valve port, between lands, and finally to the
inboard piston end by way of the valve inboard outlet.
The distributor valve does not shift during the feathering operation. It merely provides an oil
passage way to the inboard piston end for auxiliary oil and the outboard piston end for engine oil. The
same conditions described for underspeed operation existing the distributor valve, except that oil at
auxiliary pressure replaces drain oil at the inboard end of the land and between lands. The distributor
valve spring is backed up by engine oil pressure, which means that at all times the pressure differential
required to move the piston will be identical with that applied to the distributor valve. .
The propeller piston moves outboard under the auxiliary oil pressure at a speed proportional to the
rate at which oil is supplied. This piston motion is transmitted through the piston rollers operating in the
oppositely inclined cam tracks of the fixed cam and the rotating cam, and is converted by the bevel gear
into the blade-twisting moment. Only during feathering or unfeathering is the low mechanical advantage
portion of the cam tracks used. (The low mechanical advantage portion lies between the break and the
outboard end of the track profile.) Oil at engine pressure, displaced from the outboard piston end, rows
through the distributor valve outboard inlet, past the outboard end of the valve land, through the valve
port, into the propeller shaft engine oil passage, and is finally delivered into the engine lubricating
system.. Thus, the blades move toward the full high-pitch (or feathered) angle.
Having reached the full-feathered position, further movement of the mechanism is prevented by
contact between the high-angle stop ring in the base of the fixed cam and the stop lugs set in the teeth of
the rotating cam. The pressure in the inboard piston end now increases rapidly, and upon reaching a set
pressure, the electric cutout switch automatically opens. This cutout pressure is less than that required to
shift the distributor valve. .
Opening the switch deenergizes the holding coil and releases the feathering push button control
switch. Release of this switch breaks the solenoid relay circuit which shuts off the feathering pump
motor. The pressures in both the inboard and out board ends of the piston drop to zero, and since all the
forces are balanced, the propeller blades remain in the feathered position. Meanwhile, the governor
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high-pressure transfer valve has shifted to its normal position as soon as the pressure in the propeller
governor line drops below that required to hold the valve open.
Unfeathering Operation
To unfeather a hydromatic propeller, depress and hold in the feathering switch push-button
control switch. As in the case of feathering a propeller, the low-current control circuits from the battery
through the holding coil and from the battery through the solenoid are completed when the solenoid
closes. The high current circuit from the battery starts the motor-pump unit, and oil is supplied at a high
pressure to the governor transfer valve.
Auxiliary oil entering through the high pressure transfer valve connection shifts the governor
transfer valve and disconnects the governor from the propeller line; in the same operation, auxiliary oil
is admitted. The oil flows through the engine oil transfer rings, through the propeller shaft, governor oil
passage, and into the
distributor valve
assembly. .
When the
unfeathering
operation begins, the
piston is in the
extreme outboard
position the oil enters
the inboard piston
end of the cylinder
by way of the
distributor valve
inboard outlet. As
the pressure on the
inboard end of the
piston increases the
pressure against the
distributor valve land
builds up. When the
pressure becomes
greater than the combined opposing force of the distributor valve spring and the oil pressure behind this
spring, the valve shifts. Once the valve shifts, the passages through the distributor valve assembly to the
propeller are reversed. A passage is opened between lands and through a port to the outboard piston end
by way of the distributor valve outlet. As the piston moves inboard under the auxiliary pump oil
pressure, oil is displaced from the inboard piston end through the inlet ports between the valve lands,
into the propeller shaft engine oil lands, and into the propeller shaft engine oil passage where it is
discharged into the engine lubricating system. At the same time, the pressure at the cutout switch
increases and the switch opens. However, the circuits to the feathering pump and motor unit remains
complete so long as the feathering switch is held in.
With the inboard end of the propeller piston connected to drain, and auxiliary pressure flowing to
the outboard end of the piston, the piston moves inboard. This un feathers the blades as shown in figure.
As the blades are unfeathered, they begin to windmill and assist the unfeathering operation by the added
force toward low pitch brought about by the centrifugal twisting moment. When the engine speed has
increased to approximately 1,000 r.p.m., the operator shuts off the feathering pump motor. The pressure
in the distributor valve and at the governor transfer valve decreases, allowing the distributor valve to
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shift under the action of the governor high-pressure transfer valve spring. This action re-connects .he
governor with the propeller and establishes the same oil passages through the distributor valve that are
used during constant-speed and feathering operations.
Hydraulic Governors
Three fundamental forces, already discussed, are used to control blade angle variations required
for constant-speed propeller operation. These forces are:
(1) Centrifugal twisting moment, a component of the centrifugal force acting on a rotating blade which
tends at all times to move the blade into low pitch.
(2) Oil at engine pressure on the outboard piston side, which supplements the centrifugal twisting
moment toward low pitch.
(3) Propeller-governor oil on the inboard piston side, which balances the first two forces and moves the
blades toward high pitch
Governor Mechanism
The engine-driven
propeller governor, ,
(constant-speed control)
receives oil from the
lubricating system and
boosts its pressure to that
required to operate the
pitch-changing mechanism.
It consists essentially of a
gear pump to increase the
pressure of the engine oil, a
pilot valve actuated by
flyweights which control
the flow of oil through the
governor, and a relief valve
system which regulates the
operating pressures in the
governor.
In addition to boosting
the engine oil pressure to
produce, one of the
fundamental control forces,
the governor maintains the
required balance between
all three control forces by
metering to, or draining
from, the inboard side of
the propeller piston the
exact quantity of oil
necessary to maintain the
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proper blade angle for constant-speed operation.

The position of the pilot valve with respect to the propeller-governor metering port regulates the
quantity of oil which Rows through this port to or from the propeller. A spring above the rack returns the
rack to an intermediate position approximating cruising r.p.m. in case of governor control failure.
Setting the Propeller Governor

The propeller governor incorporates an adjustable stop, which limits the maximum speed at which
the engine can run. As soon as the .takeoff r.p.m. is reached, the propeller moves of the low-pitch stop.
The larger propeller blade angle increases the load on the engine, thus maintaining the; prescribed
maximum engine speed.
At the time of propeller, propeller governor, or engine installation, the following steps are normally
taken to ensure that the powerplant will obtain takeoff r.p.m.
(1) During ground run-up, move the throttle to takeoff position and note the resultant r.p.m. and
manifold pressure.
(2) If the r.p.m. obtained is higher or lower than the takeoff r.p.m. prescribed in the manufacturer's
instructions, re-set the adjustable stop on the governor until the prescribed r.p.m. is obtained.
Lesson 18
Over-speed Condition Protection
If the propeller is operating above the r.p.m. for which the control is set, the blades will be in a
lower angle (solid black section in figure) than that required for constant-speed operation (dotted lines).
The arrow represents the direction in which the blades will move to bring the propeller to the onspeed
condition.
When the engine speed increases above the r.p.m. for which the governor is set, note that the
flyweights move outward against the force of the speeder spring, raising the pilot valve. This opens the
propeller-governor metering port, allowing governor oil flow from the governor booster pump, through
the propeller-governor metering port, and into the engine oil transfer rings. From the rings, the oil passes
through the propeller shaft governor oil passage, through a distributor valve port, between distributor
lands, and then to the inboard piston end by way of the distributor valve inboard outlet.
As a result of this flow, the piston and the attached rollers move outboard, and the rotating earn is
turned by the earn track. As the piston moves outboard, oil is displaced from the outboard piston end.
This oil enters the distributor valve outboard inlet, flows through the distributor valve port, past the
outboard end of the valve land, through the port, and into the propeller shaft engine oil passage. From
that point it is dissipated into the engine lubricating system. The same balance forces exist across the
distributor valve during overspeed as during underspeed, except that oil at governor pressure replaces oil
at drain pressure on the inboard end of the valve land and between lands.
Outboard motion of the piston moves the propeller blades toward a higher angle, which, in turn,
decreases the engine r.p.m. A decrease in engine r.p.m. decreases the rotating speed of the governor
flyweights. As a result, the flyweights are moved inward by the force of the speeder spring, the pilot
valve is lowered, and the propeller governor metering port is closed. Once this port has been closed, oil
flow to or from the propeller practically ceases, and the propeller and governor operate on-speed.
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Under-speed Condition
Under-speeding results when the blades (solid black section, figure) have moved to a higher
angle than that required for constant-speed operation (dotted line section). The arrow represents
the direction in which the blades will .move to reestablish on-speed operation.
When the engine speed drops below the r.p.m. for which the governor is set, the resulting decrease in
centrifugal force exerted by the flyweights permits the speeder spring to lower the pilot valve, thereby
opening the propeller-governor metering port. The oil then flows from the inboard end through the
distributor valve inboard inlet, between distributor valve lands, through the valve port, and into the
propeller shaft governor oil passage. From here the rings, up to the propeller-governor metering port,
and then through the governor drive gear shaft and pilot valve arrangement to drain into the engine nose
case. The engine scavenge pump recovers the oil from the engine nose case and returns it to the oil tank.
As the oil is drained from the inboard piston end, engine oil flows through the propeller shaft engine
oil passage and the distributor valve ports. It emerges from the distributor valve outboard outlet into the
outboard piston end. With the aid of blade centrifugal twisting moment, this oil moves the piston
inboard. The piston motion is transmitted through the cam rollers and through the beveled gears to the
blades. Thus, the blades move to a lower angle, as shown in the blade angle schematic diagram (figure).
As the blades assume a lower angle (dotted line section, figure), engine speed increases and the
pilot valve is raised by the increased centrifugal force exerted by the governor flyweights. The propeller-
governor metering port gradually closes, decreasing the flow of oil from the inboard piston end. This
decrease in oil flow also decreases the rate of blade-angle change toward low pitch. By the time the
engine has reached the r.p.m. for which the governor is set, the pilot valve will have assumed a neutral
position (closed) in which it prevents any appreciable oil flow to or from the propeller. The valve is held
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in this position because the flyweight centrifugal- force equals the speeder spring force. The control
forces are now equal, and the propeller and governor are operating on-speed.
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Lesson 19
Reversing Propeller Systems
A reversing propeller is a constant-speed feathering propeller with the additional capability of
producing a reverse thrust. Reversing propeller systems are used on most modern multi-engine
turboprop aircraft such as the Cessna Conquest, Beech craft King Air, Piper Cheyenne, and on large
transport aircraft such as the Douglas DC- 7 and the Lockheed Constellation. Some small single-engine
seaplanes and float planes use reversing propellers for improved water maneuverability.
Reversing propellers have the advantages of decreasing the length of the landing roll, reducing
brake wear, and increasing ground maneuverability. Some aircraft can use the reversing system to back
up the aircraft on the ground, while other designs use the system only to brake the aircraft on the landing
roll.
The main disadvantages of the reversing system are the reduced engine cooling available for piston-
driven aircraft, and increased blade damage from stones, sand, etc., when the propellers are in reverse.
When a propeller goes into reverse, the blades rotate below the low blade angle and into a negative
angle of about -15 degrees. This forces air forward to provide a negative thrust. When the system goes
into reverse, the engine does not rotate in the direction opposite to normal rotation (as some people
think), the blades just force air forward rather than rearward.
The reversing operation is controlled in the cockpit by the throttles and is initiated by moving the
throttles aft of the idle position. This reverses the blades and the engine RPM and or the blade angle is
varied by moving the throttles within the reverse range to control the amount of reverse thrust. The
farther aft the throttles are moved, the greater the reverse thrust.
Propellers cannot normally be reversed in flight and the aircraft often must be below a specified
airspeed on the landing roll before the reverse mechanism is engaged. Most systems require that the
aircraft weight be on the landing gear before the throttles can be moved into the reverse range. This is
controlled by a squat switch on the landing gear strut.
Hartzell Reversing Propeller System on The Pratt & Whitney PT6 Engine
The Hartzell propeller on the Pr6 engine is used on the Piper Cheyenne, DeHavilland Twin Otter,
and most models of the Beech craft King Air series.
The Pr6 engine is a free turbine design of over 600 HP at 38,000 RPM. A gear reduction mechanism
couples the engine power turbine to the propeller driveshaft with the propeller rotating at 2,200 RPM at
100% RPM. The engine is a free turbine design, meaning that the power turbine is not mechanically
connected to the engine compressor, but is air coupled. The hot gases generated by the engine flow over
the power turbine wheel and cause the power turbine and the propeller to rotate.
Another turbine section is mechanically linked to the compressor section and is used to drive the
compressor section. It is possible during engine start for the compressor and its turbine to be rotating
while the propeller and the power turbine do not move or move at a lower RPM. The power turbine will
eventually reach the speed of the compressor, but the starter motor is not under a load from the propeller
and power turbine during engine start. For this reason the propeller can be shut down in feather and does
not need a low blade angle latch mechanism for engine starting.
Propeller
The propeller commonly used with the Pf6 is a three-, four-, or five-bladed Hartzell Steel Hub
reversing propeller. The propeller is flange-mounted on the engine, and is spring-loaded and counter
weighted to the feather position with oil pressure being used to decrease the blade angle. A slip ring
mechanism on the rear of the propeller serves as a follow-up mechanism in giving proportional propeller
response to control inputs in the beta mode.
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Governor
The propeller governor used with the Pf6 is basically the same as other governors discussed for
constant-speed operation. using a speeder spring and flyweights to control a pilot valve which directs oil
flow to and from the propeller. A lift rod is incorporated in the governor to allow feathering of the
propeller.
For Beta Mode operation the governor contains a Beta control valve operated by the power lever
linkage and directs oil pressure generated by the governor boost pump to the propeller or relieves oil
from the propeller to change the blade angle.
System Components
A propeller overspeed governor is mounted on the gear reduction assembly and will release oil
from the propeller whenever the propeller RPM exceeds 100%. The release of oil pressure will result in
a higher blade angle and a reduction in RPM. The overspeed governor is adjusted on the ground when
the unit is installed and cannot be adjusted in flight. There are no cockpit controls to this governor.
A power turbine governor is installed on the gear reduction assembly as a safety device in case the
other propeller governing devices should fail. When the power turbine RPM reaches about 105% the
power turbine governor will reduce fuel flow to the engine to prevent excessive engine RPM. The power
turbine governor is not controllable from the cockpit.
The engine fuel control unit is mounted on the rear of the engine and is linked through a earn
assembly to the Beta control valve on the propeller governor and to the slip ring on the propeller. This
interconnection with the fuel control unit is used during beta Mode operation.
Cockpit Controls
The cockpit controls for the PT6 turboprop installation consist of a power lever controlling
engine power output in all modes and propeller blade angle in the Beta Mode. a propeller control lever
which adjusts system RPM in the Alpha Mode, and a fuel cut -off lever which turns the fuel on and off
at the fuel control unit.
The power lever is linked to the cam assembly on the side of the engine and from there, rearward to
the fuel control unit and forward to the propeller governor beta control valve. The power lever adjusts
both engine fuel flow and propeller blade angle in the Beta Mode (reverse to flight idle).In the Alpha
Mode, the lever only controls fuel flow to the engine.
The propeller control lever adjusts system RPM in the Alpha Mode through conventional governor
operation. Full aft movement of the lever will raise the lift rod in the governor and cause the propeller to
feather.
The fuel cut-off lever turns the fuel to the engine on and off at the engine fuel control unit. Some
designs have an intermediate position, called low-idle, to limit system power while operating on the
ground.
System Operation
Beta Mode operation is generally in the range of 50 to 85% RPM. In this range the power lever is
used to control both fuel flow and propeller blade angle. When the power lever is moved forward, the
cam assembly on the side of the engine causes the fuel flow to the engine to increase. At the same time
the linkage to the propeller governor moves the beta control valve forward out of the governor body, and
oil pressure in the propeller is released. As the propeller cylinder moves inboard in response to the loss
of oil, the slip ring on the rear of the cylinder moves inboard and, through the carbon block and linkage,
returns the Beta control valve to a neutral position. This gives a proportional movement to the propeller.
If the power lever is moved rearward, fuel flow is reduced and the Beta control valve is moved in to
the governor body directing oil pressure to the propeller to decrease blade angle. As the propeller
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cylinder moves outboard, the Beta control valve returns to the neutral position by the action of the slip
ring, carbon block, and linkage. This again gives a proportional response.
If the power lever is moved aft of the zero position, fuel flow will increase and the blade angle goes
negative to allow a variable reverse thrust. This change in fuel flow is caused by the earn mechanism on
the side of the engine.
During the Beta Mode, the propeller governor constant-speed mechanism is underspeed with the pilot
valve lowered. The governor oil pump supplies the oil pressure for propeller operation In the Beta
Mode.
In the Alpha Mode, the system RPM is high enough for the propeller governor to operate and the
system is in a constant-speed mode of operation. As the power lever is moved forward, more fuel flows
to the engine to increase horsepower and the propeller governor causes an increase in propeller blade
angle to absorb the power increase and maintain the selected system RPM. If the power lever is moved
aft, the blade angle will be decreased by the governor to maintain the selected RPM.
To feather the propeller, the propeller lever is moved full aft. the pilot valve in the governor is raised
by a lift rod, and all of the oil pressure In the propeller is released. The springs and counter weights in
the propeller will take it to feather.
To unfeather the propeller, the engine is started. a sit starts to rotate, the power turbine will rotate
and the governor or Beta control valve will take the propeller to the selected blade angle or governor
RPM setting. When the engine is restarted, the engine will be started before the propeller is rotating at
the same proportional speed because of the free turbine characteristic of the engine.
If the propeller RPM should exceed 100%, the propeller overspeed governor will raise its pilot valve
and release oil from the propeller to increase blade angle and prevent overspeeding of the propeller. The
overspeed governor is automatic and is not controllable in flight.
The power turbine governor prevents excessive overspeeding of the propeller by reducing fuel flow
to the engine at approximately 105% RPM. This governor is not controllable in flight and is automatic in
operation.
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Lesson 20
PROPELLER SYNCHRONISING
Introduction
Most four-engine, and many twin-engine, aircraft are equipped with propeller synchronization
systems. Synchronization systems provide a means of controlling and synchronizing engine r.p.m.
Synchronization reduces vibration and eliminates the unpleasant beat produced by unsynchronized
propeller operation. There are several types of synchronizer systems in use.
Master Motor Synchronizer

An early type, still in use on .some operating aircraft, consists of a synchronizer master unit,
Four alternators, a tachometer, engine r.p.m. control levers, switches, and wiring. These components
automatically control the speed of each engine and synchronize all engines at any desired rpm.
A synchronizer master unit incorporates a master motor which mechanically drives four
contactor unite; each contactor unit is electrically connected to an alternator. The alternator is a small,
three phase, alternating-current generator driven by an accessory drive of the engine. The frequency of
the
Voltage produced by the generator is directly proportional to the engine accessory speed. In
automatic operation, the desired engine r.p.m. may be set by manually adjusting the r.p.m. control lever
until a master tachometer indicator on the instrument panel indicates the desired r.p.m. Any difference in
r.p.m. between an engine and the master motor will cause the corresponding contactor unit to operate the
pitch-changing mechanism of the propeller until the engine is on-speed (at correctly desired r.p.m.).
One-Engine Master System

Synchronizer systems are also installed in light twin-engine aircraft. Typically, such systems
consist of a special propeller governor on the left-hand engine, a slave governor on the right-hand
engine, a synchronizer control unit and an actuator in the right-hand engine nacelle.
The propeller governors ~re equipped with magnetic pickups that count the propeller revolutions
and send a signal to the synchronizer unit. The synchronizer, which\is usually a transistorized unit,
compares the signal from the two propeller governor pickups. If the two signals are different, the
propellers are out of synchronization, and the synchronizer control generates a d.c. pulse which sent to
the slave propeller unit.
The control signal is sent to an actuator, which consists of two rotary solenoids, mounted to
operate on a common shaft. A signal to increase the r.p.m. of the slave propeller is sent to one of the
solenoids, which rotates the shaft clockwise. A .signal to decrease r.p.m. is sent to the other solenoid,
which moves the shaft in the opposite direction.
Each pulse signal rotates the shaft a fixed amount. This distance is called a "step-" Attached to
the shaft is a flexible cable, which is connected on its other end to a trimming unit. The vernier section
of the trimming unit regulates the governor arm.
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Lesson 21
Propeller Synchrophasing System
Some twin-engine aircraft with constant-speed propellers are equipped with an automatic
synchronizer system that matches the rotational speeds of the two engines. Synchronization is merely
the control of the propellers so that they operate at the same speed. Some earlier aircraft were equipped
with a synchronization system only, but as technology advanced, control of the blade phase angle also
was accomplished, hence the name synchrophasing. Synchrophasing is used to give optimum propeller
performance and low noise and vibration levels.
Phasing has to do with the relative positions of the two propellers at any instant in time. Taking a
vertical position of the front propeller as reference, if the rear propeller is exactly vertical, the relative
phase angle between the two propellers at that time is 90°. If the rear propeller is at the angles shown in
Fig. 19-52, the relative phase angles could be considered as (A) 0° or 180°, (B) 20° or 160°, and C)48°or
132°. Of course, the relative phase angle can be taken at any point in the revolution of the propellers.
Relative phase angle affects noise and vibration characteristics in the aircraft. Other dynamic factors,
such as speed and rough vs. smooth air, also affect noise and vibration. To compensate for all of the
dynamic factors, the phase of the propellers is manually adjustable when the aircraft is equipped with
the type I synchrophaser system.
Type I Synchrophaser System

It performs two functions in twin-engine aircraft. It automatically maintains propeller speed
synchronization and it allows manual adjustment of the phase angle relationship between the two
propellers.
A typical type I synchrophaser system includes a master governor, a slave governor, magnetic pulse
pickups on both governors, an electronic control-box assembly, an actuator motor, a trimmer assembly,
a flexible drive shaft, a control switch, and an indicator light. A schematic diagram of such a system is
shown in Fig. 19-53.
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During operation of the system, the two governors send pulse signals from the magnetic pickups to
the control-box circuit. If the pulse signals are not exactly at the same frequency, the control circuit will
rotate the actuator motor in a direction that equalizes the governor signals. As the actuator motor rotates,
it turns the flexible shaft leading to the trimmer assembly which is attached to the control lever on the
slave governor. The trimmer moves the governor control lever to make the appropriate rpm adjustment
for the slave engine.
The automatic synchrophaser system is placed in operation by first adjusting the engine rpm
manually for synchronization at the desired cruising value. The synchrophaser system switch is then
turned on. The system has a limited range of synchronization, which prevents the slave engine from
losing more than a limited amount of rpm if the master engine is feathered with the synchrophaser
system on. This system may be turned on or off, thus providing for manual or automatic control.
Because the slave engine will decrease its rpm if the master engine fails, this system is not used during
takeoff and landing.
Type II Synchrophaser System

The type II synchrophaser system, shown in Fig. is an electronic system which can be used for
takeoff and landing, since the engines are controlled independently of each other. The system maintains
the rpm and an established propeller blade phase relationship for each engine to reduce cabin noise and
vibration.
The
components of this
system are the
control box,
trimming coils,
and magnetic
pickups on each
propeller. When
the system is in
operation, the
propeller speeds
and phase angle
signals are sent to
the control box.
The control box
processes this
information, then
outputs a signal to
the trimming coils
on the propeller
governors which
selects the correct
phase angle and
maintains the
propeller speed selected by the pilot.
Autofeathering Systems
Auto-feathering system is used to automatically feather the propeller of a failed engine. This will
prevent excess drag from the failed engine during a critical flight regime. This system is generally used
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during takeoff and landing. It functions by using a series of positive torque-sensing switches. If engine
torque falls below a certain value, these switches, through an arming relay, will provide power to the
dump valve. The dump valve is mounted on the propeller roverspeed governor and will bypass governor
oil pressure to the propeller if the system is activated. This will cause the propeller to feather, by virtue
of the governor oil pressure being drained away from the propeller. If the system has feathered one
propeller, because of engine failure, it disarms the other engine's autofeather circuit, so it cannot
autofeather.
When the system is activated, power is applied to the power lever switches. At 90 percent rpm
engine speed, these switches will close providing power to the 400-ft. Ib [542.4 N .m] torque switch. As
illustrated in Fig. 19-55, the right engine has failed and the 400-ft .lb torque switch has armed the right
engine arming relay. As the engine's torque drops below 200 lb, the 200-ft .lb [271.2 N .m] torque
switch connects to an electrical ground, completing a circuit to the dump valve. The dump valve will
route governor oil away from the propeller and it will feather. The left engine's autofeather system will
have been disabled, and the indicator light on the operating engine will go out. Many turboprop aircraft
use this type of autofeathering system.
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Lesson 22
PROPELLER ICE PROTECTION SYSTEM
Introduction
Ice formation on a propeller blade, in effect, produces a distorted blade airfoil section which
causes a loss in propeller efficiency. Generally, ice collects unsymmetrically on a propeller blade and
produces propeller unbalance and destructive vibration.
Fluid Anti-icing System

A typical fluid system figure includes a tank to hold a supply of anti-icing fluid. This fluid is
forced to each propeller by a pump. The control system permits variation in the pumping rate so that the
quantity of fluid delivered to a propeller can be varied, depending on the severity of icing. Fluid is
transferred from a stationary nozzle on the engine nose case into a circular V-shaped channel (slinger
ring) mounted on the rear of the propeller assembly. The fluid under pressure of centrifugal force is
transferred through nozzles to each blade shank.
Because airflow
around a blade shank
tends to disperse
anti-icing fluids to
areas on which ice
does not collect in
large quantities, feed
shoes, or boots, are
installed on the blade
leading edge. These
feed shoes are a
narrow strip of
rubber, extending
from the blade shank
to a blade station that
is approximately
75% of the propeller
radius. The feed
shoes are molded
with several parallel
open channels in
which fluid will flow
from the blade shank toward the blade tip by centrifugal force. The fluid flows laterally from the
channels, over the leading edge of the blade.
Isopropyl alcohol is used in some anti-icing systems because of its availability and low cost.
Phosphate compounds are comparable to isopropyl alcohol in anti-icing performance and have the
advantage of reduced flammability. However, phosphate compounds are comparatively expensive and,
consequently, are not widely used.
Electrical Deicing Systems

An electrical propeller icing control system (figure 7-26) consists basically of an electrical
energy source, a resistance heating element, system controls, and necessary wiring. The heating
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elements are mounted internally or externally on the propeller spinner and blades. Electrical power from
the aircraft system is transferred to the propeller hub through electrical leads, which terminate in slip
rings and brushes. Flexible connectors are used to transfer power from the hub to the blade elements.
Icing control is accomplished by converting electrical energy to heat energy in the heating
element.Balanced ice removal from all blades must be obtained as nearly as possible if excessive
vibration is to be avoided. To obtain balanced ice removal, variation of heating current in the blade
element is controlled so that similar heating effects are obtained in opposite blades. Electrical deicing
systems are usually designed for intermittent application of power to the heating elements to remove ice
after formation but before excessive accumulation. Proper control of heating intervals aids in preventing
runback, since heat is applied just long enough to melt the ice face in contact with the blade.
If heat supplied to an icing surface is more than that required to melt just the inner ice face, but
insufficient to evaporate all the water formed, water will run back over the unheated surface and freeze.
Runback of this nature causes ice formation en uncontrolled icing areas of the blade or surface.
Cycling timers
are used to energize
the heating element
circuits for periods
of 15 to 30 seconds,
with a complete
cycle time of 2
minutes. A cycling
timer is an electric
motor driven
contactor which
control & power
contactors in
separate sections of
the circuit.
Controls for
propeller electrical
deicing systems
include on-.off
switches, ammeters
or loadmeters to
indicate current in the circuits, and protective devices such as current limiters or circuit breakers. The
ammeters or loadmeters permit monitoring of individual circuit currents and reflect operation of the
timer.
To prevent element overheating, the propeller deicing system is generally used only when the
propellers are rotating, and for short periods of time during ground runup.
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Lesson 23
PROPELLER MAINTENANCE
Introduction
The propeller inspection requirements and maintenance procedures discussed in this section are
representative of those in widespread use on most of the propellers described in this chapter. No attempt
has been made to include detailed maintenance procedures for a particular propeller, "and all pressures,
figures, and sizes are solely for the purpose of illustration and do not have specific application. For
maintenance information on specific propeller, always refer to applicable manufacturer's instructions.
Propeller Inspection
Propellers must be inspected regularly. The exact time interval for particular propeller
inspections is usually specified by the propeller manufacturer. The regular daily inspection of propellers
varies little from one type to another. Typically it is a
visual inspection of propeller blade, hubs, controls, and
accessories for security, safety, and general condition.
Visual inspection of the blades does not mean a careless
or casual observation. The inspection should be
meticulous enough to detect any flaw or defect that may
exist. Inspections performed at greater intervals of time,
e.g., 25, 50, or 100 hours, usually include a visual check
of:
(1) Blades, spinners, and other external surfaces for
excessive oil or grease deposits.
(2) Weld and braze sections of blades and hubs for
evidence of failure.
(3) Blade, spinner, and hubs for nicks, scratches or other
flaws. Use a magnifying glass if necessary.
(4) Spinner or dome shell attaching screws for tightness.
(5) The lubricating oil levels when applicable.
If a propeller
is involved in an
accident, and a
possibility exists
that internal
damage may have
occurred, the
propeller should
be disassembled
and inspected.
Whenever a
propeller is
removed from a
shaft, the hub
cone seats, cones,
and other contact
parts should be
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examined to detect undue wear, galling, or corrosion.

During major overhaul, the propeller is disassembled, and all parts are inspected and. checked for
size, tolerances, and wear. A magnetic inspection or another type of nondestructive test is usually made
at this time to determine whether any fatigue cracks have developed on the steel components and
assemblies.
Static Propeller Balance

A propeller is balanced both horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal imbalance
Horizontal imbalance can be adjusted on a wooden propeller by adding or removing solder from
the blade tips. When balance is achieved, the solder must blend in with the contour of the tip. The metal
at the tip is vented by drilling a few 0.040-in [1.016-mm] holes at the extreme tip. These holes help to
eliminate any moisture which might condense under the metal tipping.
Vertical imbalance
Vertical imbalance is corrected by attaching a metal weight to the light side of the hub. The size
of the weight is determined by first applying putty at a point 90° from the horizontal centerline. When
the propeller balances, the putty is removed and weighed. A metal plate is then cut to a size which will
approximate the weight of the putty. The weight of the metal plate must be adjusted for the weight of the
screws and solder which are used for attachment. The plate is attached to the hub at the 90° location with
counter sunk screws. The heads of the screws are soldered and then smoothed with a file. Finally,
varnish is applied to match the finish of the rest of the propeller.
Balancing of Controllable Propellers

Upon completion of repairs, the horizontal and vertical balance of a propeller must be checked.
If any unbalanced condition is found, correction must be made according to the manufacturer's
instructions. Balancing methods include the installation of weights in the shanks of the blades, packing
of lead wool into holes drilled in the ends of the blades, packing of lead into hollow bolts, and others. In
any event, the manufacturer's recommendations must be followed for any specific type of propeller. For
some propellers, only the manufacturer is permitted to perform the balancing operations.
To balance a three-bladed constant-speed propeller, attach the propeller to a balance arbor and place the
propeller and arbor on the balance stand. Place each of the three blades alternately in the horizontal
position. Locate the blade that has the greatest tendency to move up from horizontal; this is the lightest
blade. The propeller is balanced when all three blades stay in the horizontal position without any
tendency to move up or down.
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Lesson 24
Dynamic Propeller Balance
If a rotating disk is perfectly balanced, no vibration will be passed on to the supporting structure.
If a weight is added to the edge of the' disk, the support will be forced up and down once per revolution
as the disk rotates, generating a one-per-rev vibration. Even when the propeller is properly statically
balanced and the engine is in perfect condition, tolerances allow the propeller/engine combination to
produce a one-per-rev vibration. This residual imbalance can produce significant vibration energy that
can stress engine mounts, seals, accessory brackets, etc. Electronic vibration-measuring equipment can
be used to sense this out-of-balance condition with the engine running and provide information on where
and in what
amount to add
trim weights to
eliminate the
vibration.
A vibration-
measuring
system consists
of a vibration
transducer for
converting the
vibration into a
measurable
electrical
signal; a
photocell,
magnetic
pickup, or
strobelight for
sensing the
angular
position of the propeller; and an electronic instrument for filtering, measurement, and readout of the
amplitude and phase of the vibration signal.
The vibration transducer most commonly used is a piezoelectric accelerometer. This type of sensor
uses a crystal material that produces an electrical charge in proportion to the force applied to it. This
type of sensor is sensitive to vibration in one axis only. For propeller balance, the sensor is mounted on
the engine or gearbox as close as possible to the propeller. The vibration produced by propeller
imbalance causes a circular motion at all points on the end of the engine, so accelerometer mounting
orientation is not critical.
A photocell can be used to sense the phase angle of the propeller. The photocell produces a beam of
light that is modulated at a high frequency. If the beam of light strikes a retroreflector, the return beam is
sensed by the photocell and a signal pulse is generated. By attaching the photocell (photo-tach) to the
engine or engine cowling, and placing a patch of retroreflective tape on a propeller blade, a simple phase
detector is installed. The high-frequency modulation of the light beam allows the photocell to ignore
other sources of ambient light. Common photocells can sense a reflector at distances from 2 to 40in 5.08
to 101.6 cm], and universal mounting brackets provide easy alignment, making photocells easy to use.
A magnetic pickup can also be used to sense the phase angle of the propeller. A magnetic pickup
consists of a bar magnet wrapped with a coil of wire. The housing of the pickup nearly completes the
magnetic circuit, leaving a gap at the end of the pickup. Whenever a ferromagnetic object is introduced
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into this gap, the magnetic flux increases dramatically. This change in magnetic flux induces a voltage in
the coil that is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Magnetic pickups are inexpensive
and very rugged, but they require a small, accurately controlled gap between the end of the pickup and
the "interrupter" (blade of steel) that passes by the pickup. This controlled gap requires that special
brackets and interrupters be produced for each type of aircraft.
A strobelight can also be used to measure the vibration phase angle. After the vibration signal is
filtered, a zero crossing detector circuit is used to create a pulse and trigger the strobelight. A piece of
retroreflective tape is placed on the root of one of the propeller blades. Directing the strobe at the
propeller will make the retroreflective tape appear to have stopped. The phase angle can be estimated
visually by the user. This method has several disadvantages. It usually requires two people, one to
operate the aircraft and one to stand in front of the prop and operate the strobe. Also, there is no way to
average the phase angle data except by human, skill level. In addition, a strobe requires a lot of power,
which is usually drawn from the aircraft battery. Attachment of wires to aircraft power systems takes
time and can be dangerous.
The electronic instrument that completes the dynamic balancing system must include at minimum a
tuneable filter circuit for removing all but the one-per-rev signal produced by the propeller, an accurate
amplitude-measuring circuit and display(similar to a voltmeter), and a phase-measuring circuit for
measurement and display of the phase angle between the photocell or mag pickup signal and the
accelerometer signal. The balancing process is accomplished during a ground run-up with the cables and
balancer.
Data Averaging
With older balancers, the raw amplitude and phase data were presented to the user. The user was
left to manually tune the filter and watch the needle on a meter waver back and forth. Digital balancers
can automatically tune the filter and mathematically compute the average of several readings. This
method can provide repeatable, accurate measurements of data that were difficult to interpret on the
older equipment. This allows dynamic balancing to much lower levels to be done with ease.
Computing a Balance Solution

Determining how much weight to add and where to add it based on the amplitude and phase
angle data was commonly done with older balancers using nomographs often called "charts." The
amplitude and phase readings were manually plotted on a graph of concentric circles and radial lines. An
overlay of lines could be followed out to the recommended solution weight and location. More modem
balancing systems compute the solution using digital computations. These balancers eliminate the need
to manually plot the data on, and to read, these "charts." These "computer balancers" display the amount
of weight to add and the location in degrees.
Attaching Dynamic Balance Weights

Some aircraft have locations designed to accept dynamic balance weights. Many aircraft have no
built-in provision for attaching these weights. Several propeller and airframe manufacturers have
authorized drilling of the spinner backing plate for attachment of standard aircraft screws, nuts, and
washers. The hole should be drilled slightly undersize and reamed to final size. The hole should be
deburred with emery cloth to reduce the possibility of a stress concentration. The maximum amount of
weight to be added at one location is strictly limited by manufacturer standards. When a stack of
washers is used, at least one should be placed on either side of the bulkhead to reduce stress.
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Lesson 25
Propeller Vibration
When powerplant vibration is encountered, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether it is the
result of engine vibration or propeller vibration. In most cases the cause of the vibration can be
determined by observing the propeller hub, dome, or spinner while the engine is running within a 1200.
to 1500.r.p.m.range, and determining whether or not the propeller hub rotates on an absolutely
horizontal plane. If the propeller hub appears to swing in a slight orbit, the vibration will normally be
caused by the propeller. If the propeller hub does not appear to rotate in an orbit, the difficulty will
probably be caused by engine vibration.
When propeller vibration is the reason for excessive powerplant vibration, the difficulty will usually
be caused by propeller blade unbalance, propeller blades not tracking, or variation in propeller blade
angle settings. Check the propeller blade tracking, and then the low-pitch blade-angle setting to
determine if they are the cause of the vibration. If both propeller tracking and low blade-angle setting are
correct, the propeller is statically or dynamically unbalanced and should be replaced, or rebalanced if
permitted by the manufacturer.
Blade Tracking
Blade tracking is the process of determining
the positions of the tips of the propeller blades
relative to each other. Tracking shows only the
relative position of the blades, not their actual path.
The blades should all track one another as closely as
possible. The difference in track at like points must
not exceed the tolerance specified by the propeller
manufacturer.
The design and manufacture of propellers is such
that the tips of the blades will give an indication of
tracking. The following method for checking
tracking is normally used.
(1) Install a heavy wire or small rod on the leading
edge of the aircraft wing or other suitable area of the
aircraft until it lightly touches the propeller blade
face near the tip.
(2) Rotate the propeller until the next blade is in the
same position as the first blade, and measure the
distance between the rod and blade continue this
process until all blades have been checked.
Tracking the Propeller

Once the propeller is installed and torqued.
The track of the propeller should be checked. The track of the propeller is defined as the path which the
tips of the blades follow when rotated with the aircraft stationary. For light aircraft with propellers of
approximately six feet in diameter metal propellers can be out of track no more than 1/16 of an inch and
the track of a wood propeller may not be out more than 1/8 of an inch. Before the propeller can be
tracked the aircraft must be made stationary by chocking the wheels so that the aircraft will not move.
Next, a fixed reference point must be placed within 1/4 inch of the propeller arc. This may be done by
placing a board on blocks under the propeller arc and taping a piece of paper to the board so that the
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track of each blade can be marked. The propeller is

rotated by hand until one blade is pointing down at
the paper. (Make sure that the engine is safe.) The
position of the blade tip is marked on the paper. The
propeller is then rotated so that the track of the next
blade can be marked on the paper. This is repeated
for each blade on the propeller. The maximum
difference in track for all the blades should not
exceed the limits mentioned for a light aircraft.
If a wooden propeller track is off more than the
allowed amount, and presuming that the propeller,
hub, and crankshaft are within permissible
tolerances, the track may be corrected by the use of
shims. A shim shaped to fit halfway around the face
of the hub or flange is installed between the flange
and propeller on the side with the more rearward
tracking blade, so that the blade will be moved
forward. The shim should be an approved type of
thin brass shim stock of about .002 to .004 inches as
necessary to correct the problem. Another shim of
the same thickness may be installed between the
faceplate and the boss on the side of the more
forward blade.
Once the shims are installed, the propeller-hub
assembly is reassembled and the propeller is installed on the crankshaft, torqued, and the track is
rechecked. If the track is within limits, the installation is safetied. Always consult the manufacturer's
manual before using shims as some model propellers do not allow the use of shims.
Dynamic Propeller Tracking

A strobelight can be used to observe the visual track of the blade tips on a propeller. Small strips
of retroreflective tape must be placed securely and accurately at the tip of each blade. The shape, color,
or orientation of each target should be varied for identification. If the strobe has an internal oscillator, it
can be set to the blade rate while the engine is running. If a mag pickup or photocell signal is available
this can be used as a synchronizing pulse if the strobe has a "sync oscillator" (or "locking oscillator").
A propeller that is out of track will usually induce a one-per-rev vibration similar to the vibration
from an out-of balance prop. This vibration will increase with thrust power (pitch), whereas an out-of-
balance vibration will remain constant with increasing thrust. An out-of-track prop can also induce an
axial vibration that can be sensed by reorienting the vibration sensor axis parallel with the prop shaft.
Engine Vibration Analysis

Modem computer balancers usually can provide an accurate "spectrum analysis" of the vibration
of the aircraft engine. This can be done during the balancing process and requires only a few extra
seconds. The engine vibration is a good indicator of the "health" of the engine. By comparing the
vibrations of several engines of the same type, it is easy to see when an engine has a problem. One
computer balancer maker (Dynamic Solutions Systems, Inc.) is building a large database of common
engine
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Lesson 26
Maintenance and Repair of Propellers
General Nature of Propeller Repairs
When objects, such as stones, dirt, birds, etc., strike against the propeller blades and hub during
flight or during takeoff and landing, they may cause bends, cuts, scars, nicks, scratches, or other defects
in the blades or hub. If a defect is not repaired, local stresses are established which may cause a crack to
develop, resulting eventually in the failure of the propeller or hub. For this reason, propellers are
carefully examined at frequent intervals, and any defects that are discovered are repaired immediately
according to methods and procedures that will not further damage the propeller.
The terminology of propeller inspection, maintenance, and repair is very precise. Repairs and
alterations are rigidly classified and assigned to certain types of repair agencies. After the work is
assigned to the correct individuals or organizations, the propeller must be carefully cleaned before work
is performed on it. Then the necessary inspections, repairs, alterations, and maintenance procedures may
be carried out.
Authorized Repairs and Alterations

The technician contemplating repair, overhaul, or alteration should be thoroughly familiar with
the approved practice and regulations governing the operation which he or she expects to perform. All
repairs and alterations of propellers must be performed in accordance with the regulations set forth in
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) and the pertinent manufacturers' manuals. Repairs and alterations
on propellers are divided into four main categories: (1) major alterations, (2) minor alterations, (3) major
repairs, and (4) minor repairs.
A major alteration is an alteration which may cause an appreciable change in weight, balance,
strength, performance, or other qualities affecting the airworthiness of a propeller. Any alteration which
is not made in accordance with accepted practices or cannot be performed by means of elementary
operations is also a major alteration.
A minor alteration is any alteration not classified as a major alteration.
A major repair is any repair which may adversely affect any of the qualities noted in the definition
of a major alteration.
A minor repair is any repair other than a major repair.
Classification of Repairs and Alterations

Changes such as those in the following list are classified as major alterations unless they have
been authorized in the propeller specifications issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
1. Changes in blade design
2. Changes in hub design
3. Changes in governor or control design
4. Installation of a governor or feathering system
5. Installation of a propeller deicing system
6. Installation of parts not approved for the propeller
7. Any change in the design of a propeller or its control
Changes classified as minor alterations are those similar to the types listed below.
1. Initial installation of a propeller spinner
2. Relocation of changes in the basic design of brackets or braces of the propeller controls
3. Changes in the basic design of propeller control rods or cables
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Repairs of the types listed below are classified as propeller major repairs, since they may adversely
affect the airworthiness of the propeller if they are neglected or improperly performed.
1. Any repairing or straightening of steel blades
2. Repairing or machining of steel hubs
3. Shortening of blades
4. Retipping of wood propellers
5. Replacement of outer laminations on fixed-pitch wood propellers
6. Inlay work on wood propellers
7. All repairs of composition blades
8. Replacement of tip fabric
9. Repair of elongated bolt holes in the hubs of fixed pitch wood propellers
10. Replacement of plastic covering
11. Repair of propeller governors
12. Repair of balance propellers of rotorcraft
13. Overhaul of controllable-pitch propellers
14. Repairs involving deep dents, cuts, scars, nicks, etc., and straightening of aluminum blades
15. Repair or replacement of internal elements of blades
Propeller repairs such as those listed below are classified as propeller minor repairs.
1. Repairs of dents, cuts, scars, scratches, nicks, and leading edge pitting of aluminum blades if the
repair does not materially affect the strength, weight, balance, or performance of the propeller.
2. Repairs of dents, cuts, scratches, nicks, and small
Cracks parallel to the grain of wood blades
3. Removal and installation of propellers
4. The assembly and disassembly of propellers to the extent necessary to permit (a) assembly of
propellers partially disassembled for shipment and not requiring the use of balancing equipment, (b)
routine servicing and inspection, and (c) replacement of parts other than those which normally require
the use of skilled techniques, special tools, and test equipment
5. Balancing of fixed-pitch and ground-adjustable propellers
6. Refinishing of wood propellers
Persons and Organizations Authorized to Perform Repairs and Alterations on Propellers

The regulations governing the persons and organizations Authorized to perform propeller repairs
and alterations are Subject to change, but in general, maintenance, minor repairs, or minor alterations
must be done by a certificated repair station holding the appropriate ratings, an airframe and powerplant
technician (A&P) or a person working under the direct supervision of such a technician, or an
appropriately certificated air carrier. Major repairs or alterations on propellers may be performed only
by an appropriately rated repair station, manufacturer, or air carrier in Accordance with the regulations
governing their respective operations.
Requirements governing persons or organizations authorized to perform maintenance and repairs on
propellers are set forth in FAR Part 65.
Remember that minor repairs and alterations are those which are not likely to change the operating
characteristics of the propeller or affect the airworthiness of the propeller. All other repairs and
alterations are major in nature and must be performed by properly authorized agencies.
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General Repair Requirements

Propellers should be repaired in accordance with the best accepted practices and the latest
techniques. Manufacturers 'recommendations should always be followed if such recommendations are
available. It is recognized that the manuals may not be available for some of the older propellers; in such
cases, the propellers should be repaired in accordance with standard practices and FAA regulations.
When a propeller is repaired or overhauled by a certificated agency, the repair station number or the
name of the agency should be marked indelibly on the repaired propeller.
It is recommended that a decal giving both the repair agency's name and repair station number be used
for this purpose. If the original identification marks on a propeller are removed during overhaul or
repair, it is not necessary that they be replaced. These marks include the name of the manufacturer and
the model designation.
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Lesson 27
General Inspection and Repair of Wood Propellers
Wood propellers are inspected for such defects as cracks, bruises, scars, warping, oversize holes
in the hub, evidence of glue failure, evidences of separated laminations, sections broken off, and defects
in the finish. The tipping should be inspected for such defects as looseness or slippage, separation of
soldered joints, loose screws, loose rivets, breaks, cracks, eroded sections, and corrosion. Frequently,
cracks do appear across the leading edge of the metal tipping between the front and rear slits where
metal has been removed to permit easier forming of the tip curvature. These cracks are considered
normal and are not cause for rejection,
The steel hub of a wood or composite propeller should be inspected for cracks and wear. When the
hub is removed from the propeller, it should be magnetically inspected. Any crack in the hub is cause for
rejection. The hub should also be inspected for wear of the bolt holes.
All propellers should undergo regular and careful inspection for any possible defect. Any doubtful
condition such as looseness of parts, nicks, cracks, scratches, bruises, or loss of finish should be
carefully investigated and the condition checked against repair and maintenance specifications for that
particular type of propeller.
Causes for Rejection

Propellers worn or damaged to such an extent that it is either impossible or uneconomical to
repair them and make them airworthy should be rejected and scrapped. The following conditions are
deemed to render a wood propeller unairworthy and are therefore cause for rejection.
1. Cracks or deep cuts across the grain of the wood
2. Split blades
3. Separated laminations, except the outside laminations of fixed-pitch propellers
4. More screw or rivet holes, including holes filled with dowels, than are used to attach the metal
leading-edge strip and tip.
5. Appreciable warping
6. An appreciable portion of wood missing
7. Cracks, cuts, or other damage to the metal shanks or sleeves of blades
8. Broken lag screws which attach the metal sleeve to the blade
9. Oversize shaft holes in fixed-pitch propellers
10. Cracks between the shaft hole and the bolt holes
11. Cracked internal laminations
12. Excessively elongated bolt holes
Repair of Minor Damage

Small cracks parallel to the grain in a wood propeller should be filled with approved glue
thoroughly worked into all portions of the cracks, dried, and then sanded smooth and flush with the
surface of the propeller. This treatment is also used with small cuts. Dents or scars which have rough
surfaces or shapes that will hold a filler and will not induce failure may be filled with a mixture of
approved glue and clean, fine sawdust, thoroughly worked and packed into the defect, dried, and then
sanded smooth and flush with the surface of the propeller. It is very important that all loose or foreign
matter be removed from the place to be filled so that a good bond of the glue to the wood is obtained.
Repair of Major Damage

As explained previously, the aviation technician rarely is involved with the major repair of a
wood propeller. For this reason, such repairs are not described in this section. If an A&P technician
should be confronted with the need to have a wood propeller reconditioned or repaired, a properly
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certificated propeller repair station would be able to perform the necessary work. Help and advice in
such a matter can be obtained from the FAA General Aviation District Office.
General Inspection and Repair of Metal Propellers

Hollow and solid Steel Propellers
Major damage on steel propeller blades should not be repaired except by the manufacturer.
Welding or straightening is not permissible on such blades, even for very minor repairs, except by the
manufacturer, because of the special process employed and the heat treatment required. A blade
developing a crack of any nature in service should be returned to the manufacturer for inspection.
Inspection of Steel Blades

The inspection of steel blades may be either visual or magnetic. Visual' inspection is easier to
perform if the steel blades are covered with engine oil or rust-preventive compound. The full length of
the leading edge, especially near the tip; the full length of the trailing edge; the grooves and shoulders on
the shank; and all dents and scars should be examined with a magnifying glass to determine whether
defects are scratches or cracks.
In the magnetic inspection of steel blades and propeller parts, the blade or part to be inspected is
mounted in a machine, and then the blade is magnetized by passing a current through the blade or part.
Either a black or a red mixture of an iron-base powder and kerosene is poured over the blade or part at
the time that it is magnetized. North and south magnetic poles are established on either side of any crack
in the metal. The iron filings arrange themselves in lines within the magnetic field thus created. A black
or a red line, depending on the color of the mixture, will appear wherever a crack exists in the blade or
part.
Repair of Minor Damage in Steel Blades

Minor injuries to the leading and trailing edges only of steel blades may be smoothed by hand
stoning, provided that the injury is not deep.
Aluminum-Alloy Propellers
A seriously damaged aluminum-alloy propeller blade should be repaired only by the
manufacturer or by repair agencies certificated for this type of work. Such repair agencies should follow
manufacturer’s instructions.
Definition of Damaged Propellers

A damaged metal propeller is one that has been bent,
cracked, or seriously dented. Minor surface dents, scars,
nicks, etc. which are removable by field maintenance
technicians are not considered sufficient to qualify the
propeller as damaged. If the model number of a damaged
blade appears on the manufacturer's list of blades which
cannot be repaired, the blade should be rejected.
Blades bent in face alignment

The extent of a bend in the face alignment of blades
should be carefully checked by means of a protractor.
Manufacturers often specify the maximum bends which can be repaired by cold-straightening on
specific models of propellers chart which shows the maximum allowable bend for cold repair of
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McCauley lA90, IB90, and lC90 fixed-pitch metal propellers. From the chart, for example, it can be
determined that if the propeller is bent at the 16-in [40.64-cm] radius, the maximum degree of bend
which can be straightened cold is 9°. At the 32-in [81.28-cm] radius, the blade can be repaired by cold
straightening if the bend is as great as 18.5°.After straightening, the affected portion of the blade must be
etched and thoroughly inspected for cracks and other flaws. Blades with bends in excess of this amount
require heat treatment and must be returned to the manufacturer or an authorized agent for repair.
Blades bent in edge alignment

Blades which are bent in edge alignment should be repaired by the manufacturer or a certificated
repair station holding the appropriate rating.
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Lesson 28
Aluminum Blade Fatigue Failure
An investigation of a representative number of propeller blades disclosed that failures usually
occurred because of fatigue cracks which started at mechanically formed dents, cuts scars, scratches,
nicks, or leading-edge pits. Blade material samples in most cases did not reveal evidence of failure
caused by material defects or surface discontinuities existing before the blades were placed in service.
Often fatigue failure occurs at a place where previous damage has been repaired which may be a result
of the failure actually having started prior to the repair or of the repair having been performed
improperly.
The stresses that normally occur in a propeller blade may be envisioned as being produced by
lines of force that within the blade approximately parallel to the surface.. When a defect occurs, it tends
to squeeze together the lines of force in the defect area, there the by increasing the stress. This increase
in stress may be sufficient to cause a crack to start. Even a small defect such as a nick or dent may
develop into a crack. The crack, in turn, result in an even greater stress concentration in the area. The
resulting growth of the crack will almost inevitably result in blade failure. This condition is so common,
and the results are so serious, that great emphasis should be placed on the daily and preflight inspections
of propeller blades for defects.
Experience indicates that fatigue failures normally occur within a few inches of the blade tip;
however, failures also can occur in other portions of the blade when dents, cuts, scratches, or nicks are
ignored. Failures have also been reported in blades near the shank and at the propeller hub, well out of
the critical areas; therefore, no damage should be overlooked or allowed to go without correction.
When performing an inspection on the propeller, especially during the preflight inspection,
inspect each complete blade-not just the leading edge-for erosion, scratches, nicks, and cracks.
Regardless of how small a surface irregularity may be, consider it as a stress intensifier that makes the
area subject to fatigue failure. Propeller manufacturers' manuals, service letters, and bulletins specify
methods and limits for blade maintenance, inspection service, and repair. The proper service information
should always be consulted.
Prevention and Treatment of Minor Surface Defects.

To prevent propeller surface defects, avoid operating the aircraft in areas with loose stone or
gravel that could be pulled into the blades and cause damage to the blade face or leading edge. When
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takeoff from a nonhard surface runway is initiated, blade damage can be minimized by allowing the
aircraft to move prior to fully opening the throttle. Keep -the blade clean of stains and foreign matter,
and do not move aircraft by pulling on propeller blades.
Propeller blades with nicks, gouges, scratches, and leading- edge pitting can be repaired most
often by a qualified technician in the field. Normally there is sufficient material available to allow a
number of minor repairs to be made prior to replacement. Blades with larger nicks, gouges, etc., that
may affect the structure, balance, or operation of the propeller should be referred to a qualified propeller
repair station for repair or replacement.
Repair may be made using files or small air- or electric powered equipment with suitable
grinding and polishing attachments. All repairs must be made parallel to the blade axis. The
manufacturer's manual should be consulted to ensure that correct information is used in the repair of
specific models of propellers.
For damaged areas in the leading or trailing edge, begin with a round file and remove damaged
material down to the bottom of the damaged area. Remove material from this point out on both sides,
providing a smooth, faired depression, and maintaining the original airfoil concept, as shown in Fig. 21-
25. The area should be smoothly faired using emery cloth, to remove all traces of initial filing and
rework. Crocus cloth is used to polish the area. When all rework has been completed, inspect the
reworked area with a 10x magnifying glass and dye penetrant to make sure that no indications of the
damage or cracks remain.
Damaged areas on the face or camber sections of the blade should be reworked employing the
same methods used for the leading edge
All repaired areas should be chemically treated to prevent corrosion. Alodine or an approved paint
should be properly applied to the repaired area prior to return of the blade to service.
Number of Defects Allowable in Blades
More than one defect falling within the above limitations is not sufficient dent cause alone for the
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rejection of a blade. A reasonable number of such defects per blade is not necessarily dangerous, if
within the limits specified, unless the locations of the defects with respect to each other are such as to
form a continuous line of defects that would materially weaken the blade.
Repair of Pitted Leading Edges
Blades whose leading edges are pitted from normal
wear in service maybe reworked by removing sufficient
material to eliminate the defects. In this case, the metal
should be removed by starting at approximately the
thickest section, as shown in and working well forward
over the nose camber so that the contour of the reworked
portion will remain substantially the same, avoiding abrupt
changes in section or blunt edges. Blades requiring
removal of more material than the permissible reductions
in width and thickness from the minimum drawing
dimensions should be rejected.
Inspection and Treatment of Defects

Scratches and suspected cracks should be given a
local etch, as explained below, and then examined with a
magnifying glass. The fillets of adjustable pitch blades and the front half of the undersurface of all
blades from 6 to 10 in. from the tip are the most critical portion.
The Local Etching

To avoid dressing off an excess Amount of metal, checking by local etching should be performed
at intervals during the progress of removing cracks and double-back edges of metal. Suitable sandpaper
or fine cut files may be used for removing the necessary amount of metal, after which, in each case, the
surfaces involved should be smoothly finished with No. 00 sandpaper. Per. Each blade from which any
appreciable amount of metal has been removed should be properly balanced before being used.
When aluminum-alloy blades are inspected for cracks or other failure and for bends, nicks,
scratches, and corrosion, the application of engine oil to the blades helps the inspector to see the defects,
especially with a magnifying glass. If there is any doubt about the extent of the defects, local etching is
then performed.
Purposes
Local etching has four principal purposes:
(I) it shows whether visible lines and other marks within small areas of the blade surfaces are actually
cracks or only scratches
(2) It determines, with a minimum removal of metal, whether or not shallow cracks have been removed;
(3) It exposes small cracks that might not be visible otherwise and
(4) It provides a simple means of inspecting the blade without removing or disassembling the propeller.
The caustic soda solution is a 20 percent solution prepared locally by adding to the required amount
of water as much commercial caustic soda as the water will dissolve and then adding some soda pellets
after the water has ceased to dissolve the caustic to be sure that the solution is saturated. The quantity
required depends on the amount of etching to be done. This caustic soda solution should reveal the
presence of any cracks.
An acid solution is used to remove the dark corrosion caused by the application of the caustic soda
solution to the metal. The acid solution is a 20 percent nitric acid solution prepared locally by adding
one part commercial nitric acid to each five parts of water.
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Keep the solutions in glass or earthenware containers. Do not keep them in metal containers, since
they attack, metal. If any quantity of either the caustic soda or the acid solution is spilled, flush the
surface it hits with fresh water, especially if it is a metal surface.
Procedures
Clean and dry the area of the aluminum alloy blade to be locally etched. Place masking tape
around the area under suspicion to protect the adjoining surfaces. Smooth the area containing the
suspected defect with No. 00 sandpaper. Apply a small quantity of the caustic soda solution with a small
swab to the suspected area. After the suspected area becomes dark, wipe it off with a clean cloth
dampened with clean water, but do not slop too much water around the suspected area or the water will
remove the solution from the defect and spoil the test. The dark stain that appears on an aluminum-alloy
blade when the caustic solution is applied is caused by the chemical reaction between the copper in the
alloy and the caustic soda (sodium hydroxide). If there is any defect in the metal, it will appear as a dark
line or other mark. Examination under a microscope will show small bubbles forming in the dark line or
mark.
It may require several applications of the caustic soda to reveal whether or not a shallow defect has
been removed since a previous local etching was performed and a defect discovered. Immediately after
the completion of the final test, all traces of caustic soda must be removed with the nitric acid solution.
The blade is rinsed thoroughly with clean water, and then it is dried and coated with clean engine oil.
The inspection of aluminum-alloy propeller blades for cracks and flaws may be accomplished by
means of a chromic acid anodizing process. This is superior to the caustic etching process and should
therefore be used if facilities are available.
The blades should be immersed in the anodizing bath as far as possible, but all parts not made of
aluminum alloy must either be kept out of the chromic acid bath or be separated from the blade by
nonconductive wedges or hooks.
The anodizing treatment should be followed by a rinse in clear, cold, running water for 3 to 5 min, and
the blades should be dried as soon as possible after the rinse, preferably with an air blast. After the
blades are dried, they should stand for at least 15 min before examination. Flaws, such as cold shuts and
inclusions, will appear as fine black lines. Cracks will appear as brown stains caused by chromic acid
bleeding out onto the surface.
The blades may be sealed for improved corrosion resistance by immersing them in hot water (180 to
212°F [82 to 1O0°CDfor Y2h. In no case should the blades be treated with hot water before the
examination for cracks, since heating expands any cracks and allows the chromic acid to be washed
away.
Inspection of aluminum-alloy propeller blades for cracks and other defects may also be
accomplished by means of the fluorescent penetrant process or the dye penetrant process.
Tolerances Listed in Blade Manufacturing Specifications

Tolerances listed in the blade manufacturing specifications govern the width and thickness of new
blades. These tolerances are to be used with the pertinent blade drawing to determine the minimum
original blade dimensions to which the reductions may be applied.
For repairing blades, the permissible reductions in width and thickness from the minimum original
dimensions allowed by the blade drawing and blade manufacturing specifications are shown in Fig. 21-
27 for locations on the blade from the shank to 90 percent of the blade radius. In this instance, the outer
10 percent of blade length may be modified as required.
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Shortening of Blades to Remove Defects

When the removal or treatment of defects on the tip necessitates shortening of a blade, each blade
used with it must likewise be shortened. Such sets of blades should be kept together. With some
propeller blades, the length may be reduced substantially and the propeller can then be given a new
model number in accordance with the manufacturer's specifications. The reduction in length may require
an increase in the blade angle, and the length must agree with the specification for the new model
number.
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Lesson 29
Causes for Rejection
Unless otherwise specified in this text, a blade having any of the following defects must be
rendered unserviceable: (I) irreparable defects, such as longitudinal cracks, cuts, scratches, scars, etc.,
that cannot be dressed off or rounded out without materially weakening or unbalancing the blade or
materially impairing its performance; (2) general unserviceability due to removal of too much stock by
etching, dressing off defects, etc.; (3) slag inclusions in an excessive number or cold shuts in an
excessive number, or both; and (4) transverse cracks of any size.
Composite Propeller Blade Damage Limits

To determine the damage limits and make repairs on composite propeller blades, the technician
must be familiar with the terminology and equipment used to make these repairs. The appropriate
current manufacturer's maintenance manual should always be consulted in the assessment of airworthy
damage. This is also required for repair of composite propeller blades. The information contained in this
text is presented solely for the purpose of familiarizing the technician with composite blade repair. It is
also recommended that the technician seek factory training before performing maintenance on
composite propeller blades.
Blade Life
Blade life is expressed in terms of total service (TT, or total time), time between overhauls
(TBO) and hours of service since overhaul (TSO, or time since overhaul) returns the blade assembly to
zero hours TSO, but not to zero hours TT. Occasionally, a part may be "life limited," which means that it
must be replaced after a specified period of use. All references are necessary in defining the life of the
propeller.
Blade Damage
Damage to composite propeller blades can be divided into airworthy and unairworthy damage
and it is important that the technician be able to determine the difference between these two types of
damage. Airworthy damage repairs can normally be made in the field.
Damage to composite blades can take many forms. Some of the terms used to describe blade
damage are as follows:
Corrosion is a gradual wearing away or deterioration due to chemical action.
A crack is an irregularly shaped separation within a material, usually visible as a narrow opening at the
surface.
Debond is a separation of the metal erosion shield from the composite material in the blade.
Delamination is an internal separation of the layers of composite material.
A depression is a surface area where the material has been compressed, but not removed, by contact
with a sharp object.
Distortion is an alteration of the original shape or size of a component.
Erosion is a gradual wearing away or deterioration due to action of the elements.
Exposure is the condition in which material is left open to the action of the elements.
A gouge is a small surface area from which material has been removed by contact with a sharp object.
Impact damage occurs when the propeller blade or hub assembly strikes or is struck by an object, either
in flight or on the ground.
Overspeed damage occurs when the propeller hub assembly rotates at a speed more than 10 percent in
excess of the maximum for which it is designed. Overspeed damage may not produce visible
indications.
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A scratch/nick is removal of paint and possibly a small amount of the composite material not exceeding
one layer (approximately 0.010 in [0.254 mm]).
A split is a delamination of the blade extending to the blade surface, normally found near the trailing
edge or tip.
Normal airworthy damage does not affect flight safety characteristics of the blades, although areas
of airworthy damage should be repaired to maintain aerodynamic efficiency. Airworthy damage should
be monitored until repaired, with the repair being accomplished as soon as possible. To determine if the
damage is airworthy or unairworthy, the technician should refer to the information contained in the
current blade-repair manual. The following is a list of airworthy damage limits for Hartzell composite
propeller blades.
Erosion Shield Airworthy Damage

The following types of damage cannot be
resolved without replacements of the erosion shield,
but, within these limits, do not render the blade
unairworthy.
Any gouge that does not penetrate through to the
surface of composite material.
Any full-width chordwise crack as long as the
erosion shield is not debonded within 3.5 in [8.89
cm] of the crack.
No two full-width chordwise cracks may occur
within 6 in [15.24 cm] of each other.
Chordwise cracks less than 0.5 in [1.27 cm] in
length that are not debonded within 1 in [2.54 cm].
Portions of the trail side of the erosion shield
may be missing as a result of erosion or removal by
sanding
Lengthwise cracks less than 2 in [5.08 cm] long
that are not debonded within 3.5 in [8.89 cm] of the crack
For blades with attached counterweight clamps, cracks within 1 in [2.54 cm] of counterweight clamp
that are not debonded.
Minor deformations due to impact damage that
does not greatly affect the airfoil shape.
The following types of damage do not render the
blade unairworthy but should be repaired as soon as
practical to prevent degradation of the condition:
Debonds located along the trailing side of the
erosion shield that together total less than 10.5 in
[26.67 cm] in length. No individual debond may exceed
3.5 in [8.89 cm] in length and 0.25 in [0.64 cm] in
width
Debond which is located at least 0.25 in [0.64 cm]
from the erosion shield trail side and has total area less
than 2.5 in2 [16.13 cm2], and is separated by at least 6
in [15.24 cm] from any other debond area on the same
blade surface. The total debonded area of all debonds
may not exceed 10 in2 [64.52 cm2].
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218
Lesson 30
Repair of Composite Blades
Repair procedures can be categorized as either
minor repair or major repair. Minor repair is the
correction of damage that maybe safely performed in the
field by a certified aircraft technician. Major repair is the
correction of damage That cannot be performed by
elementary operations. Major repairs must be performed
by a propeller shop that has been approved by Hartzell
for the specific type of major repair.
Repair of Unairworthy Damage

Unairworthy damage is defined as any damage of
the composite blade which exceeds the limits of the
airworthy damage as previously described. Unairworthy
damage to a composite blade must be repaired before the
blade can be used on another flight. This requires
returning the blade to a factory-designated facility for
evaluation and repair with factory consultation.
Composite propeller blades are not subject to
fatigue cracks as, are aluminum propellers, because of
their composite construction. The factory or factory-
approved repair station can repair many types of
unairworthy damage of composite blades.
Lightning strikes usually enter a composite blade
through the metal erosion shield; however, some
strikes can hit the hub directly. A direct strike on the
hub of a composite blade propeller results in
unairworthy damage. The blades must then be
overhauled according to prescribed procedures before
the propeller can be used for further service. A
lightning strike on the metal erosion shield leaves a
darkened area and sometimes pitting near the tip of
the composite blade. If evidence of a lightning strike
is found, it will require a careful debond delamination
inspection to determine the extent of the damage and
whether it is airworthy or unairworthy. To determine
this, perform a "coin-tap" test immediately to test for
debond and/or delamination. The "coin tap" test. Use
of an impactoscope flaw detector is an approved
optional method, in conjunction with a coin-tap test,
for detecting delaminated areas on the blade. If only a
darkened area is present on the erosion shield from
the lightning strike, and all blade damage is within
limits specified, the damage is considered airworthy.
If the damage is determined to be unairworthy damage, return the blade to the factory.
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Repair of Airworthy Damage

There are many different types of airworthy
damage, and therefore there are several methods used
to repair this type of damage. Repair of a composite
propeller blade is usually performed by cleaning the
damaged area, removing the paint, and sanding. The
damaged area is then filled with laminated fiberglass
cloth and epoxy. It is normally necessary to use C-
c1ampsto apply pressure as the epoxy sets up, After the
epoxy has hardened, the area is sanded for
conformance with the contour of the blade. Examples
of repaired erosion shield areas are shown The repaired
blade receives a final finish of approved primer and
polyurethane paint.
Records of Repair
In the performance of repairs of composite blades, record keeping is very important.
Records should indicate whether a particular instance of damage was unairworthy or airworthy,
and a description of the resulting repair should be recorded on the proper form.
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Lesson 31
PROPELLER STORAGE AND PRESERVATION
Introduction
The propellers which are out of use for a period of up to three months in installed and uninstalled
condition should be stored in clean, dry, warm and free from corrosive fumes.
Installed Propellers
Propellers installed on an engine which may be out of use for a period of up to three months
should be kept clean, and should be inspected regularly for corrosion. The internal parts of a variable-
pitch propeller will be protected by exercising the propeller during weekly engine runs where these are
possible, but, if the engine cannot be run, the propeller should be feathered and unfeathered using the
feathering pump. If the engine is likely to be out of use for more than three months, the propeller
mechanism should be flushed with inhibiting oil, and all external parts of the propeller should be treated
with lanolin or an approved rust preventative. The propeller operating mechanism should be covered
with waxed paper, and all visible parts should be regularly inspected for corrosion.
Uninstalled Propeller
Uninstalled propellers should be stored in conditions which are clean, dry, warm, and free from
corrosive fumes. Two-bladed propellers are usually stored in racks to permit free circulation of air, but
propellers with more than two blades may be stored vertically, on stands, to minimize the amount of
floor space they occupy. Propellers should be retained in the manufacturer's .packaging whenever
possible, or wrapped in mouldable wrap and waxed paper. The external parts of metal propellers should
be coated with lanolin or an approved alternative. The pitch change mechanism of a hydraulically
operated propeller should be inhibited with approved oil, and all loose parts, such as oil tubes and
mounting cones, should be coated with lanolin and wrapped in waxed paper.
When a variable-pitch propeller is disassembled for storage, individual mechanical parts should be
immersed in inhibiting oil, and then allowed to drain, bearings should be coated with mineral jelly, and
electrical connections should be smeared with petroleum jelly. All electrical equipment, such as motors
and slip rings, should be thoroughly cleaned, the connections .smeared with petroleum jelly, external
surfaces should be treated with a rust preventative, and each part sealed in a moisture vapor proof bag.
All parts of the propeller should then be wrapped in waxed paper and, if possible, packed in a suitable
carton or crate.
When assembled propellers or pre-loaded blade assemblies are held in storage, the bearings must be
exercised after six months and nine months. At the end of twelve months in storage the bearings must be
removed and examined for brinelling and corrosion, and, if they are found to be satisfactory, they should
be cleaned, greased, and reassembled on the blade. They will then be satisfactory for further six months
storage.
The maximum storage period varies between different types of propellers, but generally, if a
propeller is retained in the manufacturer's packing, it will, subject to the checks outlined in below
paragraph, remain in a satisfactory condition for three years. If the propeller, or individual components,
is not retained in the original packing, they will normally require re-inhibiting every twelve months, and
overhauling after three years.
Rubber components are normally subject to a specific life, counted from the cure date or assembly
date, and must be discarded at the overhaul nearest to their life expiry. Details concerning the life of a
particular component should be obtained from the relevant Maintenance Manual. Loose rubber
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components should be stored in the dark in an unstressed condition, and retained in the manufacturer's
packing until required for use. .
All propellers or propeller components retained in storage should be suitably labelled to show their
part number, modification standard, original date of storage, and any other details relevant to the actions
taken subsequent to the original storage date.

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TRAINING NOTES

IIAE CODE: D-218

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Power to rotate an aircraft's propeller blades is furnished by the engine. On low-horsepower

The cross section of a propeller blade is shown

The nomenclature for an adjustable propeller, or ground-adjustable propeller, is illustrated.

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where it fits the hub barrel, but the cylindrical

In Figure the tip section, the center of the hub,

3. Blade: One arm of a propeller from the hub to the tip.

6. Blade paddle: A tool used to turn the blades in the hub.

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7. Blade root: The portion of a blade which is nearest the hub.

11. Face: The flat or thrust side of a propeller blade.

14. Leading edge: The forward edge of a propeller blade.

19. Pitch: Distance traveled by the propeller in one revolution.

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The reason for the variation of the propeller blade

Blade Angle & Angle of Attack in Flight and on the Ground

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Ratio of Forward Velocity To Rotational Velocity

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The forces acting on a propeller in flight are as following:

Forces to Which Propellers Are Subjected at high Speeds

1. Centrifugal force -It is a

2. Torque bending force -It

3. Thrust bending force -It

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Vibrational Force & Critical Range

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Propeller Load Curves

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Propeller Torque Reaction

Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)

IIAE CODE: D-218

Construction of Wooden Propellers

IIAE CODE: D-218

Construction of Aluminum Propellers & Blades

Construction of Steel Propellers & Blades

IIAE CODE: D-218

Advantages of Metal Propeller

Composite Propellers & Blades

IIAE CODE: D-218

Dowty Turbopropeller Composite Blades

IIAE CODE: D-218

IIAE CODE: D-218

IIAE CODE: D-218

General Classification of Propellers

IIAE CODE: D-218

IIAE CODE: D-218

IIAE CODE: D-218

Feathering Constant Speed

IIAE CODE: D-218

IIAE CODE: D-218

IIAE CODE: D-218

Constant-Speed Propellers for Light Aircraft

Constant Speed, Non-Feathering

Constant-Speed Feathering Propeller