Chapter 6

Riesz Theorem. Adjoint operators. Ker T

and Ran T ∗. Rank Theorem for T and T ∗

In this short chapter we prove two theorems in the title, and this Chapter is mainly theory. (This
corresponds to [HC] Kap. 7.)

Notation and Terminology

• Linear functions V → K are called linear functionals; usually written as f, g etc.

• The orthogonal complement X ⊥ ⊂ V of a subspace X ⊆ V :

X ⊥ := {y ∈ V; y ⊥ X} = {y ∈ V; y ⊥ x ∀x ∈ X}

i.e., X ⊥ is the subset of all orthogonal vectors of X.

• Adjoint T ∗ of linear operator T : V → W on complex vector spaces. If V and W are real

vector space T ∗ is written also at T t (read T transpose).

Goal
• Riesz representation for linear functionals using inner product.

• Adjoint T ∗ of a linear transformation T .

• Relations between the four subspaces Ker T, Ran T ∗ , Ker T ∗ , Ran T

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6.1 Riesz Theorem for finite dimensional inner product spaces

Let K = R, C be the underlying field. All vector spaces in Chapters 7-8 are inner product vector
spaces.
We are interested in finding all linear functions, called also linear functional, on vector spaces. Linear
functions on R are of the form f (x) = ax as we all know; on R2 there are of the form f (x) =
ax1 +bx2 as we can check it along one dimensional subspaces Re1 and Re2 . The linear form ax1 +bx2
on R2 can be written as hx, ui, u = [a, b]. The Riesz theorem for finite-dimensional real or complex
vector spaces is relatively easy to understand and prove.

Theorem 1. (Riesz) Let f : V → K be a linear functional on a finite dimension vector space V .

Then there exists a unique u ∈ V such that

f (v) = hv, ui, v ∈ V.

Proof. We choose {e1 , . . . , en } an ONB for V . (Such basis always exists; see Chapter 1 and Gram-
Schimdt process in Chapter 5). Let u = u1 e1 + · · · + un en where

uj := f (ej ), 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Then for any vector v, we have (see Proposition 2 in Chapter 5),

v = v1 e1 + · · · + vn en , vj = hv, ej i, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Thus
f (v) = v1 if (e1 ) + · · · + vn f (en ) = v1 u¯1 + · · · + vn u¯n .
On the other hand,

hv, ui = hv1 e1 + · · · + vn en , u1 e1 + · · · + un en i = v1 u¯1 + · · · + vn u¯n

since {ej } is ONB and all products hei , ej i vanish except for i = j in which case they are 1. This
proves f (v) = hv, ui for all v ∈ V .

Exercise 6.1. Let W ⊂ R4 be the subspace

W = {x ∈ R4 ; x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0}

Let f be the linear functional f : W → R, x → x1 . Find the vector u for T in Riesz Theorem. (Hint:
Follow the proof of Riesz theorem or use orthogonal projection.)
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6.2 Adjoint operator T ∗ : W → V of T : V → W

6.2.1 Defintion and property of T → T ∗
The transpose At of a real 2 × 2-matrix A = [aij ]1≤i,j≤2 can be described as

a11 = hAe1 , e1 i = he1 , At e1 i, a12 = hAe2 , e1 i = he2 , At e1 i,

a21 = hAe1 , e2 i = he1 , At e2 i, a22 = hAe2 , e2 i = he2 , At e2 i

By the bi-linear property of the inner product this is equivalent to

hAx, yi = hx, At yi, x, y ∈ R2 .

We can now define of the adjoint operator T ∗ for an operator T : V → W on complex vector spaces.
The real vector spaces and their operators can be treated similarly.

Definition 6.1. Let V, W be a finite dimensional complex vector space with inner products. The
Hermitian adjoint T ∗ of a linear operator T : W → V is defined by

hT ∗ w, vi = hw, T vi, v ∈ V, w ∈ W.

(Note that the inner products are computed in different spaces.) For a real linear transformation T
the Hermitian adjoint T ∗ are sometimes just called adjoint or transpose and denoted by T t . We shall
use T ∗ to avoid misunderstanding.

6.2.2 The matrices of the adjoint [T ∗ ]E and [T ]E

Let E = {ej , j = 1, . . . , n} be an orthonormal basis of V and let [T ]E be the matrix of T . Then if
follows from the defintion of T ∗ that the matrix [T ∗ ]E is

[T ∗ ]E = [T ]tE ,

the conjugated transpose of [T ]E . For a complex matrix 2 × 2-matrix

 
a b
A= ,
c d
 
∗ ā c̄
A = .
b̄ d¯
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6.3 Relations between Ker T, Ker T ∗, Ran(T ) = T V, Ran(T ∗) =

T ∗W for T : V → W between inner product spaces V → W
Recall that the conjugate At of a real m × n-matrix A is an n × m-matrix. We know from Linear
Algebra I that the ranks of At and A are the same. This result seems a very natural result, it is proved
in Linear Algebra I by using row reduction which seems less natural. We shall see now that, when
a m × n-matrix A is viewed as a linear transformation A : Rn → Rm of Euclidean spaces then its
transpose At : Rm → Rn can be expressed in terms of the inner product and not only the ranks
rank A = dim Ran A and rank At = dim Ran At are the same, but also there is more refined relation
between the spaces Ran A, Ker A, Ran At , Ker At .
Recall the rank theorem (see Lecture Note - Week 2) that if T : V → W is a linear transformation,
then
dim V = dim Ker T + rank T.
We have just defined T ∗ : W → V . In Linear Algebra I we know that for matrices rank A = rank At .
Thus we have also rank T = rank T ∗ for linear transformations. We get thus a refined version of the
rank theorem.

Theorem 2. Let T : V → W be a linear transformation between two inner product spaces V and
W . Let T ∗ : W → V be the adjoint of T . Then we have the following orthogonal decompositions of
V and W ,
V = Ker T ⊕ Ran T ∗
and
W = Ker T ∗ ⊕ Ran T.
Equivalently this can be written as

(Ker T )⊥ = Ran T ∗ , (Ker T ∗ )⊥ = Ran T.

Before the proof let us notice that by the defintion of T ∗ we have

(T ∗ )∗ = T

i.e, T → T ∗ is like a mirroring, also the orthogonal complement V1⊥ of a linear subspace V1 ⊂ V has
the property
(V1⊥ )⊥ = V1
so W → W ⊥ is also like a mirroring. We thus need only to prove the first relation V = Ker T ⊕
Ran T ∗ .

Proof. The relation V = Ker T ⊕ Ran T ∗ is equivalent to Ker T = (Ran T ∗ )⊥ . We prove first

Ker T ⊆ (Ran T ∗ )⊥ .
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Let v ∈ Ker T . Then T v = 0. We have to prove that v is orthogonal to the range Ran T ∗ . For any
T ∗ w ∈ Ran T ∗ , w ∈ W we compute
hv, T ∗ wi = hT v, wi = h0, wi = 0,
thus v ⊥ T ∗ w for any T ∗ w ∈ Ran T ∗ , and v ∈ (Ran T ∗ )⊥ proving the inclusion. Now we prove the
reverse inclusion
(Ran T ∗ )⊥ ⊆ Ker T.
Let v ∈ (Ran T ∗ )⊥ , i.e. v is orthogonal to Ran T ∗ . We prove that v ∈ Ker T , i.e. T v = 0. We
compute the paring of T v with arbitrary w ∈ W ,
hT v, wi = hv, T ∗ wi,
which is zero since v is orthogonal to T ∗ w ∈ Ran T ∗ W . So T v is orthogonal to any w ∈ W ,
therefore T v = 0, and v ∈ Ker T . This completes the proof.
Corollary 3. Let T : V → W be a linear operator between finite dimensional inner product vector
spaces. Then the rank of T and T ∗ are equal, Rank T = Ran T ∗ . In particular if V = W then we
have also dim Ker T = dim Ker T ∗ .
We follow the same proof and the notation as that of the Rank Theorem for linear transformations;
see Theorem 4 in Chapter 2 of the lecture notes. Actually the same proof along with the above
theorem that V = Ker T ⊕ T ∗ W will prove our present statement.

Proof. Let T1 = TT ∗ V be the restriction of T on the subspace T ∗ V ⊂ V . Thus T1 : T ∗ W → W , and

T1 : T ∗ W → T V since it is a restriction of T . We claim that T1 is injective. This is the same proof
as in the proof of Rank Theorem in Chapter 2 (see the lecture notes). Indeed suppose T1 v = 0 for
v ∈ T ∗ W ⊂ V . We have v = T ∗ w for some w ∈ V . Then
0 = T1 v = T v = T (T ∗ w) = T ∗ T w
and
0 = hw, T T ∗ wi = hT ∗ w, T ∗ wi = kT ∗ wk2
and
T ∗w = 0
i.e. v = T ∗ w = 0. Hence T1 : T ∗ W → T V is an injective map and
dim T V ≤ dim T ∗ W.
Replacing T ∗ by T we get also
dim T V ≤ dim T ∗ W.
This proves rank T = dim T V = dim T ∗ W = rank T ∗ .
If V = W then we have dim V = dim Ker T + rank T ∗ = dim W = dim Ker T ∗ + rank T , and
rank T = rank T ∗ as we just proved, thus dim Ker T = dim Ker T ∗ .
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As a consequence we see that if A is a real m × n-matrix as linear transformation A : Rn → Rm

between the Euclidean spaces, then Rank A = Ran At since A∗ = At for real matrices. This is also
proved in Chapter 2 using row reductions.

Remark 6.1. Note that the theorem is true for both real and complex vector spaces. Also, with some
slight modification, (using the so-called closure of a subspace) the above theorem holds also for a
linear tranformation T : V → W between two infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

Example 6.1. The above theorem can be illustrated by Figure 6.1 below.
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T : V > W

Kert
✓ .

Rant

ker
TA W
'
-
i

T ✓

¥7
Figure 6.1: Orthogonality relation of Ker T and Ran T ∗
Index

adjoint (adjungerade transformationen), T ∗ , 3 Riesz Theorem, 2

Hermitian adjoint T ∗ , 3
linear functional (linjär funktional), 1 transpose (transponant), T t , 3