Introduction

Contents
Newton’s laws of motion
Defining quantities in different axes sets
The requirement for axis conversion

The following definitions will be revision, but a thorough understanding of them is imperative
for the remainder of this course.

Newton’s laws of motion

In this course we utilise Newtonian Mechanics - Newton’s laws should be familiar, and you
should be able to recite them:

1. An object remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion unless acted on by an external,

unbalanced force.
2. Net force acting on rigid body is equal to its absolute momentum flux, or ∑ F→ = m ⋅ a abs

.
3. Every action force has a reaction force that is equal in magnitude, and opposite in
direction.

Newton’s second law will be used in this section to derive the full six degree of freedom (6DoF)
equations of motion for unconstrained aircraft flight. Before diving into the derivation, further
definitions are required:

Most of the quantities used are easiest to define in different axes systems
A thorough understanding of relative motion will need to be employed

Reference Frames and Aircraft Axis Systems

All motion is relative - there is no luminiferous aether[1], and there is no universal ‘grid system’
in which we can define position or motion. In the absence of this, we define different axes
systems depending on what helps to simplify the mathematics that we need to use - it is easier
to define forces in an axis system where those forces are aligned with the reference system.

Newton’s laws are only valid in an inertial reference frame - one that is not moving. We use the
Earth as our inertial reference frame - this is not actually the case as it is obviously moving, but
for flight mechanics purposes, we rely on the fact that the rotation of the Earth is slow
compared to aircraft motions.

A note on vector notation

To differentiate vector quantities from scalar quantities, several conventions are commonplace. If
U, V , W are vector components, the vector may be defined using

Boldface U = [U , V , W ]
T

→
Arrow U = [U , V , W ]
T

Underline
U = [U , V , W ]
T

–
 → in typeset documents as it causes the least conflicts when using LaTeX. When
I tend to use U
writing on the board, I tend to use
U notation as it is easier - but sometimes I’ll draw an arrow if
–

I’m feeling adventurous[3]. I don’t mind which you use, as long as you are consistent within a
single derivation. Just be aware that things change between sources.

Earth Axes
We utilise the Earth axis system, see Figure :red:`EarthAxes`, because, for our purposes, it is an
inertial reference frame - so we require this in order to utilise Newton’s second law. We make
some simplifications, and impose the following:

Assume the Earth is a flat plane [4]

NED (North, East Down) = x E, xE , xE

Fig. 39 Earth Axes

Aircraft Body Axes

We also require a frame of reference that is fixed to the aircraft because:

1. That is the frame of reference in which the pilot sits, so we require one to determine forces
on them
2. Moments/products inertia, and centre of gravity position are easily defined in an axis
system fixed to the aircraft

This axis system is usually defined with its origin at the aircraft centre of gravity.\

x is defined positive forward, and may be defined along the propeller rotation axis for a single-
engine propeller-driven aircraft, along the floor for a large transport aircraft, or along the wing
root chord line.

y is defined along the starboard axis along a plane equidistant vertically from both wings at
each spanwise location (Y does not not travel along a wing dihedral angle).
B

z is defined down, normal to the plane defined by the x, y intersection.

These have already been introduced in the previous module.

We can normally define thrust in aircraft body axes, and we may also define aerodynamic forces
in body axes (as normal and axial force), but it is more convenient to define aerodynamic in
stability axes as lift and drag.
Stability Axes

 Warning

Note that the nomenclature of wind/stability systems is inconsistent depending on

which textbook you look at. The version presented herein is the most common, and
the most sensible

Aircraft, in general, are usually flown at some angle of attack, α - which means that the incident
freestream velocity is not aligned with the aircraft body axes. Lift and drag are defined parallel
to, and normal to the incident flow vector, so we require an axes set called stability axes -
.
[x s , y s , z s ]

We rotate the aircraft body axes through α, around y - thus y = ys .

The x/y planes of body and stability axes intersect along the shared y, y axis - s

[fig:stabilityplanes]{reference-type=”ref” reference=”fig:stabilityplanes”}.

The x/z planes of body are co-planar, but rotated about α - [fig:stabilityplanesXZ]{reference-
type=”ref” reference=”fig:stabilityplanesXZ”}.

It is important to note that this treatment neglects sideslip β - so we are treating V ∞ as the
projection of the relative wind into the aircraft body x b /z b plane.

Aircraft data is usually defined in the stability axes system - it is important, however, to have an
appreciation of wind axes.
Body Axes
Stability Axes
Wind Axes

disregarding sideslip.

Displacements

Propulsive Forces

this simplifies to

Aerodynamic Force
→
F

→
F P
G =

⎢⎥
Stability axes are defined from the projection of freestream into the X

Wind axes take account of this, and are aligned with x defined along the actual freestream.

⎣
W
0

Ty

Tz

→
FP =
⎦

⎦
e

b
=

⎣
⎣
mg
⎦

z ac

0
0

For positioning purposes, the aircraft location must be defined in earth axes.

→
R ac =
x
⎡ ac ⎤
y ac

⎦
w

The axes systems that used in this course have been described - as mentioned earlier, it is easier
to define certain quantities in one axis system over another:

Gravitational Force - Weight

The aircraft weight vector is, by definition, aligned with the Earth Z (z ) axis as it is oriented
towards the centre of the Earth. That is:

⎡
0
⎤ ⎡
0

T ⋅ cos θ T

⎦
b
⎤

e
e

Aircraft thrust is generally aligned along the aircraft x-axis x, and is thus best defined in body
axes:

⎡
Tx
⎤
T ⋅ sin θ T

F Py

⎦
⎤

For this course we will disregard effects such as thrust axis misalignment or thrust vectoring, so

The aerodynamic forces of lift, L, and drag, D, are, by definition, defined normal to and parallel
to the incident flow vector, V ′
∞
= V ∞ cos β
b /Z b

In general, however, aircraft coefficients will be defined in stability axes - but you should have an
appreciation of this axis set.

Defining quantities in different axes sets

e
plane. That is,

. It is most useful to use these force in stability axes:

(14)
Where the term F Ay

→ ˙
→
FA =

→
a = V =

⎢⎥
⎡

˙
−D

⎡U ⎤

˙
V

⎣ ˙ ⎦
W
⎤
FA

−L
y

b
⎦
s

is the side component of aerodynamic force due to sideslip.

Translations and Rotations

Aircraft velocity and accelerations are defined in body axes:

→
V =
⎡

⎣
U

V
⎤

≠ a abs →

One must be careful with the equation above; in the case of zero angular motion, you may
differentiate the absolute velocities [U , V , W ] to obtain the absolute acceleration [a
but for the case of non-zero angular velocity, these are not equivalent, a x ≠ U̇
x,

make a lot more sense (hopefully) when you’re introduced to Coriolis theorem later, but the fact
that we cannot get absolute accelerations so simply deserves a mention at this juncture.
a y , a z ] abs

. This will all

Angular velocities of the aircraft, with respect to the inertial reference frame, are defined in body
axes as roll, pitch, and yaw rates:

measured in body axes.

Aircraft total forces and moments

The requirement for axis conversion

→
ω =

→
F

→
Mb =
b =
⎡

⎣
P

X
⎤
Y

N
⎤

⎦
b

Note that if you see P , Q, or R in practice, they are defined as body angular rates, and are as

We define the total external forces and moments on the aircraft in body axes

Since it is desired to utilise Newtonian mechanics to define the motion of the aircraft, it is hence
needed to be able to equate forces to the product of mass and accelerations (Newton’s second
law).

So far, forces, displacements, and velocities are defined in all three axis systems - earth, body,
and stability.

Relating stability and body axes is relatively simple since they are only rotated through a single
angle, α. Body and earth, by contrast, are oriented at an arbitrary angular displacement to each
other.

The aircraft attitude defines the relationship between earth and body axes, and this hence
allows conversion of quantities between the two different axes systems.
,
 To define the aircraft attitude, there are different ways that can be chosen from mathematics:

Sequence of Rotations
Quaternion methods
Direction cosine matrix

In this course, we will use the sequence of rotations - yaw, pitch, roll. These need to be

defined in that order.[2]

[1] Read the ‘Michelson-Morley experiment’ if that means nothing to you

[3] I know, way to live dangerously.

[4] This doesn’t make you a flat earther, don’t worry.

[2] Well, you can define them in whatever order you want, but the resulting transformation matrix will
be different, and hence incorrect - and the standard for aerospace is 1. yaw, 2. pitch, 3. roll.

By Harry Smith
© Copyright 2022.

Aircraft Flight Mechanics by Harry Smith is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Based on a work at www.aircraftflightmechanics.com.