AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES- I

Sub Code : 15AE44

Total Hours : 50
Hrs/ Week : 05
I A Marks : 20 (Best of two from three
monthly test with a maximum marks of 15
and three assignments upto a maximum of 5
marks)
University Exam Hours : 03
University Exam Marks : 80
 Module 3
• Loads on Aircraft and Aircraft Materials
• Loads on Aircraft
• Structural nomenclature
• Types of loads
• Load factor
• Aerodynamics loads
• Symmetric Manoeuvre loads
• Velocity diagram
• Function of structural components
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• Aircraft materials
• Metallic material and non metallic materials
• Aluminum alloys
• Titanium
• Steel
• Composites
• Desirable properties of Aircraft applications
• Fracture and Fatigue
• Stress intensity factor
• Crack growth rate derivation
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• Structural nomenclature
• Tension : A force that pulls apart
• In straight and level flight , the engine power and
propeller pulls the aircraft forward while the wings
fuselage and tail section resists.
• In fighter aircraft bombs, missiles, rockets ,drop
tanks and aircraft guns are additional loads which
add to the resistance.
• Compression : A force that crushes or squeezes.
• Aircraft wings are subjected to compressive force
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• Bending : It is a combination of two forces i.e,
tension and compression.
• During bending the inside surface is compressed
while the outside surface is stretched and hence
in tension
• During pull up the wing spars ,wing skin and
fuselage undergoes positive loading. The upper
surface is under compression and the lower
surface is under tensile load
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• Shear Force : It is force which causes one piece of
material to slide over the other.
• Skin panels held by rivets, bolts and fasteners experience
shear.
• Shear strength is often less than tensile or compressive
strength.
• Torsion : It is force experienced due to twist of the body.
• In flight, the engine power and propeller action makes the
front fuselage twist, however the resistance is provided
by the various assemblies.
• The airframe and other structural assemblies is
subjected to torsional stresses during turns and other
manoveuers.
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• The deflections resulting from these loads are
small. However , since an aircraft is a huge
structure the wing bending is very prominent
• Example :Engine mount supports experiences
• 1. Tensile load - since engine is hanging
• 2. Shear load - since the engine is pulling the
aircraft along.
 TYPES OF LOAD ON AN AIRCRAFT
(a) Ground loads (b) Air Loads
Ground loads
Taxying load - Vibratory, low stress and high cyclic.
Towing load - Only on the front fuselage and nose
undercarriage.
Hoisting load - The load distribution due to self
weight when the aircraft is hoisted.
Landing load - Impact load due to maximum sinking
speed.
Crash load - To cater crash worthiness of the
aircraft
 TYPES OF LOAD ON AN AIRCRAFT
Air Loads (a)Maneuvering loads (b) Environmental loads
Maneuvering loads:
• External pressure distribution due to a/c motion.
• Internal pressurization
• Dynamic loads due to sudden control surface
movement
• Release of stores like rockets, missiles, bombs etc
• Engine thrust
• Internal loads due to inertia forces
• Follow up load due to elastic deformation
 Environmental loads
(a) Gust-Sudden burst of air creating turbulence
(b) Air Turbulence – Discomfort for passengers ,low
stress but high frequency
Peculiar to the aircraft being designed
• Carrier borne aircraft, catapult take off and
arrested landing.
• Trainers, spin load
• Amphibious landing( landing on water)
• High speed low altitude flight(Bomber) to
withstand high turbulence loads
• Pressurized cabin for high altitude flying
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• Load Factor is defined as a factor which when
multiplied by the weight of an aircraft gives the
total loading acting on the aircraft.
• It is a non dimensional factor
• In case of straight and level flight, thrust equals
drag and horizontal component of inertia and
gravitational forces are zero.
• The vertical component of inertia forces and
weight act downwards on the aircraft and are
equal to the weight
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• Implication of load factor
• Assume a load factor of 8 is encountered
• Wt of the occupant is 500 newtons
• This means pressure on the pilot seat is 4000N
• At high ‘g’ or high load factor black out occurs
• Hence an aircraft can be designed only for a load factor upto
which human beings can withstand.
• For transport aircraft 1 to1.25
• For utility aircraft - 1.76 to +4.4
• For aerobatic -3.0 to +9.0
• For helicopters -1 to +3.5
• For Sukoi aircraft -10 to +12
L
• Load Factor, n = =1 ( straight and level flight)
W
• In general , n = 1+ a/g
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• Load factor depends on
• (a) limit load
• (b) uncertainties in design and structural deterioration.
• (c ) variation in structural strength
• (d) Fatigue
Limit Load is defined as the maximum load encountered
during the service life of the aircraft. This load should be such
that the yield point of the material is not exceeded.
Of all loads like maneuver loads ( controlled during design),u/c
load ( designed for giving max descent rate), cabin pressure
are simple and can be managed.
However, gust loads, buffeting, vibrations all depending on
atmospheric conditions are difficult to manage.
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• Ultimate or design load is such that corresponding
stress acting in the given part of the aircraft does not
exceed the ultimate stress. Ultimate load is a product
of limit load and factor of safety.
• Ultimate load = limit load x factor of safety.
• Factor of safety is 1.5 for aircraft structure
• Aircraft are designed for ultimate load to take care of
• (a) approximations involved in aerodynamic and
structural stress analysis theories.
• (b) variations in physical properties of materials
• (c )Variations in fabrication and inspections standards
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• Aerodynamic loads
• An aircraft flying under steady flight, manoeuver or
gust conditions experiences pressure distribution on
the surface of the skin. The resultant of these
pressures causes direct loads such as bending, shear,
and torsion in all parts of the structure.
• Maximum load an aircraft component or structure
experiences is when it accelerates or decelerates such
as landing, take off, maneuvers
• To calculate inertia loads
• Consider aircraft as a rigid body with mass ‘m’
• Consider motion in the plane with corresponds to
pitch moment. Roll/yaw is not considered
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• Inertia force on a rigid mass having constant

angular velocity
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• Coordinates of CG is x, y with reference to ‘x’ and ‘y’ axis ( Read as
x bar and y bar)
• Mass rotating with constant angular velocity ‘ω’
• Acceleration at any point , at a distance ‘r’ from ‘o’ is ω2r and
directed towards ‘o’
• Inertia force acting on the element δm
• = ω2r δm (direction opposite to accln)
• Components of inertia force parallel to
• ‘x’ is ω2r δm cos θ
• ‘y’ is ω2r δm sin θ
• In terms of ‘x’ and’ y’ it is ω2x δm and ω2yδm
• Resultant inertia forces are
• FX = ‫ ׬‬ω2x dm = ω2 ‫ ׬‬x dm
• Fy = ‫ ׬‬ω2 ydm = ω2 ‫ ׬‬y dm
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• ‫ ׬‬x dm and ‫ ׬‬y dm are the moments of mass, m
about y and x axes.
• Hence Fx = ω2x m
• FY = ω2y m ( read as x & y bar)
• If CG lies on x axis , then y ( bar) =0 and FY = 0
• If CG lies on y axis , then x( bar) =0 and Fx = 0
• If ‘o’ and CG coincides y ( bar) =0 and x( bar) =0
• FY = Fx = 0
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• Suppose the rigid body is subjected to an angular
acceleration ( or deceleration) ‘α’ in addition to
the constant angular velocity ‘ω’ as shown
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• In this case, an additional inertia force, α r δm
acts on the element δm in a direction
perpendicular to ‘ r’ and in the opposite sense to
the angular acceleration
• Components of inertia force are ‘ α r δm cos θ ‘
and ‘ α r δm sin θ ‘
• i.e, ‘α x δm’ and ‘α yδm ‘ in ‘y’ and ‘x’ directions
• Resultant inertia forces
• FX = ‫ ׬‬α yδm = α ‫ ׬‬yδm
• Fy= − ‫ ׬‬α xδm = - α ‫ ׬‬x δm
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• As before,
• FX = α y m (y bar)
• Fy= - α x m (x bar)
• If CG lies on ‘x’ axis y bar =0 and FX =0
• If CG lies on ‘Y’ axis x bar =0 and FY=0
• To find torque
• Torque = Force x Radius
• δ TO = α r δm x r = α r2 δm
• For complete mass
• TO= ‫ ׬‬α r2 dm = α‫ ׬‬r2 dm
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• But ‫ ׬‬r2 dm is the moment of inertia or second
moment of area and = IO
• Thus , TO= α IO
• In terms of moment of inertia with respect to CG ,
i.e, I CG
• IO = m (r2) + I CG ( using parallel axis theorem)
and ‘r’ is the distance between ‘o’ and CG
• IO = m (x2 + y 2) + I CG
• To= m (x2 + y 2) α + I CG α ( read as x & y bar)
 Problem - Module 3
• An aircraft having a total weight of 45 Kn lands on
a deck of an aircraft carrier and is brought to rest
by means of a cable engaged by an arrestor hook
as shown.If the deceleration induced by the cable
is 3g, determine the tension ‘T ‘ in the cable, the
load on the undercarriage strut, and the shear
and axial load on the fuselage at section ‘ AA’. The
weight of the aircraft aft of AA is 4.5 Kn . Calculate
also the length of the deck covered by the aircraft
before it is brought to rest if the touch down
speed is 25 m/ sec.
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• Forces on the aircraft

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• Resolving the forces horizontally
• Arrestor hook force - Horizontal inertia force =0
• T cos 10⁰ - ma = 0
45
• T cos 10⁰ - 3g = 0
g
• T = 137. 1 KN
• Resolving the forces Vertically
• R - W – T sin10⁰ = 0
• R = 45 +137.1 Sin 10⁰ = 68.8 KN
• Assuming two undercarriage struts, the load in each strut
is = ( R/2) / cos20⁰ = 36.6 KN
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• Let ‘N’ and ‘S’ be the axial and shear loads at the
section AA as shown in the figure.
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• The inertia load acting at the CG of the fuselage aft of AA
is m1a, where m1 is the mass of the fuselage aft of AA
4.5
• Then , m1a = 3g = 13.5 KN
g
• Resolving forces parallel to the axis of the fuselage
• N – T + m1a cos 10 ⁰ - 4.5 sin 10⁰ = 0
• N - 137.1 + 13.5 cos 10⁰ - 4.5 sin 10⁰ = 0
• N = 124.6 KN
• Resolving forces perpendicular to the axis of the fuselage
• S - m1a sin 10 ⁰ - 4.5 cos 10⁰ = 0
• S – 13.5 sin 10 ⁰ - 4.5 cos 10⁰ = 0
• S = 6.8 KN
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• From elementary physics we know,
• V 2 = Vo 2 + 2as (Vo --- touch down speed, V is
the final speed = 0 and ‘s’ is the distance travelled
or length of the deck covered)
• Vo 2 = - 2as
• 252 = -2 ( -3 x 9.81) s
• s = 10.6m
 Problem - Module 3
• An aircraft having a weight of 250 KN and a
tricycle undercarriage lands at a vertical velocity of
3.7 m/sec, such that the vertical and horizontal
reactions on the main wheels are 1200KN and
400KN respectively; at this instant the nose wheel
is 1.0 m from the ground as shown. If the moment
of inertia of the aircraft about its CG is 5.65 x
108Ns2 mm, determine the inertia forces on the
aircraft, the time taken for its vertical velocity to
become zero and its angular velocity at this instant
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Geometry of the aircraft

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• Horizontal and vertical inertia forces acting at CG
• Resolving horizontally , m ax -400 = 0 ∴ m ax= 400 Kn
• Resolving vertically, m ay +250 – 1200 = 0 ∴ m ay= 950 Kn
950
• ay = 950/ m = = 3.8g
250/g
• Taking moments about CG
• ICG α – 1200 x 1.0 - 400 x 2.5 = 0
• ICG α = 2,200 m KN
ICG α 2200 x 10 6
• α = = = 3.9 rad / sec2
ICG 5.65 x 10 8
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• V = Vo + ayt
• Initial velocity Vo = 3,7m/sec,
• vertical deceleration a y = 3.8 g. Substituting
• 0= 3.7 - 3.8 X 9.8 t
• t = 0.099 s
• Angular velocity of aircraft after 0.099s
• ω = ωo+ α t in which ωo = 0 and α = 3.9 rad / sec2
• ω = 3.9 x 0.099 = 0.39 rad /sec
 Problem - Module 3
• The aircraft shown in the figure ( next slide) has a
moment of inertia of 5460 KN s 2 m and an all up
weight of 430 KN. During landing the aerodynamic
lift is equal to 90 % of its all up weight and it is
subjected to the ground loads .Determine (a) limit
load factor at its center of gravity (b) limit pitching
acceleration
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• Figure page 431
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• Wing lift = 0.9 x 430 = 387 KN
• Resolving vertically , the total vertical load on the
aircraft = 387 + 1112.5-430 = 1069.5
• Hence , limit load factor = 1+ 1069.5/430 = 3.5
• Taking the moments about CG
• 3.81LW+ 222.5 X 2.54+1112.5X2.54 = Io= 5460 α
• α = 0.89 rad / s2
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• Loads in level flight

• For vertical equilibrium, L+P-W =0

• For horizontal equilibrium, T-D =0
• Taking moments about aircraft CG
• La – Db – Tc- MO- Pl = 0
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• Symmetric maneuver
• Consider a case of rapid pull out from dive, in which case a
downward load is applied on tail plane causing the aircraft to pitch
nose upward
• This leads to increase in lift and drag due to increased wing
incidence
• Lift becomes greater than weight, hence aircraft experiences
upward acceleration normal to the flight path
• This results in a curved flight path.
• As the drag build up forward speed of the aircraft falls
• Vertical inertia force carrying ‘ng’ maneuver is ‘nw’
• For vertical equilibrium ,we have
• L + P + T sin γ – Nw = 0
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• For horizontal equilibrium
• T cos γ + fW- D =0
• For pitching moment equilibrium about aircraft CG
• La - Db - Tc – Mo - Pl = 0
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• Steady pull out
• Suppose the aircraft has just begun to pull out from dive.(i.e, a
curved flight path but not yet at its lowest point)
• loads acting is shown.
• ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of the flight path
• Lift vector = normal component of aircraft weight + force producing
centripetal acceleration V2/R
W V2
• ∴L= + W cosθ
gR
• But since L = nW, substituting we get ,
W V2
• nW = + W cosθ
gR
V2
• n= + cosθ
gR
• At the lowest point of the pull out θ =0
V2
• Hence , n = +1
gR
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• Aircraft loads and acceleration during pull out
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• Inference
• Smaller the radius of flight path, pull out is severe and value of ‘n’ is
greater
• Severe pull out results in overstressing the aircraft
• This would lie outside the flight envelope and may exceed the
proof/ ultimate load.
• To prevent exceedance of load, control surface movement is limited
by stops. Stops are operative only beyond certain speeds
• For hydraulically operated controls artificial feel is built in the
system
• At low speeds severe pull out may result in stall.
• Safety precautions in the form of stall warning are incoporated
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• A semi -aerobatic aircraft has reached its design
diving speed of 185 m/s in a dive inclined at 45
degrees to the horizontal ground. If the maximum
maneuver load factor for the aircraft is 5.5,
determine the height at which the pull out from
the dive must begin for straight and level flight to
be achieved at a height of 500m
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• N = 5.5, V = 185m/s, G = 9.81 m/s
V2
• We know that , n = +1
gR
1852
• ∴ 5.5 = +1
9.81 x R
• ∴ R = 775.3m
• Referring to the figure above
• a = R – R cos 45⁰ = 775.3 – 775.3 cos 45⁰ = 227m
• h =500+227 = 727 m
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• Correctly Banked Turn
• Aircraft flies in a horizontal turn with no side slip at a constant
speed. If Radius of turn is ‘R’ and angle of bank ‘φ’ then forces
acting on the aircraft is as shown. The horizontal component of the
lift vector in this case provides the necessary centripetal
acceleration.

• Correctly banked
turn
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wv2
• L sin φ = ( horizontal equilbrium) ----①
gR
• L cos φ = w ( vertical equilibrium) ----------②
• Rearranging we get L = sec φ
L
• Rewriting = sec φ = n ( load factor in a turn)
w
v2
• Dividing② by ①, tan φ =
gR
• Inference
• Tighter the turn greater the bank
• Increase in bank angle increases the load factor
• Aerodynamically, if the load factor n is to be limited then the
minimum time taken through a given bank angle occurs when cl
ismaximum
• This is generally at the stalling angle
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• The wing of a military aircraft has a maximum lift
coefficient of 1.25 and an area of 16 m2; the
maximum maneuver load factor is 6.0. If the
weight of the aircraft is 50 KN , Determine the
angle of bank required at a speed of 180 m/s.
Calculate also the radius of turn. Take ρ = 1.223
kg/m3
• Sol.
• Maximum lift = 1/2 ρv2scl max
• = ½ x 1.223x 1802 x 16 x 1.25 = 396.3 KN
• n= l/w = 396.3/ 50 = 7.9
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• Sec φ = 6.0
• Φ = 80.4⁰
• tan 80.4⁰ = 1802/9.81 R
• ∴ R = 558.6m
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• Velocity Diaghram ( also called V-N Diaghram or Flight envelope))
• V-n diagram describes the relationship between aircraft speed, its
maneuvering capability and structural strength.
• Except for landing conditions all loads on an aircraft are imposed
aerodynamically
• - As a result of manoeuvre
• - As a result of flying through some atmospheric
disturbance
• Broadly speaking ,load applied at low speeds are limited
aerodynamically while loads applied at higher speeds is limited
structurally.
• Excesses weight in aircraft design means lesser payload affecting
economic viability
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• Curves OA and OF corresponds to the stalled conditions of the aircraft
obtained from relationship Lift = nw = 1/2 ρv2scl max
• For speeds below VA ( Positive wing incidence) and VF ( negative
incidence) maximum load that can be applied to the aircraft are
governed by CL ,MAX.
• As speed increases positive and negative limit loads are applied,
corresponding to n1 and n3, without stalling the aircraft
• Lines AC and FE represents maximum operational load factors.
• Above the design cruising speed Vc, the cut off lines CD1 and D2E are not
within parameters since it is not expected that the limit loads are applied
at max load.
• Values of n1,n2, and n3 are specified for each aircraft
• +HAA – obtained during pull out at the highest possible angle of attack
• +LAA – Occurs max IAS when the aircraft get dived.
• -HAA – occurs during intentional maneuver when the airloads of the wing
are in the downward direction
• -LAA – Occurs at a limit diving speed or during intentional maneuver
producing negative load factor.
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• Gust A short burst of high speed wind is called gust.
A vertical gust an ascending or descending
coloumn of air which has an appreciable vertical
velocity in relation to its surrounding. This creates
turbulence , changes wing incidence and its
boundaries have a vertical gradient.
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(a) Sharp edged gust (b) Graded gust (c ) 1-cosine gust
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• Gust load factor, U(t) = U/2 [ 1 – cos π t/T]
• When t = 2T
• U(t) = U/2 [ 1 – cos π (2T)/T ]
• = U/2 [ 1 – cos 2 π ]
• = U/2 [ 1 – 1] = 0
• When t = T
• U(t) = U/2 [ 1 – cos π (T)/T ]
• = U/2 [ 1 – cos π]
• = U/2 [ 1 – (-1)]
• =U
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• Gust speeds
• ± U1 - High velocity gust -------- 20 m/s
• ± U2 - Medium velocity gust----15.2m/s
• ± U3 - low velocity gust -----------7.5m/s
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• Expression for gust load factor
• When an aircraft is in level flight in calm air the
angle of attack ‘α’ is measured from wing chord line
to be horizontal
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• If the airplane suddenly strikesan ascending air
current which has a vertical velocity ‘ku’, the angle
of attack increases by an angle ‘∆α’
ku
• ∆α =
v
• The change in normal coefficient CZA vs the angle
of attack gives the slope β
∆CZA
• β=
∆α
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• When this vertical gust meets aircraft , the aircraft force
coefficient increases by∆C𝑧𝐴
ku
• ∆cza= β
v
• The increase in load factor due to increase in ∆Cza
1 ∆CZA
• is given by ∆n = ρ v s 2
2 w
1 ku 1
• = ρ v s β2
2 v w
ρ v s β ku
• =
2w
• When the aircraft is in level flight , increased load factor due
to gust, called gust load factor would be
ρ v s β ku
• 1+ ∆n = 1 +
2w

•
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• From the data given below calculate the value of gust load
factor(∆n). w/s = 2400n/mm2,lift /curve slope = 1.5 /
radian, density= 1.223kg/m3,gust speed = 30m/s, aircraft
speed = 200m/s, effectiveness of gust = 0.75
• Given data
• w/s = 2400m/s, β = 1.5/rad, ρ=1.223kg/m3, U=
30M/S and k = 0 .75
ρvs βkU ρv βkU 1.223x200x1.5x0.75x30
• ∆n = = 2w =
2w 2x 2400
s
• = 1.719 = 1.72
• Total load factor inclusive of gust = 1+ ∆n = 1+1.72 = 2.72
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• A civil non-aerobatic aircraft has a wing loading w/s
= 2400n/mm2 and a lift / slope curve of β = 5/rad. If
n1 = 2.5 and k = 0.715, calculate the cruising speed
for the gust case to be critical.
• Solution
1.223xvc x5x0.75x30
• n = 1+ ∆n = 1 + = 1+ 0.0139vc
2x 2400
• For the gust case to be critical
• 1+ 0.0139vc >2.5
• Vc= 108 m/sec
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STRUCTURE OF AN AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURE OF AN AIRCRAFT
Dismantled Sub assemblies of an Aircraft
 MODULE -3
• STRUCTURAL NOMENCLATURE
• 1FUSELAGE
1.Longerons
2.Frames and bulk head
3.Stringers
4.Skin
• 2.WINGS
1.Spars (a) Front spar (b) Rear Spar
2.Ribs
3.Stringers
4.Skin
• 3. Tail plane : Stabilizers , Flight control surfaces,
• 4.Landing gear
TYPICAL WING CONSTRUCTION
 WING 0F AN AIRCRAFT
• The main purpose of the wing is to provide lift force to the aircraft
to enable flying.
• The wing is a framework made up of spars and ribs and covered
with metallic sheets.
• Spars are the main structural members of the wing.
• They extend from the fuselage to the tip of the wing.
• All the load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars.
• The spars are designed to have high bending strength.
 Module 3 Function of structural components
WING 0F AN AIRCRAFT
• In addition it houses /accomodates the following
– Aeroengines on the port and star board sides
– Integral Fuel tanks
– Flaps on the inboard sides at trailing edge
– Ailerons on the outboard sides at trailing edge
– Slats at the leading edge on both port and starboard sides
– Drop tank in fighter aircraft
– Missiles, Rockets and aircraft guns in fighter aircraft and bomber
– Main Undercarriage on the port and star board side
– Pitot static tube in some aircraft
– Air/Nitrogen bottle at wing tips (To prevent wing flutter and
wing induced drag)
– Navigational lights at wing tips to enable night flying
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• Loads to be considered on wing
• 1. Four corner points of wing symmetric
maneuvering loads (+ HAA,- HAA,+LAA,-LAA)
• 2. Flaps down maneuver during take off
• 3. Flaps down during landing
• 4. Maneuver with certain wing fuel tanks being
empty.
• 5. Unsymmetrical span wise distribution
• 6. Dive maneuver
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• 7. Roll initiation
• 8. Aero elastic flexible load distribution, control
reversal
• 9. Taxi
• 10. Fatigue, fail safe, Thermal gradients, lightening
strike
• 11. Refueling pressure
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• Wing comprises of spars, ribs, skin, stringers
• Spars has generally’ L’ or ‘T ‘or ‘I’ type. They transmit
bending and torsional loads. A closed cell structure
provides resistance to torsion, shear and tension.
• Aircraft generally has two spars, front and rear spar.
However , a number of aircraft has multiple spars ( specially
fighter aircraft to increase structural strength)
• Front spar – located as forward as possible to maximize
wing box size and provides space for leading edge devices
and deicing equipment.
• It is generally located 12 to 18 % of the chord
• Rear spar This is located as far aft as possible to maximize
wing box size.Houses flaps, control surface, spoilers.
Generally located upto 70% of chord
WING PARTLY EXPLODED
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• Ribs. Maintains aerodynamic shape. Acts in conjunction with the
skin to resist aerodynamic load.
• Ribs also increase coloumn buckling strength of stringers thru’ end
restraint and increase skin panel buckling strength. They transmit
the air load from the wing covering to the spars.
• Ribs have flanges around edges so that they can be riveted to skin
and spar webs.
• They have cut out around the edges for stringers to pass through.
• Holes are usually cut through the ribs to reduce the weight and
allow passage of control cable wires etc
 RIBS
Ribs are ideally spaced to ensure overall buckling and
support of spar flanges. However, its positioning is
also influenced by control surface, power plants
undercarriage
Ribs apart from give the shape to the wing section &
support the skin (prevent buckling) also prevent the
fuel surging as the aircraft manoeuvres. They serve
as attachment points for the control surfaces, flaps,
undercarriage and engines. It forms the framework
and separates the individual fuel tanks within the
wing. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the wing.
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• Skin forms impermeable aerodynamic surface. It
transmits aerodynamic forces to the ribs and
stringers.
• Skin resists shear and torsion loads ( with spar webs )
and reacts axial bending loads ( with stringers)
• Supports the transverse members in resisting the
hoop, or circumferential, load when the structure is
pressurized.
• The skin is riveted to the flanges and stringers.
• It is performed at the leading edge where curvature is
large.
• Counter sunk rivets are used to reduce drag.
 Function of Stringers
Stringers
1. Resist bending and axial loads along with the
skin
2. Divide the skin into small panels and thereby
increase its
• Buckling strength of the skin
• Act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused
by pressurization.
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• Stringers increase skin panel buckling strength by
dividing into smaller length sections
• They resists axial and bending loads along with
skin
 Module 3
• Fuselage serves a number of functions.
• It forms the body of the aircraft for housing crew
and cabin/cockpit, passengers, cargo, aircraft
systems like hydraulic ,pneumatic, electrical,
electronic etc. Also ,in fighter aircraft it
accommodates major portion of the fuel, ejection
seat, missiles/drop tanks at the bottom
attachment.
• Nose undercarriage ( in all aircraft) and main
undercarriage in fighter aircraft is attached
• Wings, tail plane and fins are attached to the
fuselage in its appropriate position to enable flying
 Module 3
• Its also reacts to in- flight manoeuvre , pressurization, gust loads
and landing gear load.
• Some aircraft configuration have power plant accommodated in
fuselage itself which exerts considerable weight, thrust and torque.
• Construction
• The fuselage consist of a series of frames ( also sometimes referred
as hoops) at specified intervals and connected by longerons or
stringers which gives the fuselage its required shape.
• The stringers run the full length and prevent the skin from buckling
• Semi monocoque construction is an ideal form since it provides
most of the interiors free to accommodate crew, passengers and
cargo.
• Also, it is easier to achieve a safe pressurization system ( pressure
inside > pressure outside) in a semi monocoque construction
 FUSELAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
Semi monocoque design overcomes the
strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. In addition to having formers,
frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi
monocoque construction has the skin reinforced
by longitudinal members. The reinforced shell
has the skin reinforced by a complete
framework of structural members.
 FUSELAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
• The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed
primarily of aluminum alloy, although steel and
titanium are found in high-temperature areas.
Primary bending loads are taken by the
longerons, which usually extend across several
points of support. The longerons are
supplemented by other longitudinal members
known as stringers. Stringers are more in
number and lightweight than longerons.
Module 3
 STRUCTURAL NOMENCLATURE

FUSELAGE
Construction of fuselage falls under two category:-
(a) Monocoque construction uses formers, frame
assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.
However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since no
bracing members are present, the skin must be strong
enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in
monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength
while keeping the weight within limits.
 FUSELAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
• The vertical structural members are referred
to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The
heavier vertical members are located at
intervals to allow for concentrated loads.
These members are also found at points
where fittings are used to attach other units,
such as the wings and stabilizers. The stringers
are smaller and lighter than longerons and
serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but
are chiefly used for giving shape and for
attachment of skin.
 FUSELAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads
and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold
the stringers. All of these join together to form a
rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and
longerons prevent tension and compression
stresses from bending the fuselage. The skin is
attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other
structural members and carries part of the load.
The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load
carried and the stresses sustained
 FUSELAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
Advantages in using the semimonocoque
fuselage.
• The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and
longerons aid in the design and construction
of a streamlined fuselage.
• Semi monocoque construction add to the
strength and rigidity of the structure.
• Since there are many structural members
strength and rigidity are better
 FUSELAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
• Because of its stressed skin construction, a
semimonocoque fuselage can withstand
damage and still be strong enough to hold
together.
 Module 3
• Pressurization bulk heads are fitted in the nose
and tail portion of the aircraft. These are flat disc
like drum skin or curved and their purpose is to
withstand loads imposed due to pressurization.
• Cut outs are made in the fuselage to allow for
doors and windows. These are strengthened
around and loads are not routed through the
fuselage doors and windows
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• Tail Plane comprises of fixed vertical fin with a
moveable rudder and either a fixed horizontal
surface with movable elevators or an all moving
horizontal surface
• The front section of the vertical tail (fin) prevents
the aircraft back and forth.
• The rear section of the vertical tail ( rudder)is used
for turning the aircraft.
• The horizontal stabilizer is used to prevent the
aircraft from pitching up and down
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• Undercarriage serves the following important function
• (a) Supports the aircraft on the ground and allows its movement
• (b) Absorbs landing shock allowing the aircraft to land smoothly
without bouncing and transmits the vertical load to aircraft structure
• (c ) Resists large braking loads during landing
• (d) Withstand the side load of cross wind during landing and take off.
• (e) Must be able to withstand forward and aft stresses resulting from
movement of the aircraft on the ground and air
• The under carriage ( landing gear ) comprises of
– Shock strut
– Axle
– Drag strut
– Lock link
– Torsion links
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 Aircraft Materials
Factors influencing Selection of material
1. Strength allied to lightness
2. Stiffness
3. Toughness
4. Resistance to corrosion
5. Fatigue
6. Effects of environment heating
7. Availability
8. Consistency of supply and cost
 Main group of material used in aircraft
construction
• Metals (main group)
• Steel
• Aluminum
• Titanium and its alloys

• Non metals(main group)

• Wood
• Plastics
• Glass
• Rubber
• Fiber reinforced Composites
 Aluminum alloys
Three groups of Al alloy used in aircraft industry
Group I CU-4% MN- Mg-0.5% Si-0.3% Iron- Al-
0.5% 0.2% Remaining
Group II Variation in MN Higher Variation Variation Al-Remaining
CU content 0.5% Mg % in Si in Iron

Group III CU-2.5% MN- Mg-0.5% Si-0.3% Iron- Zn-5%

0.5% 0.2%
Al-Remaining
 Aluminum alloys
Groups Proof stress Tensile strength Elongation %
(N/mm²) (N/mm²)

Group I 230 390 8

Group II 370 460 8

Group III 510 585 8

 Aluminum alloys
• Group I has Lower static strength. Hence preferred for structure
where fatigue considerations are of primary importance such as
understructure of the wing .
• Naturally aged version of alloy has better mechanical properties.
• Higher percentage of Mg improves mechanical properties
• Latest alloy is Al-Lithium-Cu-Mg (8090) series-used for main fuselage
of Westland helicopter
• Al-Li-Cu (2095) has found usage in fuselage frames in F-16 aircraft
• Reason : Five fold increase in Fatigue life, reduction in weight, can be
successfully welded, posses a high fracture toughness and exhibits
resistance to crack propagation
• Lithium-Soft silvery white metal. Lightest of alkali metal. Atomic weight is 3. Least
dense solid element .Contact with moisture corrodes the surface. Active and
inflammable - Obtained in ocean water, Brine and clay- Aircraft engines greases
and Aircraft battery is made of lithium
 Steel
• Steel is used in manufacture of small aircraft components which
require very high tensile strength, high stiffness and high resistance
to wear
• Used in undercarriage pivot bracket, wing root attachment,
fasteners.
• Maraging steel,a newly developed steel ,has almost eliminated
carbon. It consists of Ni – 17 to 19%,Cobalt – 8-9%,Molybdenum 3-
3.5%, titanium 0.15% to 0.25%,Carbon – 0.03% and traces of Mn,
Sc,Su,Po,Al,Bo,Ca,Zirconium. Consequently, mechanically properties
has improved. Proof stress – 1400 N/mm² and Modulus of elasticity
= 1,80,000 N/m².
• Advantages of Maraging steel are:
• High fracture strength and toughness
• Simpler heat treatment
• Much lower volume change during hardening
 Maraging steel
• Very much simpler to weld
• Easier to machine
• Better resistance to stress concentration
• Better resistance to Hydrogen embrittlement
However the cost of Maraging steel is three times the
conventional steel.
• Usage of Maraging steel
• Aircraft arrestor hook,
• Rocket motar cases,
• Helicopter undercarriage
• Gears
• Ejector seat
• Various structural forgings
 Titanium
• Used for fuselage skin, engine shrouds, firewalls,
longerons, frames, fittings, air ducts, fasteners,
compressor disks, spacer rings, compressor blades, and
vanes, turbine housing and liners.
• Titanium alloys used extensively in fighter aircraft like
F-15,F-16,Mig- 29, and Su -30 MKI
• Tornado wings carry – through box is fabricated from a
weldable medium strength titanium alloy
• Titanium alloys are also used in tail assembly of civil
airliner Boeing 777
 Titanium
• Advantages:
• Weight savings as compared to steel is 20%
• Titanium sheets show excellent properties
especially if the temperature exceeds 300 degrees
Fahrenheit ( because at this temperature Al alloy
shows degradation of strength)
• Good fatigue strength
• Good resistance to corrosion
• Only a few titanium alloys have been developed
 Titanium
• Disadvantages:
• Titanium is a highly reactive material and cause
hydrogen embrittlement during sponge production, hot
working of ingots, heating ,etc
• Titanium is prone to scaling. Descaling by machining is a
very difficult process and expensive. Chemical methods
are practical, but should be closely controlled in an
oxidizing atmosphere.
• Properties are adversely affected when exposed to
temperature and stress in saline enviornment
• High fabrication cost (approximately 7 times that used in
Al and Steel) .
 Microstructure of titanium –advantages /disadvantages
• Titanium exist in two forms:
• ‘α’ titanium-Hexogonally closed packed crystal form between room
temperature and 1625°F
• ‘β’ titanium –transforms into a body centered cubic structure at
temperatures above 1625°F
α titanium
• Advantages Dis-advantages
1) Useful strength upto - Sheet bend ductility not
1200°F as good as alpha beta alloy
2)Resistance to air - Requires more power for forging
contamination to 2000°F
permitting forging
3) No embrittlement occurs during heat treatment
4)Weld ductility and strength comparable to base metal
 β‘ titanium –advantages /disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
• Quenchable to give • Embrittlement control
medium strength and of composition is critical
high ductility

• Can be heat treated to higher • Restricted to parts that can be

strength after heat treated after fabrication
fabrication

• Elevated temperature • Requires high content alloying

properties similar to alpha beta material
alloy
 Glass
• The use of glass is confined to shatter proof wind shield.
The glass consist of 2 or more laminates of glass held
together by a single ply filler of a transparent glass.
• A vinyl plastics is generally used.
• An adhesive is used on both sides of the filler to bind the
glass laminates and plastic together. The filler plastic is
slightly smaller in area, so as to allow 2-4 mm gap at the
edges.
• These gaps are filled with water proof sealant to protect
adhesive.
• There are two types of shatter proof glass
(a) Laminated glass plate (b) Laminated sheet glass
 Glass
Laminated glass plate.- Used for front wind shield of
military aircraft to prevent penetration of bullets due
to enemy firing (3.3 mm caliber at a velocity of 825
m/ sec and at an angle of 45°)
Laminated sheet glass: Used for secondary
applications such as side windows, sky lights etc
Typical properties for aircraft requirements:
Tenisile srtrength – 4.55 kg/mm²
Compressive strength – 25.2 kg/mm²
Modulas of elasticity – 2000 kg/mm²
Specfic gravity – 2.55
 Glass
• The use of glass is confined to shatter proof wind shield.
The glass consist of 2 or more laminates of glass held
together by a single ply filler of a transparent glass.
• A vinyl plastics is generally used.
• An adhesive is used on both sides of the filler to bind the
glass laminates and plastic together. The filler plastic is
slightly smaller in area, so as to allow 2-4 mm gap at the
edges.
• These gaps are filled with water proof sealant to protect
adhesive.
• There are two types of shatter proof glass
(a) Laminated glass plate (b) Laminated sheet glass
 Glass
Laminated glass plate.- Used for front wind shield of
military aircraft to prevent penetration of bullets due
to enemy firing (3.3 mm caliber at a velocity of 825
m/ sec and at an angle of 45°)
Laminated sheet glass: Used for secondary
applications such as side windows, sky lights etc
Typical properties for aircraft requirements:
Tenisile srtrength – 4.55 kg/mm²
Compressive strength – 25.2 kg/mm²
Modulas of elasticity – 2000 kg/mm²
Specfic gravity – 2.55
 Plastics
• Heat resistant acrylic sheets are used to form
canopy
• Cast acrylic . Poly carbonate sheets(Mil – p –
83310) has good toughness but craze resistance is
low.
• Crazing introduces fine cracks which makes it
translucent gradually due to environment
temperature cycle over a long period.
• Hence cast acrylic sheets are given protective
coating to improve environmental degradation.
However, they have limited life cycle period
 Plastics
• Stretched acrylic(Mil – p -25690) . Stretched acrylic have
higher impact strength and higher replacement life
period
• The cast sheet is brought to its forming temperature and
mechanically stretched / elongated parallel to its surface
so as to increase its area app. 3 to 5 times with a
resultant thickness.
• The sheet is then cooled in a controlled fashion to’ freeze
in’ elongation
• There are two types of plastics:
• Thermoplastics
• Thermosetting plastics
 Rubber
• Rubber components are used in aerospace industries in
gearboxes, fuel systems, hydraulic systems ,electrical
systems, pneumatic systems etc.
• ‘o’ rings, seals, gaskets, bushes,joints are extensively used
in rotables /components, assemblies etc.
• Such rubber elements form a critical component of
various systems. Hence, the properties of the rubberized
element need to be of stringent standard.
• Resistance to lubricating oil, fuel and hydraulic fluids and
weather resistance play a very vital role in manufacture as
well as shelf life / operating life.
• Rubber compounds have fixed life time inclusive shelf life
 Rubber
• Sufficient care needs to be adhered during
selection of basic elastomer and different
composites added in sequence and in pre
determined ratios .
• The basic elastomer and additives such as fillers ,
softeners , Vulcansing agents / accelerators ,
actuators, age resistors etc are mixed in proper
sequence in a mixing mill and cured in proper
sequence in time and temperature intervals
 Composites in Aerospace Industries
• Weight saving – reduction in weight increases range and endurance
• Resistance to impact loading- FRP are capable of taking impact
energy and spring back to original position
• High dielectric properties and non magnetic properties
• Low thermal conductivity and coefficient of expansion
• Improved weather resistance
• Better styling –Intricate contours can be achieved
• High damping – Damping of noise, vibration level and flutter
characteristics
• Corrosion resistance- Especially metallic parts life is low in saline
condition
• Glassy exterior finish-Avoids painting ,which is a contributor to
overall increase in weight of aircraft
• High fatigue strength-80% of static strength vs metals low (35% Al)
 Composites in Aerospace Industries
• Advantages of composites:
• Polymer matrix composites (PMC) can be designed to have high
strength and modulus. This enables the structure to have high
strength to weight ratio.
• PMC can be moulded to desired shape and sizing either through
open or closed moulding process
• PMC has excellent anti corrosion and anti chemical properties .They
are inert to atmospheric weathering and do not absorb moisture.
• PMC have high strength to weight ratio, high temperature strength,
creep resistance and wear resistance properties.
• Ceramic matrix composites have high hardness ,chemical inertness
and less density.
• Carbon reinforced fibers have high melting point and very low
thermal coefficient of expansion
 Module 3
• Limitations of composites
• Cost of production is 10 to 15 times more than conventional
material.
• Materials are homogenous , isotropic and hence design is
simple . But mechanical properties are anisotropic , that is,
properties are different in different directions. Hence analysis
and measurements of composites are difficult and requires
expert knowledge.
• Debonding, delamination, fiber pull out etc are common
problems encountered during manufacture. Non destructive
testing fails to detect flaws. Hence they seriously affect the
property and strength of the material.
• Repair of flaws are not simple
• Ultra violet radiation affect on prolonged exposure to sunlight
.Colour of composites can fade out.
• Recycling of composites generally not feasible
 Module 3
• Fracture and Fatigue
• Fracture mechanics is primarily concerned with the strength
of cracked structure or components of a machine . It deals
with the analysis , prediction and prevention of structural
failures originating from the crack.
• Most of the cracks originate from the site of stress
concentration. Crack often develops from the site due to
fatigue caused due to fluctuating stresses which a structure
develops when exposed during the service life of the
component.
• Cracks originate also occur due to work stresses induced at
the sharp edges not released due poor annealing procedures.
• Cracks originate when structures are exposed to corrosive
environment.
• In welded structure , failure can occur when exposed to low
temperature. At low temperature steel becomes brittle and
cracks are formed
 Module 3
• Formation of crack during service life and
consequent reduction in strength necessitates a
quantitative study of (1) extent to which the
strength is reduced due to crack(2) relationship
between crack length and reduction in strength(3)
time taken to reach critical length of the crack at
which failure can be sudden
 Module 3
• Fatigue Failure
• It is failure of the structure/ component under
repeated cyclic loading whose magnitude is well
below the static failure load.
• Fatigue Properties
• The structure fails after a number of cycles of load
application with load itself less than the static
failure load.
• The duration after which the structure failure
occures is called fatigue life and is expressed as
number of cycles of load application
 Module 3
• Fatigue life depends on material characteristics and
the relationship between stress and number of
repeated cycles to failure. It is expressed as S-N
curve
 Module 3
• The stress level which corresponds to line BC is called fatigue
limit and by definition it is the stress level below which even
infinite number of cycles will not cause failure
• Various stages of fatigue damage
• (1) Crack initiation
• (2) Growth of crack
• (3) Culmination stage
• Crack initiation
• The fatigue failure is assumed to start at a flaw which may
have already existed before the structure or component was
placed in service. Such flaws could be due to voids or could
have occurred during manufacture of the material like
forming or machining . These flaw centers act as stress
concentrators and initiate a crack
 Module 3
• Growth of crack
• The second stage is that on account of the propagation
of the initiated cracks or pre existing cracks until the
structure becomes too weak to carry any additional
loads .Some research workers ignore the first stage on
the assumptions that all structural members / materials
are imperfect and have pre existing flaws . Hence ,
assume a flaw to exist on the structure, at the most
critical point and work out the rate of crack growth.
• Due to simultaneous action of cyclic stress , plastic
strain and tensile loading , these flaws grow to
detachable size and then to critical size.
• Depending upon inspection techniques the cycle
requirement for the crack initiation and growth vary
considerably due to preventive action taken.
 Module 3
• Columniation Stage
• The crack when it reaches a critical length, the
structure fails catastrophically.
• Types of Fatigue damage
• Cyclic fatigue – repeated fluctuating loads causes
failure
• Corrosion Fatigue – by surface corrosion of material
• Fretting Fatigue – small scale rubbing movments and
abrasion as the cause
• Thermal fatigue – thermal expansion and contraction
• Sonic or acoustic fatigue – low stress high frequency
fatigue
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