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TA : Rn −→ Rm , TA (v ) = Av .
T (v + w ) = T (v ) + T (w ) and T (cv ) = cT (v )
where v , w ∈ V and c ∈ F.
1 Then T (e1 ) = (cos θ, sin θ)t and T (e2 ) = (− sin θ, cos θ)t .
2 Thus T rotates the whole space by θ. (Draw a picture to convince yourself of
this. Another way is to identify the vector (x, y )t with the complex number
z = x + iy . Then we can write T (z) = ze iθ ).
3 / 24
Linear Transformations: Examples
vi. Define I : D −→ D by Z x
I(f )(x) = f (t) dt.
0
2 By properties of integration, I is a linear transformation.
viii. Let V = Mn×n (F) be the vector space of all n × n matrices over F. Fix
A ∈ V . The map T : V → V given by T (N) = AN is linear (why?).
4 / 24
Linear Transformations: Rank and Nullity
1 Let T : V → W be a linear transformation of vector spaces. There are two
important subspaces associated with T .
Nullspace of T = N (T ) = {v ∈ V | T (v ) = 0}.
Image of T = Im (T ) = {T (v ) | v ∈ V }.
Proposition
Let V , W be vector spaces. Assume V is finite dimensional with {v1 , . . . , vn } as a
basis. Let (w1 , . . . , wn ) (these wj ’s need not be distinct) be an arbitrary sequence
of vectors in W . Then there is a unique linear map T : V → W with T (vi ) = wi ,
for all i = 1, . . . , n.
2 Proof: (uniqueness) Given v ∈ V we can write (uniquely)
v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn , for scalars ai . Then
T (v ) = a1 T (v1 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = a1 w1 + · · · + an wn . So T is determined
by (w1 , . . . , wn ).
6 / 24
Linear Transformations: Rank and Nullity
1 (existence) Define T as follows.
2 Given v ∈ V write (uniquely) v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn , for scalars ai and then
define T (v ) = a1 w1 + · · · + an wn .
3 Show that T is linear (exercise).
3 Hence D spans Im T .
4 We now show that D is linearly independent. For, suppose
β1 T (w1 ) + · · · + βn−k T (wn−k ) = T (β1 w1 + · · · + βn−k wn−k ) = 0.
2 Coordinate Vectors:
3 Let V be a finite dimensional vector space (fdvs) of dimension n over F. By
an ordered basis of V we mean a sequence (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) of distinct vectors
of V such that the set {v1 , . . . , vn } is linearly independent.
4 Let u ∈ V . Write uniquely (why?)
u = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn , ai ∈ F.
5 Define the coordinate vector of u with respect to (wrt) the ordered basis B by
t
[u]B = a1 a2 · · · an .
Proposition
Set M = MBC . Then, for all u ∈ V , we have
[u]B = M[u]C .
4 Proof: Let t
[u]C = a1 a2 ··· an .
10 / 24
Coordinate Vectors: Change of Basis
[u]B = [a1 u1 + · · · + an un ]B
= a1 [u1 ]B + · · · + an [un ]B
a1
a2
= [[u1 ]B [u2 ]B · · · [un ]B ]
.
.
an
= M[u]C .
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Coordinate Vectors: Change of Basis
1 Example: Let V = R3 and let
1 0 0 1 0 0
v1 = 1 , v2 = 1 , v3 = 0 , u1 = 0 , u2 = 1 , u3 = 0 .
1 1 1 0 0 1
Proposition
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and B and C be two ordered bases.
Then
MBC = (MCB )−1 .
2 Proof: Put M = MCB and N = MBC . We need to show that MN = NM = I .
3 We have, for all u ∈ V , [u]B = N[u]C , [u]C = M[u]B .
4 It follows that, for all u ∈ V ,
[u]B = N[u]C = NM[u]B
[u]C = M[u]B = MN[u]C .
5 Thus (why?) MN = NM = I .
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Coordinate Vectors: Change of Basis
1 Example: Let M be the (n + 1) × (n + 1) matrix, with rows and columns
indexed by {0, 1, . . . , n}, and with entry in row i and column j, 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n,
given by ji . We show that M is invertible and find the inverse explicitly.
2 Consider the vector space Pn (R) of real polynomials of degree ≤ n. Then
B = (1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n ) and C = (1, x − 1, (x − 1)2 , . . . , (x − 1)n ) are both
ordered bases (why?).
3 We claim that M = MCB . To see this note the following computation. For
0 ≤ j ≤ n we have
xj = (1 + (x − 1))j
j
X j
= (x − 1)i
i
i=0
n
X j
= (x − 1)i ,
i
i=0
j
where in the last step we have used the fact that i = 0 for i > j.
14 / 24
Coordinate Vectors: Change of Basis
h i
j
1 Thus M = i = MCB and hence it is invertible.
2 Since M −1 = (MCB )−1 = MBC , its entries are given by the following
computation.
3 For 0 ≤ j ≤ n, we have
j
j−i j
X
j
(x − 1) = (−1) xi
i
i=0
n
j−i j
X
= (−1) xi.
i
i=0
−1 j
j−i
4 Thus theh entry in row
i i and column j of M is (−1) i , that is,
M −1 = (−1)j−i ji .
15 / 24
Matrices and Linear Transformations
1 Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces with dim V = n and
dim W = m. Suppose E = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) is an ordered basis for V and
F = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wm ) is an ordered basis for W .
2 Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation.
3 We define MFE (T ), the matrix of T with respect to the ordered bases E and
F , to be the m × n matrix whose jth column is [T (vj )]F :
Proposition
Fix ordered bases E and F of V and W respectively. For all S, T ∈ L(V , W ) and
scalar c we have
i. MFE (S + T ) = MFE (S) + MFE (T )
ii. MFE (cS) = cMFE (S)
iii. MFE (S) = MFE (T ) ⇔ S = T .
4 Proof: Exercise.
17 / 24
Matrices and Linear Transformations
Proposition
Suppose V , W are vector spaces of dimensions n, m respectively. Suppose
T : V −→ W is a linear transformation. Suppose
E = (v1 , . . . , vn ), F = (w1 , . . . , wm ) are ordered bases of V , W respectively. Then
1 Proof: Let t
[v ]E = a1 a2 · · · an .
2 Then v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn and hence
T (v ) = a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ).
3 We have
[T (v )]F = [a1 T (v1 ) + · · · + an T (vn )]F
= a1 [T (v1 )]F + · · · + an [T (vn )]F
t
= [[T (v1 )]F [T (v2 )]F · · · [T (vn )]F ] a1 a2 ··· an
= MFE (T )[v ]E .
18 / 24
Matrices and Linear Transformations
Proposition
Suppose U, V , W are vector spaces of dimension n, p, m respectively. Suppose
T : U −→ V and S : V −→ W are linear transformations. Suppose E , F , G are
ordered bases of U, V , W respectively. Then
20 / 24
Matrices and Linear Transformations
Proposition
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and B, C be a pair of two bases of V .
Then, we have
MBB (T ) = (MCB )−1 MCC (T )MCB .
1 Proof: Consider the sequence of linear operators where the bases used for
computation of matrices of the linear transformations are specified:
I T I
(V , B) →
− (V , C ) −
→ (V , C ) →
− (V , B).
2 Note that the identity map I is just a map from V to V . It is not required
that I maps B to C or C to B. This notation is used just to show that the
mentioned bases are used for the computation of the matrices of the
corresponding linear maps.
3 Then
T =I ◦T ◦I =⇒ MBB (T ) = MBC (I )MCC (T )MCB (I )
=⇒ MBB (T ) = (MCB )−1 MCC (T )MCB .
21 / 24
Matrices and Linear Transformations
T : R2 → R2 , T (e1 ) = e1 , T (e2 ) = e1 + e2 .
4 Since MBB (T ) = (MCB )−1 MCC (T )MCB = MBC MCC (T )MCB , we get
B 1/2 1/2 1 1 1 1 1 3 −1
MB (T ) = = .
1/2 −1/2 0 1 1 −1 2 1 1
22 / 24
Sum of two subspaces and its dimension
Theorem
Let V , W be subspaces of a finite dimensional vector space U. Then
dim(V + W ) = dim V + dim W − dim(V ∩ W ).
23 / 24
Proof of the formula for dim(V + W )
1 Proof: We shall give a sketch of a proof leaving you to fill in the details.
2 Consider the set V × W = {(v , w ) : v ∈ V , w ∈ W }. This set is a vector
space with component wise addition and scalar multiplication.
3 Check that the dimension of this space is dim V + dim W .
4 Define a linear map T : V × W → V + W by T ((v , w )) = v − w .
5 Check that T is onto and that the nullspace of T is {(v , v ) : v ∈ V ∩ W }.
6 The result now follows from the rank nullity theorem for linear maps.
7 Exercise: