Loads on Aircraft and Aircraft

Materials
 Loads on Aircraft
• Structural nomenclature
• Types of loads
• load factor
• Aerodynamics loads
• Symmetric manoeuvre loads
• Velocity diagram
• Function of structural components.
 Aircraft Materials
• Metallic and non-metallic materials
• Use of Aluminium alloy
• titanium
• stainless steel and composite materials
• Desirable properties for aircraft application
• Fracture and Fatigue
• Stress Intensity Factor
• Crack Growth Rate Derivation.
 Structural nomenclature
• STRUCTURM NOMENCLATURE
There are combinations of basic types of loads viz, tension,
compression, shear, bending and torsion.

Tension acts against another force that tries to pull something apart.
• For example, while in a straight and level flight, the engine power
and propeller are pulling the aircraft forward, the wings, tail section
and fuselage, however, resist this movement because of the airflow
around them.
• The result is a stretching effect on the airframe.

Compression is a squeezing or crushing force that tries to make parts

smaller. Aircraft wings are subjected to compressive stresses.
Shear force causes one piece of material to slide over the
other. Consider the aircraft fuselage.
• The aluminium skin panels are riveted to one another.
Shear forces try to make the rivets fail under flight
loads.
• Therefore, selection of rivets with adequate shear
resistance is critical.
• Bolts and other fasteners are often loaded in shear.
• Generally, shear strength is less than tensile or
compressive strength in a particular material.
Bending is a combination of two forces, compression and.
tension. During bending, the material on the inside
surface is compressed and on the outside surface is
stretched in tension.
• During an abrupt pull-up, the wing spars, wing skin and
fuselage undergo positive loading and the upper
surfaces are subject to compression, while the lower
wing skin experiences tension loads.
• There are many other areas of the airframe Structure
that experience bending forces during normal flight.
Torsion is a twisting force. Because aluminium is used almost
exclusively on the outside and inside of the aircraft for
fabrication of parts and covering, its tensile strength
(capability of being stretched) under torsion is very
important.
• Torque (also a twisting force) works against torsion.
• The torsional strength of a material is its ability to resist
torque. While in flight, the engine power and propeller
twist the forward fuselage.
• The force, however, is resisted by the assemblies of the
fuselage. The airframe is subjected to variable torsional
stresses during turns and other manoeuvers
• examples, The wing tips of a large aircraft, for example might move up and down
through more than one metre relative to the fuselage when the aircraft goes from
ground (where the wings have to support their own weight only) to air (where the
wings support the weight of the entire aircraft).
• The engine mount supports weight of the entire engine, which causes tension. It is also
subjected to shear load as the engine pulls the aircraft along. The wings produce lift and
are subjected to distributed loads. The engine mounts and the fuselage are like point-
loads, hanging down from the wings.
• Under these loads, the wings bend a little. The wings are also under torsional load. The
wing tips, for example, may tend to twist with their front side pointing up under the
action of the aerodynamic load (the pitching moment).
• Since the wing roots are firmly attached to the fuselage, it causes the wings to twist a
little. The wings have to be designed to take this torsion load as well.
In case of a high speed aircraft, airflow is brought to a sudden stop relative to the
aircraft at the nose. The pressure becomes the stagnation pressure.
• For a high speed aircraft, this pressure may be 100 times the ambient pressure. At the
same time, if the engines are mounted in the fuselage (to reduce drag) and producing
enough thrust to push the aircraft along, the fuselage may be subjected to compressive
loads from both the ends.
 TYPES OF LOADS
Before any structural analysis of an aircraft is carried out, the external loads
acting on the aircraft must be known. An aircraft is basically required to
support the following types of loads:
1. Air loads, which acts on the structure during flight due to aircraft
manoeuvres or by gust. Various types of air loads are lift, drag and loads
imposed during manoeuvring. A loads depend on the flight attitude of the
aircraft and weather conditions. The determination of air loads on an
aircraft requires a thorough knowledge of aerodynamics. The aircraft
while flying in level unaccelerated condition will have entirely different
forces acting on it than in accelerated manoeuvres.
2. Ground loads, which are encountered during movement of the aircraft
on ground i.e. taxiing, landing, towing, etc. -These loads act on the aircraft
when it is in contact with the ground.
3. Inertia loads, and
4. Power plant loads such as thrust and torque.
Loads on Aircraft
 Aircraft structures
• Aircraft are generally built up from the following basic
components
– Wings, Fuselages, Tail (H & V) , and control surfaces
• Each component has one or more specific functions and
must be designed to ensure that it can carry out these
functions safely.
• The structure of an aircraft is required to support two
distinct classes of load:
– Ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft
during movement or transportation on the ground such as
taxiing and landing loads, towing and hoisting loads
– Air loads, comprises loads imposed on the structure during
flight by manoeuvres and gusts.
 Aircraft structures
• Aircraft designed for a particular role encounter
loads peculiar to their sphere of operation.
– Naval aircraft, are subjected to catapult take-off and
arrested landing loads
– Large civil and practically all military aircraft have
pressurized cabins for high altitude flying
– Amphibious aircraft must be capable of landing on water
– Low altitude high speed aircraft have tremendous loads
due to high density and turbulence.
 Loads on aircraft
• There are basically two ways loads are transferred
– Surface forces which act upon the surface of the
structure,
e.g. aerodynamic and hydrostatic pressure
– Body forces which act over the volume of the structure
and are produced by gravitational and inertial effects.
Eg. Turns, dive pull-up etc
Pressure distribution over the various surfaces of an
aircraft’s structure is obtained from aerodynamics
calculations.
Aerodynamic loads
Ground Loads
Inertia load
• Load Factor
Load factor is defined as a factor which when
multiplied by the weight of an aircraft gives
total load acting on the aircraft.
n=L/W
The weight and inertia forces on the aircraft act down and are equal to the
lift. Therefore, the load factor n=L/w = 1 for straight and level flight.
In general, n=1+a/g
When the aircraft is accelerated, the forward thrust is greater than the
drag. The aircraft is under the action of a horizontal inertia force, which is
equal to the product of its mass and horizontal acceleration.
Horizontal load factor, which is referred to as the thrust load factor, is
obtained from equilibrium of the horizontal forces as indicated below:
nx W= ax W/g
Since T - D — nx W = 0, nx =(T-D)/ W
and nz=L/W
Limit Load
Limit load is defined as the maximum load encountered during service life
of the aircraft. This load should be such that thyie1d point of the material
is not exceeded. The corresponding load factor is referred to as the limit
load factor.
Ultimate or Design Load
Ultimate or design load is such that the corresponding stress acting in a
given part of the aircraft does not exceed the ultimate stress. Ultimate
load is the product of the limit load and the factor of safety i.e.
Ultimate load = Limit load x Factor of safety
 Load Factor- Velocity Diagram
(V-n)
• The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in weight require
stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increases in weight and so
on.
• Excesses of structural weight mean lesser amounts of payload, thereby affecting the
economic viability of the aircraft. The aircraft designer is therefore constantly seeking to pare
his aircraft’s weight to the minimum compatible with safety.
• However, to ensure general minimum standards of strength and safety, airworthiness
regulations lay down several factors which the primary structure of the aircraft must satisfy.
• These are the limit load, which is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected
to experience in normal operation, the proof load, which is the product of the limit load
and the proof factor (1.0–1.25)
• the ultimate load, which is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor (usually 1.5).
The aircraft’s structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion and
should not fail until the ultimate load has been achieved.
• The proof and ultimate factors may be regarded as factors of safety and provide for various
contingencies and uncertainties .
V-n Diagram
• The basic strength and flight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected
by the airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight envelope or V-n diagram
shown in Fig
• The curves OA and OF correspond to the stalled condition of the aircraft and are obtained from the
well-known aerodynamic relationship

• Therefore, for speeds below VA (positive wing incidence) and VF (negative incidence) the maximum
loads which can be applied to the aircraft are governed by CL,max.
• As the speed increases it is possible to apply the positive and negative limit loads, corresponding to
n1 and n3, without stalling the aircraft so that AC and FE represent maximum operational load
factors for the aircraft.
• Above the design cruising speed VC, the cut-off lines CD1 and D2E relieve the design cases to be
covered since it is not expected that the limit loads will be applied at maximum speed
• A particular flight envelope is applicable to one altitude only since CL,max is generally reduced with
an increase of altitude, and the speed of sound decreases with altitude thereby reducing the critical
Mach number and hence the design diving speed VD.
• Flight envelopes are therefore drawn for a range of altitudes from sea level to the
operational ceiling of the aircraft.
 Symmetric manoeuvre loads
• We shall now consider the calculation of aircraft loads corresponding to
the flightconditions specified by flight envelopes. There are, in fact, an
infinite number of flight conditions within the boundary of the flight
envelope although, structurally, those represented by the boundary are
the most severe.
• Furthermore, it is usually found that the corners A, C, D1, D2, E and F (see
Fig. 13.1) are more critical than points on the boundary between the
corners so that, in practice, only the six conditions corresponding to these
corner points need be investigated for each flight envelope.
• In symmetric manoeuvres we consider the motion of the aircraft initiated
by movement of the control surfaces in the plane of symmetry. Examples
of such manoeuvres are loops, straight pull-outs and bunts, and the
calculations involve the determination of lift, drag and tailplane loads at
given flight speeds and altitudes.
•
Level flight
• However, other parameters in these equations, such as M0, depend upon
the wing incidence α which in turn is a function of the required wing lift so
that, in practice, a method of successive approximation is found to be the
most convenient means of solution.
• As a first approximation we assume that the tail load P is small compared
with the wing lift L so that, from Eq. (14.7), L ≈ W.
• From aerodynamic theory with the usual notation
 General case of a symmetric
manoeuvre
• In a rapid pull-out from a dive a downward load is applied to the tailplane, causing
the aircraft to pitch nose upwards. The downward load is achieved by a backward
movement of the control column, thereby applying negative incidence to the elevators,
or horizontal tail if the latter is all-moving.

• If the manoeuvre is carried out rapidly the

forward speed of the aircraft remains practically constant so that increases in lift and
dragresultfrom the increase in wing incidence only. Since the lift is now greater than that
required to balance the aircraft weight the aircraft experiences an upward acceleration
normal to its flight path. This normal acceleration combined with the aircraft’s speed
in the dive results in the curved flight path shown in Fig. 14.7.

• As the drag load builds up with an increase of incidence the forward speed of the aircraft falls since the thrust is
assumed to remain constant during the manoeuvre.

• It is usual, as we observed in the discussion of the flight envelope, to describe the manoeuvres of an aircraft in
terms of a manoeuvring load factor n.
• For steady level flight n = 1, giving 1 g flight, although in fact the acceleration is zero. What is implied in this
method of description is that the inertia force on the aircraft in the level flight condition is 1.0 times its weight.
• It follows that the vertical inertia force on an aircraft carrying out an ng manoeuvre is nW.
• We may therefore replace the dynamic conditions of the accelerated motion by an equivalent set of static
conditions in which the applied loads are in equilibrium with the inertia forces
• n is the manoeuvre load factor while f is a similar
factor giving the horizontal inertia force. Note
that the actual normal acceleration in this
particular case is (n - 1)g.
• vertical equilibrium of the aircraft, we have,
referring to Fig. 14.7 where the aircraft is shown
at the lowest point of the pull-out
•
• Equation (14.14) contains no terms representing the effect
of pitching acceleration of the aircraft; this is assumed to
be negligible at this stage.
• Again the method of successive approximation is found to
be most convenient for the solution of Eqs (14.12)–(14.14).
There is, however, a difference to the procedure described
for the steady level flight case.
• The engine thrust T is no longer directly related to the drag
D as the latter changes during the manoeuvre.
• Generally, the thrust is regarded as remaining constant and
equal to the value appropriate to conditions before
the manoeuvre began.
 Steady pull-out
Let us suppose that the aircraft has just begun its pull-out from a dive so that it is
describing a curved flight path but is not yet at its lowest point. The loads acting on
the aircraft at this stage of the manoeuvre are shown in Fig. 14.9,

where R is the radius of curvature of the flight path. In this case the lift vector must
equilibrate the normal (to the flight path) component of the aircraft weight and
provide the force producing the centripetal acceleration V 2/R of the aircraft towards
the centre of curvature of the flight path.
 Correctly banked turn
• In this manoeuvre the aircraft flies in a
horizontal turn with no sideslip at constant
speed. If the radius of the turn is R and the
angle of bank φ, then the forces acting on
 Functions of Structural components
• An aircraft structure transmits and resists applied
loads, Provide aerodynamic shape and protect
crew, passengers and payloads, systems etc.
• Air frame is split into four main components
Wings
Fuselages
Tail Plane
Under Carriage
• TIE
Members in tension only
• Strut
Members in compression.
Short-/Long/ Medium
• Beams
Main Spars and Stringes
resist bending and axial loads. They divide the skin into small panels. They act with skin to resist axial
loads caused by pressurization.
Like stringers/ longerons spar caps also resist bending and axial loads.
They also divide the skin into small panels.

The fuselage and wings are structural members, which act like beams, because they resist the bending
loads imposed by the weight and air loads.
 Metallic and nonmetallic materials
Metallic materials Nonmetallic materials
Aluminum Alloys Transparent plastic
Titanium Alloys Reinforced plastic
Stainless steel Rubber
Composite materials
Magnesium
Nickel Alloys
 metallic properties
• Malleability Elasticity
• Density Hardness
• Strength Ductility
• Toughness Brittleness
• Conductivity Fusibility
• Thermal Expansion
• Malleability: Metals can be said to have good malleability if they
can be subjected to hammering, rolling or pressing into different shapes
without breaking, cracking or otherwise becoming unusable. Malleability
is essential in parts that need to be curved, such as wing tips, fairings and
cowlings. Copper is a metal that has good malleability.
• Density: density of a metal is given consideration when designing an
aircraft, because an aircraft’s balance and weight are crucial factors.
• Hardness: Hardness is the capacity of a metal to withstand
distortion, cutting, penetration, and abrasion. Cold working or heat
treatment can be used to increase a metal’s or alloy’s hardness.
• Ductility: Ductile metals include aluminium and chrome
molybdenum. Aluminium alloys are widely utilized as wing and fuselage
skin, cowl rings, bulkheads, spars and ribs.
• Toughness: Toughness is a function of a metal’s resistance to
shearing or tearing, as well as its ability to be deformed and stretched.
• Brittle: brittle metals are not good materials to use in aircraft.
Very hard steel, cast aluminium and cast iron are brittle metals.
• Fusibility is a metal’s ability to liquefy when subjected to heat.
Welding fuses metals.
• Conductivity: Heat conductivity is an important factor when
welding metals, as it determines the required amount of heat that
will allow for proper fusion. Conductivity is also a factor in
determining what type of jig must be used for controlling
contraction and expansion. It is also a factor in bonding, for
eliminating radio interference.
• Thermal expansion is the expansion and contraction of
metals caused by heating and cooling, respectively. These processes
affect welding jig design, castings, & tolerances needed for hot
rolled metals.
 Aluminum Alloys
• Low density and High strength properties
• Alloy 7075 has copper, magnesium and zinc added for extra strength.
• highly resistant to corrosion, it can be left unpainted.
• At high temperatures, however, aluminium can lose strength so it is not used
on the skin surface of an aircraft.
• 2024-T3- (strength and fatigue resistance &welding is not
recommended)-aluminum sheet are fuselage, wing skins, cowls,
aircarft structures.
• 6061-T6- (corrosion resistance and good finishing, welding goes
good)aircraft landing mats, truck bodies and frames, structural
components and more.
• 5053-H32- (highest strength)- construct fuel tanks.
• 3003-H14- (magnesium added for strength)- widely used for cowls
and baffle plating.
• 7075- (high strength alloys, copper , very difficult to weld, nice
finishing)
 Titanium Alloys
• Expensive, high strength, high temperature resistance and
high corrosion resistance.
• A variety of different parts on an aircraft both on the exterior
and in the engine, wings and landing gear as well as the
housing, fan blades and pumps within the engine.
applications such as rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic
system components and nacelles.
• Variety of components including critical structural parts, fire
walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters), and hydraulic
systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal
produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.
 Stainless Steel Alloys
• strength, hardness and resistance to heat.
• skin surface of the aircraft and in the landing
gear
• alloy 321 is used throughout the aerospace
industry in such components as jet engine
parts, exhaust ducts, flanges and piston
engine exhaust manifolds.
Composite materials
 Transparent Material
• Transparent plastic is used in canopies, windshields, and other transparent
enclosures.
• You need to handle transparent plastic surfaces carefully because they are
relatively soft and scratch easily.
• At approximately 225°F, transparent plastic becomes soft and pliable.
 Reinforced Plastic
• Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer
tips, antenna covers, and flight controls.
• Reinforced plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew
and rot. Because it is easy to fabricate, it is equally suitable for other parts of the
aircraft.
• Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material
• It is made up of two outer facings and a center layer. The facings are made up of
several layers of glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material
(center layer) consists of a honeycomb.