Chapter 4

1. Given the longitudinal equations of motion of an aircraft in the following format,

o o
⎛ o ⎞ o
mu& − X u u − X w w − ⎜ X q − mWe ⎟q + mgθ cos θ e = X η η
⎝ ⎠
o o
⎛ o
⎞ o
− Z u u + mw& − Z w w − ⎜ Z q + mU e ⎟q + mgθ sin θ e = Zη η (S4.1)
⎝ ⎠
o o o o o
− M u u − M w& w& − M w w + I y q& − M q q = M η η

rearrange them in dimensionless form referred to wind axes. Discuss the relative
merits of using the equations of motion in dimensional, dimensionless and concise
forms.

Answer

If it is assumed that the aircraft is in level flight, then the equations of motion can be
converted to wind axes by setting trimmed pitch attitude θe and trimmed normal
velocity We to zero. Therefore (S4.1) becomes,

o o o o
mu& − X u u − X w w − X q q + mgθ = X η η
o o
⎛ o ⎞ o
− Z u u + mw& − Z w w − ⎜ Z q + mU e ⎟q = Zη η (S4.2)
⎝ ⎠
o o o o o
− M u u − M w& w& − M w w + I y q& − M q q = M η η

The equations of motion are rendered dimensionless by dividing each equation by an

appropriate parameter. The axial and normal force equations are normalised by
dividing through by the aerodynamic force parameter 12 ρV02 S , while the pitching
moment equation is normalised using the aerodynamic moment parameter 12 ρV02 Sc .
Other parameters used in the development of the aero-normalised equations are
defined as follows:

Dimensionless time:

t m
t̂ = where σ = (S4.3)
σ 1
2
ρV0 S

Longitudinal relative density factor:

m
μ1 = (S4.4)
1
2
ρSc

Dimensionless velocities:
u w qm
û = , ŵ = , q̂ = qσ = (S4.5)
V0 V0 1
2
ρV0 S
It is also noted that because level flight has been assumed,

mg = 12 ρV02 SC L (S4.6)

The axial force equation will be considered first. Having divided through by the
aerodynamic force parameter, the next step is to multiply through by the term,

1
2
ρSc m
(S4.7)
1
2
ρSc m

This allows the axial force equation to be written as,

o o o
u& m X u X w X w& m 1
ρSc
−1 u −1 w − 1 w& 2
V0 1
2
ρV0 S 2 ρV0 S V0 2 ρV0 S V0 2 ρSc V0 1
2
ρV0 S m
o o
(S4.8)
Xq m 1
ρSc mg Xη
− 2
q+ θ= η
1
2
ρV0 Sc 1
2
ρV0 S m 1
2
ρV02 S 1
2
ρV02 S

Using the expressions (S4.3) to (S4.6), equation (S4.8) reduces to,

o o o o o
u&σ X X X w& σ Xq q̂ Xη
− 1 u û − 1 w ŵ − 1 w& −1 + C Lθ = η (S4.9)
V0 2 ρV0 S 2
ρV0 S 2
ρSc V0 μ1 2 ρV0 Sc μ1 1
2
ρV02 S

The axial acceleration component u& is aero-normalised as follows,

d ⎛⎜ u ⎞⎟
u&σ du σ
= ⎝ 0⎠ =
V dû
= = û&
V0 dt V0 d t dt̂ ( σ) (S4.10)

and the normal acceleration w& is dealt with in a similar manner. Equation (S4.9) can
then be written in the more convenient form,

ŵ& q̂
û& − X uû − X w ŵ − X w& − Xq + C Lθ = X ηη (S4.11)
μ1 μ1

where X u , X w , X w& , X q and X η are the dimensionless derivatives, whose

definitions follow from equation (S4.9).

Similarly, the non-dimensional normal force and pitching moment equations can be
developed,

ŵ& q̂
− Z u û + ŵ& − Z w& − Z w ŵ − Z q − q̂ = Zηη
μ1 μ1
(S4.12)
ŵ& q̂& q̂
− M uû − M w& − M w ŵ + i y − Mq = M ηη
μ1 μ1 μ1

where i y is the non-dimensional pitch inertia given by,

 Iy
iy = (S4.13)
mc 2

2. The right handed orthogonal axis system (oxyz) shown in the Figure (S4.1) below is
fixed in a rigid airframe such that o is coincident with the centre of gravity.
x U,X

p,L
x

o
cg u,ax

y
z
p(x,y,z)
v,ay

w,az

y V,Y
r,N q,M
z
W,Z

Figure S4.1 – Generalised body axes system and motion variables

The components of velocity and force along ox, oy, and oz are U, V, W, and X, Y, Z
respectively. The components of angular velocity about ox, oy, and oz are p, q, r
respectively. The point p(x,y,z) in the airframe has local velocity and acceleration
components u, v, w, and ax, ay, az respectively. Show that by superimposing the
motion of the axes (oxyz) on to the motion of the point p(x,y,z), the absolute
acceleration components of p(x,y,z) are given by,

( )
a ′x = U& − rV + qW − x q 2 + r 2 + y ( pq − r& ) + z ( pr + q& )
(
a ′ = V& − pW + rU + x( pq + r& ) − y p 2 + r 2 + z (qr − p& )
y ) (S4.14)
a ′z = W& − qU + pV + x( pr − q& ) + y (qr + p& ) − z p 2 + q 2 ( )
Further, assuming the mass of the aircraft to be uniformly distributed show that the
total body force components are given by,

( )
X = m U& − rV + qW
( )
Y = m V& − pW + rU (S4.15)
Z = m(W − qU + pV )
&

where m is the mass of the aircraft.

Answer

The velocity components at point p(x,y,z) relative to the origin are given by,

u = x& − ry + qz
v = y& − pz + rx (S4.16)
w = z& − qx + py

Each velocity component comprises a linear term and two rotational terms. The origin
of the terms due to rotational motion in the component u, for example, is illustrated in
Figure S4.2 below. The rotational terms in the expressions for v and w are obtained in
a similar way.

y
y -ry
x x p
o

p
o
q z
qz
x
x

z r

Looking in to axes Looking in to axes

system along y axis system along z axis

Figure S4.2 – Velocity terms due to rotational motion

In Figure S4.2, both –ry and qz represent tangential velocity components acting along
a line through p(x,y,z) parallel to the ox axis.

Now, since the axis system shown in Figure S4.1 is fixed in a rigid airframe then the
linear terms x& , y& and z& are zero and equations (S4.16) reduce to,

u = −ry + qz
v = − pz + rx (S4.17)
w = −qx + py

Next, the corresponding components of acceleration at p(x,y,z) relative to o are given

by,

a x = u& − rv + qw
a y = v& − pw + ru (S4.18)
a z = w& − qu + pv

Like the velocity components at p(x,y,z), the acceleration components each comprise
a linear term and two rotational terms. As an example, the origin of the terms due to
rotational motion in ax is illustrated in Figure S4.3. Both –rv and qw represent
tangential acceleration components acting along a line through p(x,y,z) parallel to the
ox axis. The accelerations arise from the mutual interaction of the linear components
of velocity with the components of angular velocity.

By superimposing the motion of the axes (oxyz) on to the motion of the point p(x,y,z),
the absolute velocity components ( u ′,v′, w′ ) of p(x,y,z) are obtained,

u ′ = U + u = U − ry + qz
v ′ = V + v = V − pz + rx (S4.19)
w′ = W + w = W − qx + py

where the expressions for (u, v, w) are substituted from (S4.17).

 y v

y -rv
x x p
o

p
o
q z qw x
x
w
z r

Looking in to axes Looking in to axes

system along y axis system along z axis

Figure S4.3 – Acceleration terms due to rotational motion

Similarly, the components of inertial acceleration ( a ′x , a ′y , a ′z ) at the point p(x,y,z) are

given by,

a ′x = u& ′ − rv ′ + qw′
a ′y = v&′ − pw′ + ru ′ (S4.20)
a ′z = w& ′ − qu ′ + pv ′

Equations (S4.19) are then differentiated with respect to time and if a rigid body is
assumed,

u& ′ = U& − r&y + q&z

v&′ = V& − p& z + r&x (S4.21)
w& ′ = W& − q&x + p& y

So, by substituting (S4.21) and (S4.19) into (S4.20), the absolute acceleration
components of p(x,y,z) can be written as,

( )
a ′x = U& − rV + qW − x q 2 + r 2 + y ( pq − r& ) + z ( pr + q& )
( )
a ′ = V& − pW + rU + x( pq + r& ) − y p 2 + r 2 + z (qr − p& )
y (S4.22)
a ′z = W& − qU + pV + x( pr − q& ) + y (qr + p& ) − z p 2 + q 2 ( )
Consider an incremental mass δm placed at point p(x,y,z). Applying Newton’s second
law to the incremental mass, the incremental force components acting on the mass are
given by ( δma ′x , δma ′y , δma ′z ). Thus, the total force components (X, Y, Z) acting on
the body are obtained by summing the force increments over the whole body,

Σδma ′x = X
Σδma ′y = Y (S4.23)
Σδma ′z = Z

Substituting the expressions for the inertial acceleration components (S4.22) into
(S4.23) leads to,
 ( ( )
Σδm U& − rV + qW − x q 2 + r 2 + y ( pq − r& ) + z ( pr + q& ) = X )
( ( )
Σδm V& − pW + rU + x( pq + r& ) − y p 2 + r 2 + z (qr − p& ) = Y ) (S4.24)
Σδm(W& − qU + pV + x( pr − q& ) + y (qr + p& ) − z ( p 2
+ q )) = Z
2

Noting that since the origin of the axes system and the centre of gravity are
coincident,

Σδmx = Σδmy = Σδmz = 0 (S4.25)

then the resultant components of total force acting on the body are given by,

(
X = m U& − rV + qW)
(
Y = m V& − pW + rU) (S4.26)
Z = m(W& − qU + pV )

where m is the total mass of the body.

3. The linearised longitudinal equations of motion of an aircraft describing small

perturbations about a steady trimmed rectilinear flight condition are given by,

m( u&( t ) + q( t )We ) = X ( t )
m( w& ( t ) − q( t )U e ) = Z ( t ) (S4.27)
I y q&( t ) = M ( t )

Develop expressions for X(t), Z(t) and M(t) and hence complete the equations of
motion referred to generalised aircraft body axes. What simplifications may be made
if a wind axes reference and level flight are assumed?

Answer

For flight in a stable atmosphere, the disturbing forces and moments comprising X(t),
Z(t) and M(t) can be assumed to be due to aerodynamic effects, gravitational effects,
movement of control surfaces and power effects. Hence, equations (S4.27) can be
written as,

m( u&( t ) + q( t )We ) = X a + X g + X c + X p
m( w& ( t ) − q( t )U e ) = Z a + Z g + Z c + Z p (S4.28)
I y q&( t ) = M a + M g + M c + M p

For small disturbances about trim, expressions can be developed to replace the terms
on the right hand side of equations (S4.28).

Gravitational Terms:

The gravitational contribution to equations (S4.28) is obtained by resolving the

aircraft’s weight into the disturbed body axes.
 Disturbed Case
x
Trimmed Case x Xg
θ
X ge
θe θe
o o
Horizon
Zg
Z ge

mg mg z
z

Figure S4.4 – Aircraft weight components in the longitudinal plane

If it is assumed that the origin of the body axes is coincident with the cg, there is no
weight moment about any of the axes so M g = 0 .

Since the aircraft is initially flying wings level, for the trim condition the components
of weight only appear in the longitudinal plane of symmetry,

⎡ X g e ⎤ ⎡− mg sin θ e ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Yg e ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥ (S4.29)
⎢ Z g ⎥ ⎢ mg cos θ e ⎥
⎣ e⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Following a disturbance from trim, the attitude perturbation is given by (φ, θ, ψ) and
the components of weight in the disturbed body axes are derived with the equation,

⎡X g ⎤ ⎡ X ge ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Yg ⎥ = D ⎢ Y g e ⎥ (S4.30)
⎢Zg ⎥ ⎢Zg ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ e⎦

where D is the direction cosine matrix defined as,

⎡ cos θ cosψ cos θ sinψ − sin θ ⎤

⎢
D = ⎢ sin φ sin θ cosψ − cos φ sinψ sin φ sin θ sinψ + cos φ cosψ sin φ cos θ ⎥⎥ (S4.31)
⎢⎣cos φ sin θ cosψ + sin φ sinψ cos φ sin θ sinψ − sin φ cosψ cos φ cos θ ⎥⎦

For small perturbations, cos φ ≈ cos θ ≈ cosψ ≈ 1 and sin φ ≈ φ , sin θ ≈ θ , sinψ ≈ ψ ,
hence the expression for D can be reduced to,

⎡ 1 ψ −θ ⎤
D = ⎢⎢−ψ 1 φ ⎥⎥ (S4.32)
⎢⎣ θ −φ 1 ⎥⎦
where products of small perturbations have been neglected, so equation (S4.30)
becomes

⎡X g ⎤ ⎡ 1 ψ − θ ⎤ ⎡− mg sin θ e ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ Yg ⎥ = ⎢ − ψ 1 φ ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥ (S4.33)
⎢ Z g ⎥ ⎢⎣ θ −φ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ mg cos θ e ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

Therefore,

X g = −mg sin θ e − mgθ cos θ e

(S4.34)
Z g = mg cos θ e − mgθ sin θ e

Aerodynamic Terms:

It is assumed that the aerodynamic force and moment terms are dependent on the
perturbation motion variables (u, v, w) and (p, q, r), plus their derivatives. Using a
Taylor series representation in which,

a. only the first terms in each series function is considered significant

b. higher order derivatives, except those involving w& , are neglected

the aerodynamic term for axial force Xa, for example, can be expressed as,

∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
X a = X ae + u+ v+ w+ p+ q+ r+ w& (S4.35)
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂p ∂q ∂r ∂w&

where X ae is a constant. Equation (S4.35) can be more conveniently written as,

o o o o o o o
X a = X ae + X u u + X v v + X w w + X p p + X q q + X r r + X w& w& (S4.36)

o o
where X u , X v etc. are aerodynamic stability derivatives. Similarly, the normal force
and pitching moment terms are given by,

o o o o o o o
Z a = Z ae + Z u u + Z v v + Z w w + Z p p + Z q q + Z r r + Z w& w& (S4.37)
o o o o o o o
M a = M ae + M u u + M v v + M w w + M p p + M q q + M r r + M w& w& (S4.38)

Control Terms:

As the forces and moments created by the deflection of the elevator, ailerons and
rudder arise from changes in the aerodynamic conditions, it is usual to quantify their
effect in a similar manner to the aerodynamic terms. So, for example, the axial force
due to the aerodynamic control inputs can be written as,

o o o
X c = Xη η + X ξ ξ + X ζ ζ (S4.39)
where η, ξ and ζ are elevator, aileron and rudder angles, measured relative to trim
o o o
settings ηe, ξe and ζe respectively, and X η , X ξ and X ζ are aerodynamic control
derivatives. Similarly, the normal force and pitching moment terms are given by,

o o o
Z c = Zη η + Z ξ ξ + Z ζ ζ (S4.40)
o o o
M c = Mη η + M ξ ξ + M ζ ζ (S4.41)

Power Terms:

Power, and hence thrust τ, is usually controlled by a throttle lever. Movement of the
lever causes a thrust change which in turn results in a change in the components of
force and moment acting on the aircraft. Power effects are expressed in a similar
manner to the aerodynamic stability and control derivatives. Thus,

o
X p = Xττ (S4.42)
o
Z p = Zτ τ (S4.43)
o
M p = Mττ (S4.44)

o o o
where X τ , Zτ and M τ are engine thrust derivatives. Note that, like the aerodynamic
control terms, thrust τ is measured relative to trim setting τe.

Having developed expressions for the terms on the right hand side of equations
(S4.28), the equations of motion can be rewritten as,

o o o o o o o
m( u&( t ) + q( t )We ) = X ae + X u u + X v v + X w w + X p p + X q q + X r r + X w& w&
o o o o
− mg sin θ e − mgθ cos θ e + X η η + X ξ ξ + X ζ ζ + X τ τ
o o o o o o o
m( w& ( t ) − q( t )U e ) = Z ae + Z u u + Z v v + Z w w + Z p p + Z q q + Z r r + Z w& w&
(S4.45)
o o o o
+ mg cos θ e − mgθ sin θ e + Zη η + Z ξ ξ + Z ζ ζ + Zτ τ
o o o o o o
I y q&( t ) = M ae + M u u + M v v + M w w + M p p + M q q + M r r
o o o o o
+ M w& w& + M η η + M ξ ξ + M ζ ζ + M τ τ

Now, at trimmed flight conditions all perturbation variables and their derivatives are,
by definition, zero. Thus, the steady state aerodynamic terms can be found to be,

X ae = mg sin θ e
Z ae = −mg cos θ e (S4.46)
M ae = 0

Further, if it can be assumed that longitudinal and lateral-directional motion can be

decoupled and the disturbance is constrained to the longitudinal plane of motion, then
 the lateral motion variables v, p and r are all zero and the cross-coupling derivatives
are negligibly small i.e.

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
X v = X p = X r = X ξ = X ζ = Z v = Z p = Z r = Zξ = Zζ = M v = M p = M r = M ξ = M ζ = 0

Therefore, equations (S4.45) reduce to,

o o o
⎛ o ⎞ o o
mu& − X u u − X w& w& − X w w − ⎜ X q q − mWe ⎟ + mgθ cos θ e = X η η + X τ τ
⎝ ⎠
o
⎛ o
⎞ o
⎛ o ⎞ o o
− Z u u + ⎜ m − Z w& ⎟ w& − Z w w − ⎜ Z q + mU e ⎟q + mgθ sin θ e = Zη η + Zτ τ (S4.47)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
o o o o o o
− M u u − M w& w& − M w w + I y q& − M q q = M η η + M τ τ

For the case of level flight and if a wind axes reference is assumed then,

θ e = We = 0 (S4.48)

and equations (S4.47) reduce further to,

o o o o o o
mu& − X u u − X w& w& − X w w − X q q + mgθ = X η η + X τ τ
o
⎛ o
⎞ o
⎛ o ⎞ o o
− Z u u + ⎜ m − Z w& ⎟ w& − Z w w − ⎜ Z q + mU e ⎟q = Zη η + Zτ τ (S4.49)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
o o o o o o
− M u u − M w& w& − M w w + I y q& − M q q = M η η + M τ τ

4. State the assumptions made in deriving the small perturbation longitudinal equations
of motion for an aircraft. For each assumption give a realistic example of an aircraft
type, or configuration, which may make the assumption invalid.

Answer

The assumptions made in deriving the longitudinal equations of motion for small
perturbations are as follows:

i) Disturbances from trim are small – this is an invalid assumption if the inputs to
the controls from the pilot cause large deviations from the trim condition
ii) Quasi-steady airflow over the aircraft - this is an invalid assumption at high
angles of attack and in the post-stall region
iii) Symmetric mass distribution – this is an invalid assumption for aircraft with an
asymmetric stores configuration
iv) Motion is constrained to the longitudinal plane of symmetry – this is an invalid
assumption if a control input causes perturbed motion in both the longitudinal and
lateral-directional planes
v) Airframe is rigid with no aeroelastic effects– this is an invalid assumption for
large civil transport aircraft and high speed flight
vi) Aircraft is initially trimmed with zero roll, yaw and sideslip – this assumption is
invalid if the aircraft is undergoing a manoeuvre such as a steady level
coordinated turn (non-zero roll angle)
5. Show that when the product of inertia Ixz is much smaller than the moments of inertia
in roll and yaw, Ix and Iz respectively, the lateral-directional derivatives in modified
American normalised form may be approximated by the American normalised form.

Answer

The decoupled lateral-directional equations of motion can be expressed in terms of

American normalised derivatives as follows,

( )
v& = Yv v + Y p + We p + (Yr − U e )r + Yδ a δ a + Yδ r δ r + gφ cos θ e + gψ sin θ e
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎜ Lv + N v I xz ⎟v + ⎜ L p + N p I xz ⎟ p + ⎜ Lr + N r I xz ⎟r ⎟
⎜⎝⎜ ⎟
Ix ⎠ ⎝ ⎜ ⎟
Ix ⎠ ⎜ I x ⎟⎠ ⎟⎛ ⎞
⎝ 1
p& = ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟ (S4.50)
⎟
⎜ ⎛ I xz ⎞ ⎛ I xz ⎞ ⎟⎝ 1 − I xz / I x I z
2
⎠
⎜ + ⎜⎜ Lδ a + N δ a I ⎟⎟δ a + ⎜⎜ Lδ r + N δ r I ⎟⎟δ r ⎟
⎝ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎠
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎜ N v + Lv I xz ⎟v + ⎜ N p + L p I xz ⎟ p + ⎜ N r + Lr I xz ⎟r ⎟
⎜ ⎜⎝ I z ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ I z ⎟⎠ ⎜
⎝ I z ⎟⎠ ⎟⎛ 1 ⎞
r& = ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎛⎜ I xz ⎞ ⎛ I xz ⎞ ⎟⎝ 1 − I xz / I x I z
2
⎠
⎜ + ⎜ N δ a + Lδ a I ⎟⎟δ a + ⎜⎜ N δ r + Lδ r I ⎟⎟δ r ⎟
⎝ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎠

The more manageable modified American normalised form of equations is,

( )
v& = Yv v + Y p + We p + (Yr − U e )r + Yδ a δ a + Yδ r δ r + gφ cos θ e + gψ sin θ e
p& = Lv′ v + L ′p p + Lr′ r + Lδ′ a δ a + Lδ′ r δ r (S4.51)
r& = N v′ v + N ′p p + N r′ r + N δ′ a δ a + N δ′ r δ r

where, for example, the modified normalised derivatives are given by expressions
such as,

⎛ I ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
Lv′ = ⎜⎜ Lv + N v xz ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ I x ⎠⎝ 1 − I xz / I x I z
2
⎠
(S4.52)
⎛ I ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
N r′ = ⎜⎜ N r + Lr xz ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ I z ⎠⎝ 1 − I xz / I x I z
2
⎠

In the case of the product of inertia I xz being much smaller than the moments of
inertias I x and I z ,

⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ≈1 (S4.53)
⎜1− I 2 / I I ⎟
⎝ xz x z ⎠

Using this approximation, the modified normalised equations of motion can be

written as,
 ( )
v& = Yv v + Y p + We p + (Yr − U e )r + Yδ a δ a + Yδ r δ r + gφ cos θ e + gψ sin θ e
⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞
p& = ⎜⎜ Lv + N v xz ⎟⎟v + ⎜⎜ L p + N p xz ⎟⎟ p + ⎜⎜ Lr + N r xz ⎟⎟r
⎝ Ix ⎠ ⎝ Ix ⎠ ⎝ Ix ⎠
⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ Lδ a + N δ a xz ⎟⎟δ a + ⎜⎜ Lδ r + N δ r xz ⎟⎟δ r (S4.54)
⎝ Ix ⎠ ⎝ Ix ⎠
⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞
r& = ⎜⎜ N v + Lv xz ⎟⎟v + ⎜⎜ N p + L p xz ⎟⎟ p + ⎜⎜ N r + Lr xz ⎟⎟r
⎝ Iz ⎠ ⎝ Iz ⎠ ⎝ Iz ⎠
⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ I ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ N δ a + Lδ a xz ⎟⎟δ a + ⎜⎜ N δ r + Lδ r xz ⎟⎟δ r
⎝ Iz ⎠ ⎝ Iz ⎠

It can be seen that if the approximation in equation (S4.53) is also applied to the
American normalised equations in (S4.50), the resulting expressions will be identical
to those in (S4.54). Therefore, when Ixz is much smaller than Ix and Iz, the lateral-
directional derivatives in modified American normalised form may be approximated
by the American normalised form.