Introduction to

AIRCRAFT WEIGHT and Balance

 This subject deals with the theories, principles, mathematical
formulas and standard procedures in determining the weight and
balance of aircrafts and publishing of pertinent reports: aircraft
efficiency and safety; weight checks; datum lines; moment arms;
determination of the center of gravity, empty weight center of
gravity and empty weight center of gravity range; mean
aerodynamic chord (MAC); weighing points; zero fuel weight;
minimum fuel and full oil; tare; weighing procedures and weight
and balance computations; loading conditions and/or placards;
sample weight and balance reporting; ballast installations; and
preparation of loading schedules.
 OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of the subject, the student
should have a comprehensive understanding of
the importance of weight and balance and be
able to make all of the required calculations for
weight and balance checks, equipment changes,
extreme loading checks and the addition to
ballast.
 Introduction to Aircraft Weight and
Balance
• As for aviation, it was learned that weight was one of the
determining factors in the ability of an aircraft to fly.
• Early aircrafts quickly adapted to the use of such materials: wood,
dope and fabric to obtain the strength to weight ratios that would
allow flight.
• However, during early days little thought was given to balance that
resulted in failure and often catastrophic events leading to death.
• During World War I – it had become common knowledge to
designers that in order to obtain a good aircraft it must be light and
maneuverable.
• Today, aircraft became an accepted mode of transportation
by the public with further demands for more speed, comfort
and convenience. These includes : small training aircraft,
helicopters and aircraft capable to carry passengers to their
destination.
• Although each of these aircraft has bought about its own
unique feature regarding weight and balance, there are
common rules that govern safe flight. All of these aircraft
will be adversely affected by improper loading. This is may
be due to excess of weight or improper placement of weight
 Responsibility for Weight and
Balance Control
• The responsibility for proper weight and balance control begins
with the engineers and designers and extends to the technicians
who maintain the aircraft and the pilots who operate them.
• The designers of an aircraft set the maximum weight based on
the amount of lift the wings or rotors can provide under the
operational conditions for which the aircraft is designed. The
structural strength of the aircraft also limits the maximum
weight the aircraft can safely carry. The designers carefully
determine the ideal center of gravity (CG) and calculate the
maximum allowable deviation from this specific location.
 Why do we need to weigh and
balance the aircraft?
Various Types of Aircraft have Different Load
Requirements
-Transport Aircraft
-Military Aircraft
-Corporate Aircraft
-Agricultural Aircraft
-Trainers and Private Aircraft
 Corporate
Trainers
Military
Transport Aircraft
& Private
Aircraft
Aircraft Aircraft
• Must
Must be highly
carry
carry huge
a
• Must
loads loadbe
of passengers
reasonable
maneuverable
and
at lightweight,
a cargo
high for low
long
speed
andcost, extremely
simple, and
distances
for
sturdy. at high
long
safe to operate.
altitudes and
distances.
speeds.
 All aircraft regardless of their function
have two common characteristics:
Center ofto
Sensitive Gravity
WeightMaintained within a
Specified Range
• Aircraft designers must determine the maximum
weight, based on the amount of lift on the wings.
• The ideal location of the center of gravity (C.G.)
• The structural strength of the aircraft
is very carefully determined by designers. also limits
the maximum weight the aircraft can carry.
• The maximum deviation allowed from this
specific location is also calculated.
 Purpose of weight and balance
control
• The primary purpose of aircraft weight and balance control is
SAFETY – to prevent possible loss of human lives and
destruction of valuable equipment that may result from
structural failure or change in flight characteristics of the
aircraft, that renders it unable to complete a flight, or even to
start it.
• A secondary purpose is to achieve utmost EFFICIENCY
during flight in terms of ceiling, maneuverability, rate of
climb, speed, and fuel consumption.
 • When an aircraft is designed, it is made as light as the required structural
strength will allow, and the wings or rotors are designed to support the
maximum The allowable
load imposed gross
on weight.
an aircraft When the weight of an aircraft is
increased, the wings or rotors must produce additional lift and the
structure structure due toThe
must support the
not weight of additional
onlyweight
actual the static loads, but also the
of the aircraft
dynamic theloads
aircraft and its
imposed contents
by flightbymaneuvers.
multiplied the load factor, or the
For example, the wingsinof
increase a 3,000-pound
weight caused by airplane must support
3,000 pounds in level flight, but when
acceleration . the airplane is turned smoothly and
sharply using a bank angle of 60°, the dynamic load requires the wings to
support twice this, or 6,000 pounds.
Load factor: The ratio of the maximum load an aircraft can sustain to the
total weight of the aircraft. Normal category aircraft must have a load
factor of at least 3.8, utility category aircraft 4.4, and acrobatic category
aircraft, 6.0.
 Responsibility for Weight and Balance
Control
• The manufacturer provides the aircraft operator with the empty
weight of the aircraft and the location of its empty weight center
of gravity (EWCG) at the time the certified aircraft leaves the
factory. Amateur-built aircraft must have this information
determined and available at the time of certification
• The FAA-certificated mechanic or repairman who maintains the
aircraft keeps the weight and balance records current, recording
any changes that have been made because of repairs or
alterations.
• The pilot in command (PIC) has the responsibility prior to every
flight to know the maximum allowable weight of the aircraft and
Effects of overloaded aircraft:
1. More runway will be needed
2. A lower climb angle and higher speed will be needed
3. Structural safety factors are reduced
4. Stalling speeds are increased
5. More engine power is required
Effects of aircraft with too much weight forward are as
follows:
1.Tendency to dive forward
2.Stability decreased
3.Adverse spin characteristic
4.More engine power required
Effects of aircraft with too much weight aft are as
follows:
1. Flying speed is decreased
2. Stall characteristic
3. Stability decreased
4. Adverse spin characteristic
5. More engine power required
 Weighing the Aircraft
• Weighing the aircraft is the most crucial step in a
weight and balance calculation because all of the
loading of the aircraft that is done is base on these
figures
• It is the tendency for aircraft to become heavier as
they become older.
 Weighing the Aircraft
A. EQUIPMENT
1. Scales
• All aircraft should be weighed in a closed hangar
with a fairly level floor
• If the aircraft were to be weighed outside, the wind over the
wings would adversely effect scale readings, thus giving
lighter readings that actual aircraft weight
• The type of scales which are used will vary from shop to
shop and the size and type of aircraft to be weighed. In
general term there are two types of scales which are
mechanical platform type Ramp scales.
 electronic type

Electronic type or load cell scales are

also a reliable means to weigh aircraft and are
typically cheaper than the platform type.
Using load cell scales allows for the aircraft to
be set up and weighed in its level flight
attitude
2. Jack
•Often necessary too weigh various aircraft. If electronics weighing
equipment is used, the aircraft must be jacked into position in order
to place the weight on the load cell
•On tail wheel aircraft, the tail must be raised to a level altitude
•Aircraft manufacturer recommended that the aircraft be weighed
from the jack points.
•When capacity of 150% of the load to be carried, fit well in the
jack pads, also be equipped with safety locks
• All jacking should be performed evenly and strictly in
accordance with the manufacturers recommendations
• This is because some of our aircraft today require
ballast in the nose or tail during jacking operations
 Procedure for Weight and Balance
In general, weight procedures may vary with the
aircraft and types of weight equipment employed. The
weighing procedure contained in the manufacturer’s
maintenance manual should be followed for each
particular aircraft. The major considerations in preparing
an aircraft for weighing are described in the following
paragraphs.
1. Scale Preparation
Mechanical and electronic scales shall be inspected prior to use and
set to zero. This is done by adding and removing a weight, then
rechecking for zero. This process should be repeated until a steady zero
setting is obtained. The scales should be located in the same environment
in which they are to be used and allowed to come up to temperature at
least 2 hours prior to use
Scales should not be used in temperature extremes below 40 °F or
above 100 °F unless the scale is specifically designed for use in those
temperatures. Electronic scales are very sensitive and, if subjected to
freezing temperatures, the liquid displays may be damaged beyond use.
2. Weigh Clean Aircraft Inside Hangar
The aircraft should be weighed inside a hangar where
wind cannot blow over the surface and cause fluctuating or
false scale readings. The aircraft should be clean inside and
out, with special attention paid to the bilge area to ensure that
no water or debris is trapped there. The outside of the aircraft
should be as free as possible of all mud and dirt.
3. Equipment List
All of the required equipment must be properly installed, and there
should be no equipment installed that is not included in the equipment list.
If such equipment is installed, the weight and balance record must be
corrected to indicate it.
4. Ballast
All required permanent ballasts must be properly secured in place. All
temporary ballasts must be removed
5. Standard Weights
Standard weights are established weights for numerous items
involved in weight and balance computations. These weights should not be
• Some of the standard weights
Note the difference in
weight as temperatures
change. Although this
change is a very small
amount per gallon, it
could end up in a
significant total weight
gain when dealing with
large quantities of fluids,
such as those found in
commercial aircraft.
6. Draining the Fuel
Drain fuel from the tanks in the manner specified by the aircraft
manufacturer. If there are no specific instructions, drain the fuel until
the fuel quantity gauges read empty when
If it is not feasible to drain the fuel, the tanks can be topped off to be
sure of the quantity they contain and the aircraft weighed with full fuel.
After weighing is complete, the weight of the fuel and its moment are
subtracted from those of the aircraft as weighed. To correct the empty
weight for the residual fuel, add its weight and moment
7. Configuration of the Aircraft
Consult the aircraft service manual regarding
position of the landing gear shock struts and the
control surfaces for weighing. When weighing a
helicopter, the main rotor must be in its correct
position.
8. Jacking the Aircraft
Special precautions must be taken when raising an aircraft on jacks.
a) Stress plates must be installed under the jack pads if the
manufacturer specifies them
b) If anyone is required to be in the aircraft while it is being jacked,
there must be no movement.
c) The jacks must be straight under the jack pads before beginning to
raise the aircraft.
d) All jacks must be raised simultaneously and the safety devices are
against the jack cylinder to prevent the aircraft tipping if any jack
should lose pressure. Not all jacks have screw down collars, some
 Definition of Terms
 Weight
• The force exerted by gravity (Newton or pounds)
• Positive (+) for items added
• Negative (-) for items removed
 Maximum Weight
• Maximum weight is the total weight of the aircraft, equipment, passenger,
baggage and fuel.
• Often we will find that an aircraft has two or more maximum weight.
Large transport type aircraft have three maximum weight: these three
weights are necessary to maintain lift and structural integrity of an aircraft.
1.Taxi or ramp weight – additional weight such as fuel
2. Takeoff weight – greatest amount of weight that the aircraft is safely
capable of lifting from the ground.
3. Landing weight – greatest amount of weight with which the aircraft can
land safely
 Empty Weight
Empty weight is the weight of the airframe engine and all the
equipment that has a fixed location or installed in the aircraft.
Does not include passengers, baggage and fuel.
** Operating weight is used on transport types of aircraft where certain
items are always carried on the aircraft. The crew, galley water, survival
gear, fuel oil and de icing fluids, water injections and etc. that are NOT
part of Empty weight falls into this category.
Useful Load
The useful load is the empty weight of the aircraft subtracted from
the maximum weight of the aircraft. This includes the oil, fuel, cargo,
E. Datum
The datum is the imaginary line on vertical plane which is
horizontal measurement on the aircraft are taken for weight and
balance purposes.
F. Arm
The arm is the horizontal distance that an item is located from
the datum. If the particular item is located forward the datum it is
shown with negative (-) sign. If the item is located aft of the datum
it is shown with a positive (+) sign.

G. Moment
Moment is the product of the weight multiplied by the arm.
This measurement of force will be inch pounds. The longer the
distance from the datum the larger moment will become.
G. Center of Gravity
The center gravity (commonly
abbreviated CG) is the point at which
the nose heavy moments and the tail
heavy moments have equal magnitude.
This is the point at which the
aircraft could be suspended without
having any tendency to become nose or
tail heavy.
Correctly balancing your aircraft
is so important for safe flying, because
an incorrect Centre of Gravity (CG)
can potentially result in the aircraft
H. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
The average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the
wing. The location of the MAC in relation to the datum is given in the Aircraft
Specifications, Type Certificate Data sheets, Weight and Balance Report, or the
Aircraft Flight Manual.
LEMAC
- Leading edge of mean aerodynamic chord. Its position is expressed in length
units aft of the datum.
TEMAC
- Trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic chord. Also expressed in length units
aft of the datum.
END OF PRELIM