Aircraft Structure

Reynaldo p. Roca
 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

Equations of Equilibrium.

One of the first steps in the design of a machine or structure is the

determination of the loads acting on each member. The loads acting on an
airplane may occur in various landing or flight conditions.
For practically all members of the airplane structure the maximum
loads occur when the airplane is in an accelerated flight or landing condition
and the external loads are not in equilibrium.
In the design of any member it is necessary to find all the forces acting on the
member, including inertia forces. the following equations of static
equilibrium apply to any
isolated portion of the structure:
zF, = 0
SF, = 0
Two-force Members.
When a structural member has force acting at only two points, these forces
must be equal and opposite, as shown in Fig. 1.2. Since moments about
point A must be zero, the force Fe must pass through point A. Similarly the
force FA must pass through point B for moments about point B to be zero.
From a summation of forces, the forces FB and FA must have equal
magnitudes but opposite directions. Two-force members are frequently used
in aircraft and other structures, since simple tension or compression
members are usually the lightest members for transmitting forces.

Structures made up entirely of two-force members are called trusses

and are frequently used in fuselages, engine mounts, and other aircraft
structures, as well as in bridge and building structures.
Example. Find the forces acting at all joints of the structure.
PROBLEMS
1. A 5,000-lb airplane is in a steady glide with the flight path at an angle 0
below the horizontal. The drag force in the direction of the flight path is 750 lb. Find
the lift force L normal to the flight path and the angle 0.
2. A jet-propelled airplane in steady flight has forces acting as shown. Find
the jet thrust T, lift L, and tail load P.
3. Find the forces at points A and B of the landing gear shown

4. Find the forces V and M at the cut cross section of the beam
5. Find the forces at all joints of the structure shown
Trusses Containing Members in Bending.
Many structures are made up largely of two-force members but contain some
members which are loaded laterally, as shown in Fig. 1.13. These structures are usually
classed as trusses, since the analysis is similar to that used for trusses. The horizontal
members of the truss shown in Fig. 1.13 are not two-force members, and separate
free-body diagrams for these members, as shown in Figs. 1.14(a) and (b), are required.
 SPACE STRUCTURE
Equations of Equilibrium. Most structures must be designed to resist loads acting in
more than one plane. Consequently, the structures are actually space structures,
although in many cases the loads in each plane may be considered independently and
the structures analyzed by the methods of analysis for coplanar structures.

The equilibrium of any free body in space is defined by six equations:

The compnents of a force R in space may be obtained by:

The resultant maybe obtained by:

EXAMPLE. Find the forces at points A, B, and C for the landing gear of Fig. 2.9.
Members OK and OC are two-force members. Member OA resists bending and
torsion, but point A is hinged by a universal joint so that the member can carry
torsion but no bending in any direction at this point.
 AIRCRAFT LOADS
The structure of an aircraft is required to support two distinct classes of
load:
Ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft during
movement or transportation on the ground .
taxiing and landing loads
towing and hoisting loads

Air loads, comprises lòads imposed on the structure during flight by

manoeuvres and gusts.
catapult take-off and arrested landing loads:
most large civil and practically all military aircraft have pressurized
cabins for high altitude flying;
amphibious aircraft must be capable of landing on water
all air loads are the resultants of the pressure distribution over the surfaces
of the skin produced by steady flight, manoeuvre or gust conditions.
Generally, theseresultants cause direct loads, bending, shear and torsion
in all parts of the structure in addition to local, normal pressure loads
imposed on the skin.
 Airframe loads
The maximum loads on the components of an aircraft’s structure
generally occur when the aircraft is undergoing some form of acceleration
or deceleration, such as in landings, take-offs and manoeuvres within the
flight and gust envelopes. Thus, before a structural component can be
designed, the inertia loads corresponding to these accelerations and
decelerations must be calculated
Definition

Limit Load or Applied- are the maximum load anticipated on the airplane during
its lifetime of service.
Ultimate or design Load- are equal to the limit loads multiplied by a factor of
safety(F.S.)FS = 1.5
Reasons for using F.S.
The approximation involved in aerodynamic theory and also in aircraft
analysis theory.
 Variations in physical properties of material.
Variation in fabrication and inspection standards.
Loads on Aircraft
Air Loads- due to airplane maneuvers( under the control of pilot)
Due to air gust ( not under the control of pilot)
Landing loads – landing on land ( wheel or ski)
Landing on water
Arresting hook( landing on aircraft carrier)
Powerplant Loads- thrust
-Torque
6. Take –off loads –catapulting
7. Special loads – hoisting
- towing airplane
- beaching of hull type airplane
8. Translation- unbalanced forces acting on a rigid body cause only a
change in the magnitude of the velocity of the body but not its direction.
9. Inertia force- acts opposite to the direction of acceleration.

F=Ma
M = W/g
10. Load factor- can be defined as a numerical multiplying
factor by which the forces on the airplane in steady flight
are multiplied to obtain a static system of forces
equivalent to the dynamic system acting during
acceleration of the airplane.

Formulas:
Linear Motion

a= Vf-Vo
t
S= Vot + ½ at2
ω =V/R
2as – Vf2 - Vo2
where :
Angular Motion ω = angular velocity
α = angular acceleration
θ = ωot + ½ άt2 V = linear speed
n = L/W( load factor)
2θ α= ωf2 - ωo2
Example 1
An aircraft having a total weight of 45 kN lands on the deck of an aircraft carrier and is
brought to rest by means of a cable engaged by an arrester hook, as shown in Fig. 14.3.
If the deceleration induced by the cable is 3 g determine the tension, T, in the cable, the
load on an undercarriage strut and the shear and axial loads in the fuselage at the
section AA; the weight of the aircraft aft of AA is 4.5 kN. Calculate also the length of
deck covered by the aircraft before it is brought to rest if the touch-down speed is 25
m/s.
Problems
1. Assume that the airplane shown in Fig. 3.3 weighs 20,000 lb. and that the braking
force F is 8,000 lb.
a. Find the wheel reactions RI and R2.
b. Find the landing run if the airplane lands at 100 mph (146.7 ft/sec).
2. When landing on a carrier, a lO,OOO-lb airplane is given a deceleration of 3g
(96.6 ft/secg) by means of a cable engaged by an arresting hook, as shown in Fig.
3.4.
a. Find the tension in the cable, the wheel reaction R, and the distance e from the
center of gravity to the line of action of the cable.
b. Find the tension in the fuselage at vertical sections AA and BB if the portion of
the airplane forward of section AA weighs 3,000 lb and then portion aft of
section BB weighs 1,000 lb.
c. Find the landing run if the landing speed is 80 ft/sec.
3. An airplane weighing 5,000 lb strikes an upward gust of air which produces a wing
lift of 25,000 lb. What tail load P is required to prevent a pitching acceleration, if the
dimensions are as shown. ? What will be the vertical acceleration of the airplane? If
this lift force acts until the airplane obtains a vertical velocity of 20 ft/sec, how much
time is required
I. MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of Inertia

Parallel Axis Theorem

Radius of Gyration

Example: Find the centroid and moment of inertia about a horizontal

through the centroid of the area shown in the figure below.
BEAMS

Beam- a structural member loaded at an angle (often at a right angle) to its

length

Statically Determinate – if the distribution of the applied known loads to the

supporting reaction scan be determined by from the conditions of static
equilibrium alone.
Statically indeterminate – the supporting reactions cannot be found by static
equilibrium alone.
Shear. the shear on any section through a beam is the algebraic sum of the
components parallel to the section of all the forces on the beam, including the
reactions, on either side of the section.
Bending moment.The bending moment on any section through a beam is the
algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces on the beam, including the
reactions, on either side of the section, about an axis in the plane of the
section through the section.
Sign Convention for Shear and bending Moment
The shear is considered positive when the resultant of all the forces to the left of
the section has a component acting upward or in a positive direction.
A bending moment is considered positive when the resultant moment at the
section causes a compression stress at the top of the beam.
Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes

The torque applied to thin-walled tubes is expressed as

where T is the torque in N·m, A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the
tube (as shown in the stripefilled portion) in mm2, and q is the shear flow in
N/mm.

The average shearing stress across any thickness t is

Thus, torque T can also be expressed as

Torsion of Thin-Walled Closed Section

The structure of aircraft wings, fuselages and control surfaces are essentially
thin-walled tubes of one or more cells.The figure below shows a portion of a thin-walled
cylindrical tube which is under a pure torsional moment.

Tube Twist

```

Where:
Θ = angle of twist
Q = shear flow
A=area

- the line integral of the periphery of the tube

SHEAR FLOW BEHAVIOR

• Shear load on a thin section results in shear flow

• Torsion load on a thin section results in shear flow

• Total shear flow is the sum of the two
• Be careful about the direction (sign) of the shear flow

Expression for Torsional Moment inTerms of Internal

Shear Flow System for Multiple Cell Closed Section

The figure below shows the inernal shear flow pattern for a 2 Cell thin-walled tube,
where the tube is subjected to an external torque. q1, q2, and q3, represent the shear
load per inch. On three different portions of the cell walls.

For equlibrium of shear forces at the jucntion point of the interior web with the outside
wall :

q1 = q2 + q3
To = moment of shear flow about point O, Then from the figure:
To = 2q1A1 + 2q2A2

Where: A1 = area of cell (1)

A2 = area of cell (2)
Shear Flow pattern for a 3-Cell Tube

To = 2q1A1 + 2q2A2 + 2q3 A3

 Example 1. Determine the torsional shear stresses in the symmetrical 2
cell section of the figure below when subjected to a torque T of 60,000in lb.
Neglect any resistance of stringers in rsisting torsional moment.
Example: 2