AIRCRAFT

GENERAL
KNOWLEDGE
Private Pilot License Training

By : Yasyfa’ Kawakibi
2020
WEIGHT AND
BALANCE
 Contents
1. INTRODUCTION

2. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

3. WEIGHT CONTROL

4. BALANCE, STABILITY AND CG

5. WEIGHT AND BALANCE THEORY

6. DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT AND CG

7. CHAPTER SUMMARY
 INTRODUCTION
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE
• Compliance with the weight and balance limits of
any aircraft is critical to flight safety.
– Operating above the maximum weight
limitation compromises the structural
integrity of an aircraft and adversely affects its
performance
– Operation with the center of gravity (CG)
outside the approved limits results in control
difficulty.
• The objective of presentation is to furnish the
student with information on loading and operating
the aircraft to ensure its weight is within the
allowable limit and the enter of gravity (CG) is
within the allowable range.
 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
The pilot should be familiar with terms used in working problems related
to aircraft weight and balance.
• Arm (moment arm) — the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the
CG of an item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, and minus (–) if
measured forward of the datum.

• Basic empty weight — the standard empty weight plus the weight of optional and special
equipment that have been installed.

• Center of gravity (CG) — the point about which an aircraft would balance if it were possible
to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at
which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. It may be expressed in
inches from the reference datum, or in percent of MAC. The CG is a three-dimensional point
with longitudinal, lateral, and vertical positioning in the aircraft.
• Etc (See Student handout part 2 )
 WEIGHT CONTROL
• Weight is a major factor in aircraft construction and
operation, and demands respect from all pilots.
• The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft
down toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that
L = ½ ρ V 2 S CL counteracts weight and sustains an aircraft in flight.
• The amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited by the
airfoil design, angle of attack (AOA), airspeed, and air
density.
• To assure that the lift generated is sufficient to counteract
weight, loading an aircraft beyond the manufacturer’s
recommended weight must be avoided.
• If the weight is greater than the lift generated, the aircraft
may be incapable of flight.
 WEIGHT CONTROL
WEIGHT CHANGES
Aeroplane manufacturers publish weight and
A/C balance limits, including the Standard Empty
Desainer Weight in the aircraft’s POH, AFM, TCDS or A/C
Specification
Repairs and alteration are the major sources of
A/P weight changes, Mechanic compute the CG
Mechanic and record the new empty weight and EWCG in
the aircraft weight and balance record.

It is the responsibility of the pilot in command

Pilot to use the most current weight and balance
data when operating the aircraft.
 Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity

A/C
BALANCE

LONGITUDINAL LATERAL
not computed in all
The primary concern in aircraft.
balancing an aircraft
Occurs if the fuel load is
the FWD and AFT location of mismanaged by supplying
the CG along the longitudinal the engine(s) unevenly
axis. from tanks on one side of
Nose heavy or Tail heaviness the airplane
Wing Heavy condt.
 Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity
A/C UNBALANCE

LONGITUDINAL LATERAL

Extreme control difficulty, violent

stall characteristics,
very light control forces which
make it easy to overstress an
aircraft inadvertently.
Control By Loading &
Fuel Management
Difficult or impossible
to flare for landing
The pilot can compensate by adjusting
the trim or by holding a constant
control pressure, which result:
out-of-streamline condition, increases
drag, and results in decreased
operating efficiency.
IMPROPER LOAD PLANNING
 Weight and Balance Theory
• Two elements are vital in the weight and balance
considerations of an aircraft.
– The total weight of the aircraft must be no greater than the
maximum weight allowed by the Authority for the particular
make and model of the aircraft.
– The center of gravity, or the point at which all of the weight of
the aircraft is considered to be concentrated, must be
maintained within the allowable range for the operational
weight of the aircraft.
 Weight and Balance Theory
Aircraft Arms, Weight, and Moments
ARM, the distance between the center of gravity of an item or object and the datum. Arms
ahead of, or to the left of the datum are negative(-), and those behind, or to the right of the
datum are positive(+).
A MOMENT is a force that tries to cause rotation, and is the product of the arm, in inches,
and the weight, in pounds. Moments are generally expressed in pound-inches (lb-in) and
may be either positive or negative

The manufacturer establishes the maximum weight and range allowed for the CG, as
measured in inches from the reference plane called the datum. Some manufacturers specify
this range as measured in percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), the leading
edge of which is located a specified distance from the datum.
 Weight and Balance Theory
5.1. The Law of the Lever
The weight and balance problems
are based on the physical law of the
lever.

This law states that a lever is

balanced when the weight on one
side of the fulcrum multiplied by its
arm is equal to the weight on the
opposite side multiplied by its arm.

In other words, the lever is

balanced when the algebraic sum of
the moments about the fulcrum is
zero.
 Weight and Balance Theory


5.3. Determining the CG
The CG of a board may be determined by
using these four steps:
 Measure the arm of each weight in
inches from the datum.
 Multiply each arm by its weight in
pounds to determine the moment in
pound-inches of each weight.
 Determine the total of all weights and
of all the moments. Disregard the
weight of the board.
 Divide the total moment by the total
weight to determine the CG in inches
from the datum.

The CG is correct if the sum of the moments

will be zero.
 Weight and Balance Theory
5.3. Determining the CG (Cont’d)

The CG is correct because the sum of

the moments is zero.
 Weight and Balance Theory
5.3. Determining the CG (Cont’d)
Determining the CG of an airplane is done
in the same way as determining the CG of
the board
 Weight and Balance Theory
5.4. Shifting the CG
One common weight and balance problem involves moving passengers from one seat to another or
shifting baggage or cargo from one compartment to another to move the CG to a desired location.

Example: Shift weight B so the board will balance about

its center, 50 inches from the CG of weight A
Weight and Balance Theory
5.4. Shifting the CG
 Weight and Balance Theory
5.5. Shifting the Airplane CG
The same procedures for shifting the CG by moving weights can be used to change
the CG of an airplane by rearranging passengers or baggage.
Airplane empty weight and EWCG 1340 lbs @ +37.0
Maximum gross weight................................. 2,300 lbs
CG limits............................................... +35.6 to +43.2
Front seats (2)........................................................ +35
Rear seats (2)......................................................... +72
Fuel.........................................................40 gal @ +48
Baggage (maximum).............................. 60 lbs @ +92
 Weight and Balance Theory
5.5. Shifting the Airplane CG
The same procedures for shifting the CG by moving weights can be used to change
the CG of an airplane by rearranging passengers or baggage.

With this loading, the total weight is less than

the maximum of 2,300 pounds and is within
limits, but the CG is 0.9 inch too far aft.
One possible solution would be to trade
places between the 212-pound rear-seat
passenger and the 115-pound front seat
passenger
Weight and Balance Theory
5.5. Shifting the Airplane CG

BACK
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.1. Computational Method
There are various methods for determining the loaded weight and CG of an aircraft. There is
the computational method, as well as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by the
aircraft manufacturer.

COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
1. List the weight of the aircraft, occupants, fuel, and baggage. Remember that
aviation gas (AVGAS) weighs 6 pounds per gallon and is used in this example.
2. Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember “weight x arm = moment.”
3. Find the total weight and total moment.
4. To determine the CG, divide the total moment by the total weight.
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.1. Computational Method (cont’d)
Aircraft Allowances:
Maximum gross weight...................... 3,400 pounds
CG range............................................. 78–86 inches
Given:
Airplane Empt Weight & EWCG............2100 lbs @ +78.3
Weight of front seat occupants............. 340 pounds @+85.0
Weight of rear seat occupants.............. 350 pounds @ 121.0
Fuel........................................................... 75 gallons @ +75.0
Weight of baggage in area 1....................80 pounds @ + 150.0
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.2. Graph Method
Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is the use of graphs provided by
the manufacturers. To simplify calculations, the moment may sometimes be divided by 100,
1,000, or 10,000.

Front seat occupants..340 lbs

Rear seat occupants ..300 lbs
Fuel ............................. 40 gallons
Baggage area 1 ...........20 lbs
Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.2. Graph Method (Cont’d)
Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.2. Graph Method (Cont’d)
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG

7.3. Table Method

The table method applies the same
principles as the computational and
graph methods. The information and
limitations are contained in tables
provided by the manufacturer.

In this problem, the total weight

of 2,799 pounds and moment of
2,278/100 are within the limits
of the table
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.5. Computations With Zero Fuel Weight
In this example, the total weight of
the aircraft less fuel is 4,240 pounds,
which is under the zero fuel weight
of 4,400 pounds. If the total weight
of the aircraft without fuel had
exceeded 4,400 pounds, passengers
or cargo would have needed to be
reduced to bring the weight at or
below the max zero fuel weight
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.6 Shifting, Adding and Removing Weight
Weight Shifting
When weight is shifted from one location to another, the total weight of the aircraft is unchanged. The total
moments, however, do change in relation and proportion to the direction and distance the weight is moved.
When weight is moved forward, the total moments decrease; when weight is moved aft, total moments
increase
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.6 Shifting, Adding and Removing Weight
Weight Addition or Removal
In many instances, the weight and
balance of the aircraft will be changed by
the addition or removal of weight. When
this happens, a new CG must be
calculated and checked against the
limitations to see if the location is
acceptable. This type of weight and
balance problem is commonly
encountered when the aircraft burns fuel
in flight, thereby reducing the weight
located at the fuel tanks.

Most small aircraft are designed with the

fuel tanks positioned close to the CG;
therefore, the consumption of fuel does
not affect the CG to any great extent.
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.7. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
On small airplanes and on all helicopters, the center of gravity location is identified as being a specific number
of inches from the datum. On larger airplanes, the center of gravity and its range are typically identified in
relation to the width of the wing. The CG is identified as being at a location that is a specific percent of the
mean aerodynamic chord (% MAC).
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.7. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) – Cont’d
To convert the center of gravity location from inches to a percent of MAC, for the
airplane shown in Figure -27, the steps are as follows:
1. Identify the center of gravity location, in inches from the datum.
2. Identify the leading edge of the MAC (LEMAC), in inches from the datum.
3. Subtract LEMAC from the CG location.
4. Divide the difference by the length of the MAC.
5. Convert the result in decimals to a percentage by multiplying by 100.
 Determining Loaded Weight and CG
7.7. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) – Cont’d

If the center of gravity is known in percent of MAC, and there is a need to know the CG
location in inches from the datum, the conversion would be done as follows:
1. Convert the percent of MAC to a decimal by dividing by 100.
2. Multiply the decimal by the length of the MAC.
3. Add this number to LEMAC.

CG in inches = MAC % ÷ 100 × MAC + LEMAC

if the CG was at 32.5% of the MAC, the solution would be:

CG in inches = (MAC % ÷ 100 × MAC) + LEMAC
= 32.5 ÷ 100 × 180 + 900
= 958.5
WEIGHT LARGER A/C
WAB FORM

BACK
 CHAPTER SUMMARY
A pilot cannot legally fly an aircraft unless
• the aircraft is operated in accordance with the
requirements of the Pilot Operating Handbook or
AFM including weight and loading limitations;
• The load is properly disposed in the aircraft;
• The cargo and equipment is secured to prevent
shifting and the passenger exits are not blocked.
THANK YOU

SAFE FLIGHT