Manifolds 2008-9 outline notes and homework

exercises
The examination will be based on my lectures and exercises. Exercises
marked with an asterisk are examination questions set by me in the past.
The solutions to these questions may sometimes include standard results that
can be found in notes or books. Solutions will be placed on the course webpage before the end of the course. Please let me know if you find any misprints/errors during the course.
Neil Lamberts notes for the course he taught a few years ago are on the
course web-page and are often used. His notes, and the exercises in them,
can be used as a useful supplement to the lectures and homework exercises.

1
1.1

Review of background and notation

Finite dimensional vector spaces over the real numbers

Let V be a n dimensional vector space of the real numbers R with addition

and scalar multiplication denoted pv1 + qv2 for any two vectors v1 and v2
and any scalars p and q R. Let {ea }, a = 1..n denote a basis of V . Then
n
P
any vector v in V has a unique expansion v =
v a ea , where its components
a=1

with respect to this basis are the real numbers {v a }.

In this course we may use the Einstein index and summation convention.
No (letter) index is repeated more than once, repeated indices are summed
over a given range, and unrepeated (free) indices match on each side of an
equation and are understood to take values in a given range. Of a pair of
repeated indices one must be a superscript and the other a subscript. ( All
the letter indices in this section are understood to sum and range over the
dimension of the relevant vector space.)
Using this convention we write v = v a ea . Under a change of basis,
ea 7 ea = Mab eb , where the n n matrix with real entries Mab is invertible,
the components of the vector change, v a 7 v a = (M 1 )ab v b , where v =
v a ea = v a ea .
Let W be an m dimensional vector space. A map L : V W is a linear
map if for any v1 and v2 in V, and any scalars p and q R,
L(pv1 + qv2 ) = pL(v1 ) + qL(v2 ).
1

Let {bi }, i = 1..m be a basis of W , so that for any w W, w =wi bi . Then

the m n matrix representing L with respect to these bases has entries the
real numbers Lia where L(ea ) = Lia bi . It is straightforward to compute the
change in the components representing L under change of bases.
If n = m and L is invertible, then L is an isomorphism. If V = W then
L is an endomorphism, an endomorphism which is also an isomorphism is an
automorphism.
The set of linear maps L : L : V W can be given the structure of a
vector space, Hom(V, W ), of dimension mn, by defining addition and scalar
multiplication in the obvious way: for any v V
(L1 + qL2 )(v) :=L1 (v) + qL2 (v).
Hom(V, R) is an important ndimensional vector space, denoted V ,
isomorphic, but not canonically isomorphic to V . It is called the vector
space dual to V . The vectors in V are called covariant vectors (co-vectors),
linear forms or one-forms to distinguish then from vectors (sometimes called
contravariant vectors) in V . If {ea } is a basis of V , it is always possible to
choose a basis of V , {a }, called the dual basis, which is such that a (eb ) =
ba . Here ba is the Kronecker delta, an indexed representation of the unit
n n matrix.
Let = a a V . Then
(v) =a a (v b eb ) = linearity = a v b a (eb ) = dual basis = a v b ba = a v a
Alternative notations are (v) = h, vi = vy.
A change of basis of V , as above, induces the change of basis of V given
by a 7 a = (M 1 )ab b .
Any linear map L : V W induces the adjoint linear map L : W V
by hL (), vi := h, L(v)i.
The direct product of V and W , V W , (more usual terminology for
linear spaces is the direct sum V W ) is the n + m dimensional vector of
ordered pairs (v, w) where
p(v1 , w1 )+q(v2 , w2 ) =(pv1 + qv2 , pw1 + qw2 ), v1 , v2 V and w1 , w2 W.
A map T : V W R is said to be bilinear if it is linear in each factor, e.g
T (v,pw1 +qw2 )=pT (v, w1 ) + qT (v, w2 ),
T (pv1 +qv2 , w)=pT (v1 , w) + qT (v2 , w).
2

In this course we shall only need to consider such maps where the vector
spaces W and V are V and V . The generalization to other vector spaces
is obvious.
A bilinear map T : V V R is called a tensor, over V , of type (or
valence) (1, 1). The vector space of such multilinear maps is called the tensor
product space over V , T (1,1) V, and is often denoted V V . It has addition
and scalar multiplication defined by (T1 + pT2 )(, v) =T1 (, v)+pT2 (, v).
The element of V V denoted v and called the tensor product of v V
and V , is by definition the bilinear map taking any (e
,e
v) V V to
ei. In particular then,
the real number he
, vi h, v
ea b : (i , ej ) ai jb .

Hence
ea b : (, v) a v b .
It can be shown that {ea b } forms a basis of V V which is of dimension
n . Any T V V can be expanded in terms of its components, the real
numbers ta.b , with respect to this (induced) basis as T = ta.b ea b , where
ta.b = T (a , eb ). Consequently T (, v) = ta.b a v b .
It is straightforward to extend these ideas to more than two vector spaces.
A tensor of type (r, s) is a multilinear map,
2

T : V V .. V V V.... V R
by
(1 , ....r , v1 , ..., vs ) T (1 , ....r , v1 , ..., vs ).
The vector space of tensors of type (r, s) over V is denoted T (r,s) V =
V s V where r denotes the r-fold tensor product of the vector space
with itself.
By definition, w1 ... wr 1 s is the element of T (r,s) V that maps
1
( , ....r , v1 , ..., vs ) to
r

h1 , w1 i...hr , wr ih 1 , v1 i...h s , vs i.
In particular, T (o,o) V = R, T (1,0) V = V, T (0,1) V = V . The naturally
induced basis from the above basis of V, and its dual basis, is written ea1
ea2 ....ear b1 b2 ... bs . Any T T (r,s) V can be expanded in terms
of its components with respect to the induced basis,
1 a2 ...ar
e ea2 ....ear b1 b2 ... bs ,
T = ta..............b
1 b2 ...bs a1

and T (r,s) V has dimension nr+s . Hence

1 ...ar
1
T (1 , ....r , v1 , ..., vs ) = ta..........b
r v b1 ......v1 b1 ,
1 ...bs a1 ...... ar 1

where 1 = a11 a1 , etc. These induced bases will always be the bases used
for the vector spaces of tensors over V .
If
1 a2 ...ar
e ea2 ....ear b1 b2 ... bs ,
T = ta..............b
1 b2 ...bs a1

a1 a2 ...ar
e ea2 ....ear b1 b2 ... bs ,
R = r..............b
1 b2 ...bs a1

belong to T (p,q) V , then the vector space sum is just

a1 a2 ...ar
1 a2 ...ar
)ea1 ea2 ....ear b1 b2 ...bs .
+qr..............b
pT +qR = (pta..............b
1 b2 ...bs
1 b2 ...bs

Further details, and basis indepependent formulations, can be found in the

textbooks or written down (as an exercise) by amplifying that brief summary.
For tensors there are two further important operations. These are the
tensor product and contraction, given below first in terms of basis expansions..These can, of course, be defined invariantly, that is without reference
to particular bases.
Exercise: Do this as an exercise before looking at the definitions just
below.
1. If
a

r+1 r+2
U = u..............

...ar+p
bs+1 bs+2 ...bs+q ear+1

ear+2 ....ear+p bs+1 bs+2 ... bs+q

belongs to T (p,q) V , then the tensor product of T T (r,s) V and U , T U , is

a tensor of type (r + p, s + q) over V denoted by T U and it equals
a

1 a2 ...ar
u r+1 r+2
ta..............b
1 b2 ...bs ..............

...ar+p
bs+1
bs
b2
b1
bs+2 ...bs+q .
bs+1 bs+2 ...bs+q ea1 ea2 ....ear ...

Note that in general T U is not equal to U T but the tensor product is

associative.
2. If T T (r,s) V the contraction of T (on the ith contravariant index or
superscript, and the jth covariant index or subscript) is, when defined, the
tensor C T (r1,s1) V , where C is given by
a a ..a

pa

..a

r
1 2
i1
i+1,
e ea2 ...eai1 eai+1 ....ear b1 b2 ..bj1 bj2 ..bs .
t..........................b
1 b2 bj1 pbj+1 ...bs a1

The basis independent formulation of these operations are:

1. The tensor product
(T U )(1 , ....r+p , v1 , ..., vs+q )
= T (1 , ....r , v1 , ..., vs )U (r+1 , ....r+p , vs+1 , ..., vs+q ).
2. Contraction
C(1 , .., i1 , i+1 , ..r , v1 , .., vj1 , vj+1 , .., vs )
= T (1 , .., i1 , k , i+1 ..., r , v1 , .., vj1 , ek , vj+1 , ..., vs )
where the summation over the k index of the dual basis vectors makes it
clear that the definition is indeed basis independent.
When the dual bases of V and V are changed, the induced bases of the
tensor product spaces change in the obvious way (which should be written
down) as do the components of tensors with respect to the bases.
It is a straightforward matter to extend these ideas to vector spaces over
other fields such as the complex numbers. The latter are needed in the study
of complex manifolds. However only real finite dimensional manifolds will be
studies in this course. It is also straightforward to extend them to modules
over rings. We shall use the latter when we study tensor fields on manifolds
where the field of real numbers is replaced by the ring of real valued functions
and vector spaces are replaced by modules. The tensor product defines an
algebra of tensors.
More generally An algebra is a real vector space V with a product :
V V V such that
i) v 0 = 0 v = 0
ii) (pv) u=v (pu) =p(v u)
iii) v (u + w) = v u + v w
iv)(u + w) v = u v + w u
for all u, v, w in V and any scalar p.
Exercise 1a:
Let {ei } be a basis of a n-dimensional vector space V , and let {i } and
be the dual basis of V .
1) What is the dual space of V ?
2) Evaluate i j (ea , eb ), where i, j, a, b = 1..n.
3) Let n = 2.
(a) Prove that the tensor products {i j } do form a basis of the vector
space V V of (0,2 ) [covariant] tensors.
5

(b) If = 31 + 62 and = 1 2 , compute the components of

with respect to the induced basis above. If u = 4e1 + e2 and v = e1 e2 ,
verify, by explicitly computing both sides of the following equation, that
(u, v) = (u)(v). Compute the basis of V dual to the basis of
V formed by (u, v), and compute the corresponding new induced bases of
V V, V V , V V in terms of the bases induced from {ei } and {i }.
Compute the components of with respect to the new induced basis.
Exercise 2a:
Let g be a tensor of type (0,2) on a vector space V . Let {ea ) and {a }
be dual bases of V and V . . Let g = gab a b , v = v a ea and w = wa ea. .
Compute g(ea , eb) and g(v, w). If the symmetric part of g is defined by
sym g(v, w) := 21 [g(v, w) + g(w, v)] for any v, w V , compute the components of sym g with respect to the induced basis. Similarly compute
the components of the skew (or anti) symmetric part of g defined by alt
g(v, w) := 21 [g(v, w) g(w, v)]. Let h be a tensor of type (1,3) on V . Let
h(, u, v, w) = h(, u, w, v) for any V , u, v, w V . Express this
in terms of the components of h with respect to the induced basis for (1,3)
tensors. Show that if h(, u, v, w) also changes sign under the interchange of
any u and v then h(, u, v, w) = 61 [h(, u, v, w)+h(, v, w, u)+h(, w, u, v)
h(, v, u, w) h(, w, v, u) h(, u, w, v)]. Write this relation in terms of the
components of h.

1.2

Basic point set topology definitions

1. A topological space is a set S together with a collection, U , of subsets of

S such that
(a) S U and the empty set U
(b) If ui U, i = 1..n then the finite intersection ni=1 ui U
(c) Arbitrary unions of elements of U lie in U .
2. The elements of U are called open sets. The collection U is called a
topology on S.
3. A set A S is said to be closed if and only if it is the complement of
an open set.
4. A set B is called a basis for a topology on S if
(a) B
(b) bB b = S
(c) If b1 and b2 belong to B then b1 b2 = bD b, for some subset D B.

5. Let (S, U ) be a topological space and let A S. Let UA = {A u,

u U }. Then UA is a topology on A called the relative topology on A.
6. Let (S, U ) and (T, V ) be topological spaces.
(a) A function f : S T is said to be continuous if the inverse images
of open sets are open.
(b) f is called a homeomorphism if f is bijective (one to one and onto,
that is injective and surjective) and both f and f 1 are continuous.
Two homeomorphic topological spaces are topologically equivalent.
The above are all general topological definitions. The following are two
special topological properties.
7. A topological space S is said to be connected if and only if the only
sets that are both open and closed are and S.
From this definition it follows that S is connected if and only if it is not
the union of two disjoint non-empty open sets.
8. A topological space S is called a Hausdorff space when, for any two
points s1 6= s2 , there exist open sets u1 and u2 with s1 u1 and s2 u2 such
that u1 u2 = .

1.3

n dimensional Euclidean space

Let Rn (sometimes written En , depending on the context) be the set of all

ordered ntuples of real numbers, that is
Rn = {x = (x1 , x2 , ...xn ) | x R, 1   n}.

(1)

Here x is the -th coordinate of the point x. Rn can be given a vector space
structure in the obvious way. It also has a standard topological structure.
Introduce the metric d(x, y), for x, y Rn

1/2
d(x, y) = (x y )(x y )
,

(2)

making Rm into a metric space and in fact a topological space, with the union
of open balls
bx,r = {y Rn | d(x, y) < r}
(3)
as the open sets. The n dimensional vector space Rn with the above metric
is called n dimensional Euclidean space.

Differentiable manifolds (real)

Definition An n-dimensional chart (coordinate chart) on a Hausdorff topological space (with a countable basis) M is a pair (U, ) where U is an open
set of M and : U (U ) Rn is a homeomorphism onto its image.
For any p U we can define the coordinates of p to be the coordinates
of x = (p) Rn i.e.
x = (p) , = 1..n.
(4)
The x or n-tuples (x1 , x2 , ...., xn ) are called the local coordinates of p determined by the coordinate chart.
Definition: A (smooth) ndimensional differentiable structure on M is
a collection of ndimensional charts (Ui , i ) i I such that
(i) M = iI Ui
(ii) For any pair of charts (Ui , i ) and (Uj , j ) with Ui Uj 6= the map
j 1
i : i (Ui Uj ) j (Ui Uj ) is smooth, that is all partial derivatives
exist up to any order.
(iii) We shall always take a differentiable structure to be a maximal set
of charts i.e. the union of all charts which satisfy (i) and (ii).
The collection of charts (Ui , i ) i I is called an atlas.
Note:
(a) Since this is a course in geometry diagrams can be very helpful, and
should be used, in understanding analytical statements.
(b) As far as the calculus is concerned: i (Ui Uj ) and j (Ui Uj ) are two
non-empty open sets in Rn and the functions j 1
i , functions on subsets
n
of R , are called transition functions (sometimes overlap maps). Locally,
but not globally, a manifold looks like Rn . In addition to smooth (C )
manifolds one can consider C k manifolds, C 0 or topological manifolds or
C (analytic) manifolds. In this course, for simplicity and with not much
loss, we shall confine ourselves to smooth manifolds. The charts provide
compatible coordinate systems for the manifolds, and are in fact often called
coordinate charts. A local coordinate system about (or of) a point p on
M refers to a coordinate system obtained from an admissable coordinate
chart containing p. Local coordinate systems are often said to be related by
coordinate transformations. They enable one to calculate locally using the
essential tool of multi-variable calculus of n variables, e.g. using the chain
rule for ordinary and partial derivatives.

(c) We shall also always consider, without loss of generality, only connected manifolds. Manifolds that are not connected can be considered as
the union of connected manifolds, and then (see Lamberts notes for the
proof) all charts have the same value of n.
Definition: A (smooth) differentiable manifold of dimension n is a connected, Hausdorff topological space with a countable basis, together with a
(smooth) n dimensional differentable structure.
Examples:
(a) Rn is an n-dimensional manifold. A single chart that covers the whole
of Rn is (Rn , id) where id is the identity map id(p) = p. This provides the
standard differentiable structure on Rn .
(b) Any open sub-set U Rn is an n-dimensional manifold. In fact any
open subset U of a manifold M with charts (Ui , i ) is also a manifold with,
for example, the charts (U Ui , i ). Closed subsets of a manifold with the
identity map charts are not manifolds. The notion of a manifold can be
extended to that of manifold with boundary.
(c) A set A is called an affine space, modelled on the real vector space V ,
if there is a map, called an affine structure, A V A, by (p, v) p + v
which has the properties:
(i) (p + v) + w = p + (v + w), p A and v, w, V
(ii) p + 0 = p, p A and 0 V
(iii) for any pair of points p, q A, there is a unique element of V , denoted
(q p), such that p + (q p) = q.
By definition dim A = dim V (= n say) and A is some times written An .
Affine spaces are smooth manifolds and admit global coordinate systems
which enable A to be identified with Rn . A choice of affine coordinates on A
corresponds to achoice of a point p0 A (the origin) plus a choice of basis, say
{ea } for V (the axes). Then for any p A, p = p0 +(pp0 ) = p0 +xa ea ,where
(p p0 ) = xa ea V, using property (iii) above. The affine coordinates of
A with respect to the origin p0 and the axes {ea } are given by {xa }. They
clearly define a single chart that covers A, (A, ), with : A Rn , by
p (x1 , ..., xn ). They are also clearly not unique. An important physical
example of an affine space is four dimensional Minkowski space-time and
Poincare transformations are affine transformations. Extensive discussions
of the geometry of affine spaces can be found in the text by Crampin and
Pirani.
(d) The n-spheres, S n , (x1 )2 +(x2 )2 +(x3 )2 +...(xn+1 )2 = 1, (x1 , x2 , ....xn+1 )
n
R are n-dimensional manifolds that require at least two charts.
9

(e) RP n , the n dimensional real projective space is an n-dimensional

manifold.
(f) If M and N are m and ndimensional manifolds respectively then
the product M N is an (m + n)dimensional manifold - the product manifold. For example the n-torus T n = S 1 S 1 .. S 1 , the n-fold product of
the circle.
(g) etc. etc. etc. All these are discussed in the texts and some in
Lamberts notes.
The notion of a real manifold is simply extended to that of a n-dimensional
complex manifold where (Ui , i ) is replaced by Cn and the transition functions are required to be holomorphic on their domains. Such a complex
manifold is also a real 2n-dimensional manifold. In addition to finite dimensional manifolds one can consider infinite dimensional manifolds, for example
those modelled on Banach spaces. Here, of course, analysis plays a more
important role. (See texts by e.g. Lang, Marsden et al).
Exercise 1b*
Give the definition of a smooth manifold, M , and explain what a chart
and atlas are. Define the product manifold M M.
Consider the circle of unit radius, S 1 , in R2 . Show that S 1 is a smooth
one dimensional manifold by constructing an atlas of two charts and showing
that the overlap map is smooth. Hence or otherwise show that the torus T 2
can be given the structure of a smooth two dimensional manifold.
Exercise 2b*
Consider the 2-sphere S 2 in R3 given by (y 1 )2 +(y 2 )2 +(y 3 )2 = 1. Let the
1 +iy 2
complex function be given by y1+cy
3 , where the denominator is non-zero
and c is either 1 or 1. Show that the coordinates of any point on S 2 are

)
+ i()
,
, c(1
), as long as y 3 is not equal to c.
given by (y 1 , y 2 , y 3 ) = ( 1+
1+
1+
Show that S 2 is a smooth, two dimensional manifold by constructing and
identifying an atlas of two charts, and by showing that the overlap map is
smooth.
Exercise 3b
The group of 2 2 matrices with determinant equal to one is denoted
SL(2, R). Show that SL(2, R) is a three dimensional manifold.
Next consider maps between manifolds and the geometrical equivalence
of manifolds.
Exercise 4b
Read a textbook (or Neil Lamberts notes) about real projective spaces
10

and then check your understanding by working through this problem.

Consider the real projective space
RP n = (Rn+1 {0})/
where xx for any non-zero real number where x = (x1 , x2 , ...xn+1 )
Rn+1 {0}. Give a geometrical description of RP 1 . Define homogeneous
coordinates. Show that RP 2 is a smooth two dimensional manifold by
constructing an atlas of three charts and showing that the transition functions
are smooth. Construct an atlas for RP 2 RP 2 . Why is RP 2 RP 2 not
diffeomorphic to either R4 {0} or T 3 ?
Definition: Let M, (Ui , i ), i I and N, (V , ), A be two manifolds of dimensions m and n respectively. A map from M to N , f : M N,
is smooth if and only if
1
f 1
(V )) Rn
i : i (f

is smooth for all i I and A.

By using the chain rule it is straightforward to show that
Theorem: Let M , N and P be manifolds with f : M N and g : N
P smooth. Then g f : M P is also smooth.
Definition: If f : M N is a bijection (one to one and onto or both
an injection and a surjection), with both f and f 1 smooth then f is called
a diffeomorphism.
Two diffeomorphic manifolds (that is there is a diffeomorphism between
them) are geometrically equivalent. Diffeomorphisms play the role in differential geometry that isomorphisms do in group theory or vector space
theory.
Definition: A (real-valued) function f : M R is smooth if and only
if for each chart (Ui , i ) in the differentiable structure of M
n
f 1
i : (Ui , i ) R R

is smooth. The set (ring) of such functions on M is denoted C (M ).

If f : M N is smooth and h : N R is a smooth function on N then
h f is a smooth function on M . On the other hand if h : M R is a
smooth function on M there is not necessarily a smooth induced function on
N.
Often a shorthand local coordinate presentation is used e.g. for f , f (x1 , ....xn ).
11

Theorem: C (M ) is an algebra with addition and multiplication defined point wise.

(f + g)(p) = f (p) + g(p),
(f )(p) = f (p)
f g(p) = f (p)g(p)
As an illustration it is easy to verify that f g is in C (M ). For
1
1
(f g) 1
i = (f i )(g i ),

and f 1
and g 1
are both smooth, so their pointwise product is too.
i
i
Again using the general idea of maps between manifolds we can define a
curve.
Definition: Let (a, b) R be an open interval. A smooth map C :
(a, b) M is called a smooth (parametrized) curve on M .
When (Ui , i ) is a chart and Ui C(a, b) 6= its corresponding coordinate
presentation is given by the n real valued functions of one variable determined
by i C. The image of C in M is called a path. A curve provides a
path with a parametrization and an orientation. A path is determined by
more than one curve, for example ones obtained by reparametrization. A
reparametrization may be orientation preserving or orientation reversing.

The tangent space TpM , tangent vectors

and tensors over TpM

Here the introduction of tangent vectors to a manifold at a point p is considered. It will be seen that these naturally form a n = dim M vector space,
Tp M , the tangent space at p. In this course this will be the basic vector
space from which the dual (cotangent) space and tensor product spaces will
be constructed. Two familiar concepts from Rn underlie the two standard
introductory approaches to tangent vectors. We shall consider them in the
order, first the directional derivative - and second the tangent vector to a
curve. The first is more algebraic than the second which is more geometrical. Often the reverse order is followed. The calculations underlying the
theory here make use of conventional multi-variable calculus lifted from Rn
using charts. First we introduce a definition that provides a concept and bit
of nomenclature that are particularly handy when discussing vectors.
12

Definition: For a point p M let C (p) be the set of functions such

that
i) f : U R where p U M and U is an open set.
ii) f C (U ).
Definition: A tangent vector at a point p M is a map Xp : C (p) R
which satisfies
i) Xp (f + g) = Xp (f )+ Xp (g)
ii) Xp (constant map) = 0
iii) Xp (f g) = f (p)Xp (g) + Xp (f )g(p) this is the Leibniz rule (c.f. differentiation of a product).
Note: In general objects that satisfy these (essentially algebraic) properties are called derivations.
Definition: The set of tangent vectors at a point p M is called the
tangent space to M at p and is denoted Tp M.
With this definition a tangent vector is a linear map from the infinite dimensional vector space (algebra) C (p) to the reals so it is an element of the
infinite dimensional dual vector space. However, as will be seen, the second
and third conditions restrict the tangent space to be finite dimensional.
Example: Consider Rn with the usual single chart, (Rn , id). Then
the directional derivative operator in the direction of a vector (1 , 1 , ..., 1 ),
X = x , where { }, ( = 1..n) are real numbers, is a tangent vector.
Example: Consider a smooth curve in Rn , C : (0, 1) Rn by t
1
(C (t), C 2 (t), ..., C n (t)). Recall from elementary calculus and geometry that
the tangent vector to a point p = C(t1 ) has components
(

d
d
d 1
C |t=t1 , C 2 |t=t1 , ....., C n |t=t1 ).
dt
dt
dt

Now if f C (p), then Xp : C (p) R defined by

Xp (f ) =

d
f (C(t)) |t=t1
dt

is, according to the above definition, a tangent vector to Rn at p = C(t1 ).

On the other hand, using the chain rule
Xp (f ) =
Notation: f =

f
x

d
C |t=t1 f (x ) |x =C (t1 ) .
dt

etc.
13

Definition: Let p M . Consider a chart (Ui , i ), with p Ui , defining

local coordinates about p, that is for all q Ui ,
i (q) = (1i (q), ..., ni (q)) = (x1 (q), ..., xn (q))
. Define n maps ( = 1..n)

|p : C (p) R, by f
|p f

x
x
1
1
n
= (f 1
i )(x (p), ..., x (p)) = (f i )(i (p)).
Theorem: Each of the maps x |p is a tangent vector to M at p.
The proof of this result follows directly from the usual properties of the
derivative in Rn .
Theorem: Tp M is an ndimensional real vector space and a set of basis
vectors is the nmaps x |p .
Hence a general element of Tp M is of the form Xp = x |p ,where { }
are real numbers.
The proof of the theorem is in two parts. The first to define addition and
scalar multiplication in the obvious way so that it is clear that Tp M is a real
vector space. The second, and intuitively obvious but formally not trivial,
is to show that { x |p } forms a basis of this vector space, and consequently
that it is ndimensional. To do this it must be shown that { x |p } are
linearly independent and span the vector space. The first is straightforward,
just let the maps act on the coordinate functions. The second can be shown
by making use of a Taylor-type expansion result contained in the following
lemma.
Lemma: Let (x1 , ..., xn ) be a coordinate system about p M . Then for
every function f C (p) there exits n functions f1 , f2 , ..., fn in C (p) with

|p f , and
x
f (q) = f (p) + (x (q) x (p))f (p),

f (p) =

where the latter expression is defined.

Definition: Let C : (0, 1) M by t C(t) be a smooth curve on M
and let p = C(t1 ), for t1 (0, 1). The tangent vector Tp (C) Tp M to the
curve at p is defined by
Tp (C)(f ) =

d
f (C(t)) |t=t1 .
dt
14

Let (Ui , i ) be a chart with p Ui defining local coordinates for all q Ui ,

by
i (q) = (1i (q), ..., ni (q)) = (x1 (q), ..., xn (q)).
Then (by effectively using the chain rule) we have the explicit expansion or
coordinate presentation
Tp (C) =

(i C(t)) |p .
dt
x

All smooth curves through p M define a tangent vector to M at p.

Conversely all tangent vectors to M at p can be realized as the tangent
vector to a (non-unique) curve. For example, if Tp = T x |p for constants
T this tangent vector at p is tangent to the curve C : (, ) M with
coordinate presentation i C(t) = x (p) + tT . This latter point leads to
the following theorem, which we just note, the content of which is often used
as a starting point for the discussion of vectors.
Theorem: Tp M is isomorphic to the set of all curves through p M
modulo the equivalence relation that C(t) C (t) iff
d
d
(f C) |t=t1 = (f C ) |t=t1
dt
dt
for all f C (p) where C(t1 ) = C (t1 ) = p.
It is important to understand how the components of a vector change
under a change of basis. Consider, in particular, a change of a coordinate
basis to another coordinate basis. Essentially by the chain rule we have
Theorem C: Let (x1 , ..., xn ) = 1 and (y 1 , ..., y n ) = 2 be two coordinate
systems at a point p M with U1 U2 6= and suppose that Xp Tp M . If
Xp = A

|p and Xp = B |p ,

x
y

then
B = A /x (21 )
n
n
evaluated at 1 (p). Here 21 = 2 1
1 : 1 (U1 ) R 2 (U2 ) R is

the smooth function with coordinate presentation, written variously, y =

21 (x1 , ...., xn ) = y (x1 , ...., xn ). One usually just writes and calculates this
coordinate transformation rule for vector components more simply, e.g. as
y
B = A x
.

15

Since Tp M is a vector space we can apply our general vector space theory
in this particular case and construct tensors and tensor product spaces.
Definition: The cotangent space to M at p M is the dual vector space
to Tp M and is denoted Tp M .
Definition: Let p M . Consider a chart (Ui , i ), with p Ui , defining
local coordinates about p, for all q Ui ,
i (q) = (1i (q), ..., ni (q)) = (x1 (q), ..., xn (q)).
The dual basis (of Tp M ) to the coordinate basis for Tp M ,
dx |p and satisfies the defining condition
hdx |p ,

|p , is denoted

|p i = .
x

Hence if we have a vector and a co-vector expanded in the dual coordinate

bases

Xp = X (p) |p , p = (p)dx |p
x
then
hp , Xp i = (p)X (p).
If we consider again the coordinate transformation in Theorem C above,
and if a co-vector has the expansions p = dx |p and p = dy |p in the
two corresponding coordinate bases then
=

|p 21 ,
x

y
this is usually written more simply as = x
.
Since coordinate transformations are invertible we can also think in terms
of the inverse transition function
n
n
12 = 1 1
2 : 2 (U2 ) R 1 (U1 ) R written variously as
x = 12 (y 1 , ...., y n ) = x (y 1 , ...., y n ) = x (y).

y
x
The (Jacobian) matrices ( x
) and ( y ) are inverses of each other so we also
x
have, and write, = y
etc.
It should be noted that while coordinate bases are often very convenient,
at least locally, and are often used, it is also the case that there are circumstances where the use of other bases is more helpful. For example when

16

metrics are considered it is often useful to orthonormal bases. Coordinate

bases are sometimes called holonomic bases and non-coordinate bases are
then called anholonomic bases.
All this, and the results of section A, extend in the expected way to
tensors over Tp M and their expansion in bases. Very Briefly:
Definition: An (r,s) -tensor Tp at a point p M is an element of
(r,s)
Tp M = (r Tp M ) (s Tp M ).
Hence, from section A, we can write Tp in terms of its components with
respect to the (induced) coordinate basis as:
1 ...r
Tp = T..........
(p)
1 ....s .

|p dx1 |p .... dxs |p .

|
...

p
x1
xr

Exercise 1c: The first problem on page 31 of Neil Lamberts noteshenceforth NLN- (action of a tensor, as a multilinear map, on r co-vectors
and s-vectors expressed in terms of components with respect to coordinate
bases).
Exercise 2c: The second problem on page 31 of NLN (change of components of a tensor under change of coordinates, and hence the corresponding
coordinate bases).
Exercise 3c: Read the definitions of symmetric and anti-symmetric (or
skew symmetric) tensors of pages 32 and 33 of NLN. Prove that the total
contraction of a symmetric (2, 0) tensor and an anti-symmetric (0, 2) tensor
is zero. Here total contraction means contraction, pairwise on all indices.

4
4.1

Tensor fields; vector fields, integral curves

and flows
Tensor fields

A (smooth) (r, s) tensor field assigns, in a smooth way a (r, s) tensor to each
point of the manifold. Important examples include functions - (0, 0) fields,
vector fields -(1, 0) fields, covector fields or one-forms - (0, 1) fields, differentiable exterior forms - totally anti-symmetric covariant or (0, s) tensors,
metrics tensors- totally symmetric (0, 2) tensors, etc.
Definition: The union of all tangent (respectively cotangent, respectively type (r, s) tensor) spaces to M is called the tangent (respectively cotan17

gent, respectively type (r, s) tensor) bundle T M = pM Tp M , (respectively

(r,s)
T M = pM Tp M , respectively T (r,s) M = pM Tp M ).
These are examples of fibre bundles, in particular vector and tensor product bundles, and are only mentioned here. Further details, such as the differential structure, can be found in the text books, e.g. Nakahara and, if
time, later in the course.
The dimensions of the manifolds T M and T M are 2 dim M and these
manifolds are each locally homeomorphic to Rn Rn .
Definition: A smooth vector field is a map X : M T (1,0) M = T M
such that X(p) = Xp Tp M , and for all f C M the mapping M R by
p X(f )(p) is C .
Definition: A smooth co-vector (or one form) field is a map : M
(0,1)
T
M = T M such that (p) = p Tp M and (X) : M R is in

C (M ) for all smooth vector fields X.

Definition: A smooth (r, s) tensor field is a map T : M T (r,s) M such
(r,s)
that T (p) = Tp Tp M and T (1 ...r , V1 , ...Vs ) : M R is in C (M ) for
any r smooth co-vector fields 1 ...r and s smooth vector fields V1 , ...Vs .
For vector fields (and other tensor fields) we shall drop the explicit subscript p and, for example, write in a chart V = V x = V (x) x where
the components of vector fields (and similarly for other tensor fields) are now
smooth functions.
It is important to understand the behaviour of tensors at a point and
tensor fields under maps of manifolds.
Definition: Let f : M N be smooth. If Xp Tp M then the
pushforward of Xp is the tangent vector to N at f (p), denoted f Xf (p) ,
defined by
f X : C (f (p)) R by
g Xp (g f ).
That f Xf (p) is indeed a tangent vector is easy to show using the properties of Xp .
Definition: Let f : M N be smoooth. Then the (induced) tangent
map at p is the linear map f : Tp M Tf (p) N by Xp f Xf (p) .
Theorem: Let f : M N be smoooth where M is m dimensional and
N is n dimensional. Let {xi } be local coordinates on U, about p M , and

18

let {y } be local coordinates about f (p) in N

|p then
xi

= Ai i |p (y f ) |f (p) .
x
y

Let Xp = Ai
f Xf (p)

The proof uses the chain rule.

In a similar way contravariant tensors at p, that is tensors of type (r, 0),
push forward.
Vectors of a vector field can be pushed forward point wise, but the result
is not necessarily a vector field. Similarly for contravariant tensor fields.
Exercise 1d: Write down the analogue of the theorem given just above
for a contravariant tensor.
In contrast to tangent vectors one-forms at p (and covariant tensors, that
is tensors of type (0, s)) pull back under manifold maps. We consider the
dual linear map to the tangent map.
Definition: The linear map f : Tf(p) N Tp M , by f , dual to
the tangent map above, is defined by
f (Xp ) = hf , Xp i = h, f Xf (p) i.
Theorem: Let f : M N be smoooth where M is m dimensional and
N is n dimensional. Let {y } be local coordinates on V N and let {xi }
be local coordinates on f 1 (V ) U M . If
= dy |f (p)
then

(y f )dxi |p .
xi
The analogue for covariant tensors at a point is obvious. In contrast to
contravariant tensor fields the pullbacks of covariant tensor fields are again
tensor fields.
Exercise 2d*: Let (u, v) and (x, y, z) be affine coordinates for the affine
spaces A2 and A3 respectively. Let f : A2 A3 by
f =

(u, v) (u2 + v 2 , u2 v 2 , 2uv),

and let h : A3 A2 by
(x, y, z) (ay + z, x + z).
19

Let P = (y + z) x
+ x y
and = ydx xdy + zdz be a vector field and a
3.
one form on A .
(i) Compute P at p = (2, 1, 1) and h P at h(p). Find the value of the
real number a for which h P is a vector field on A2 .
(ii) Compute h, P i and find the points at which this is zero.
(iii) Compute f .

4.2

The commutator or Lie bracket of two vector fields

It is a straightforward matter to see that the product of two vector fields

defined in a natural way is not a vector field. For if X and Y are two vector
fields and the product XY is defined by XY (f ) = X(Y (f )) the Leibniz rule
is not satisfed, that is it is not a derivation. However an important vector
field, their commutator, can be constructed from X and Y.
Definition: The commutator of two (smooth) vector fields X and Y is
the (smooth) vector field [X, Y ] defined by [X, Y ](f ) = X(Y (f )) Y (X(f ))
for any f C M .
It is a straight forward matter to see that this is a derivation, in particular
it satisfies the Leibniz rule. Note that [X, Y ] = [Y, X].
Exercise 3d: What goes wrong if one attempts to define a vector and
commutator vector field by the product rule XY (f ) = X(f )Y (f )?
Exercise 4d: (i) In the simple cases it is easiest to use linearity and
compute a commutator term by term. However there is a general expression
in terms of coordinates which you should check. If in a particular coordinate
system {x }

and Y = Y (x) then

x
x

[X, Y ] = (X Y Y X ) .
x
x
x
X = X (x)

(ii) Let (x, y, z) denote affine coordinates on the affine space A3 . Compute [V, W ] where

z3
+ y2 ,
x
y
z

W =2
+x
.
x
y z
V =x

20

Theorem: With the product of two vector fields defined as the commutator the space of vector fields is an algebra.
Moreover it is a Lie algebra (infinite dimensional) and the Jacobi identity
holds for any three vector fields on M , X, Y, Z viz
[[X, Y ], Z] + [[Y, Z], X] + [[Z, X], Y ] = 0.

4.3

Integral curves and flows

Given a vector field X on M we can construct (a family of) curves that have
the property that their tangent vector at any point p is equal to X at p. In
this sense the curves integrate the vectors of the vector field.
Definition: Let X be a vector field on M and consider a point p M .
An integral curve of X passing through p is a curve C(t) in M such that
C(0) = p and C (

d
) = XC(t)
dt

for all t in some open interval (, ) R.

The coordinate presentation of the condition for a curve to be an integral
curve of a given vector field X is a system of first order ordinary differential
equations with given intial conditions. The curve is given by the unique
solution of these equations which exits locally by the theory of ordinary differential equations. The geometry of integral curves is obtained by giving
geometrical interpretations to standard results from (autonomous) differential equations theory. To see this introduce a chart and local coordinate
system, (U, ) and {x }, about p U so that X = X (x) x |1 (x) and

(t) x |C(t) . Here C = C gives a coordinate presentation

C ( dtd ) = dC
dt
of the curve. The curve is an integral curve of the vector field if, for given
X , C satisfy the odes:
d
C (t) = X (C(t))
dt
with intial conditions C (0) = x (p).
Definition: A vector field X is said to be complete if for all p on M the
integral curve of X can be extended to a curve on the manifold for all values
of t.
Definition: The flow generated by a vector field X is a differentiable
map : R M M such that
21

i) at each point p M the tangent to the curve Cp (t) = (t, p) at p is X

ii) (0, p) = p
iii) (t + s, p) = (t, (s, p))
To find the flow we just solve the odes dtd (t, p) = X ((t, p)), with intial
conditions (0, p) = p, for the integral curves (t, p) passing through p at
t = 0. The solutions satisfies condition (iii) because the o.d.e. system is
autonomous.
For each t the flow defines a map t : M M such that t+s = t s .
For t = small it follows that, in local coordinates, x , about p
(p) = (, p) = x (p) + X (p) + O(2 ).
Hence for small enough t t (p) is injective and smooth. Hence it is a diffeomorphism onto its image (at least for an open set in M ).
Definition: A one parameter group of diffeomorphisms of M is a collection of diffeomorphisms with t R such that
(i) 0 is the identity map
(ii) t = 1
t
(iii)t (s ) = t+s
Definition: The one parameter group of diffeomorphisms generated by
a vector field X is, for each t, the map t : M M by p (t, p).
Definition: The (infinitesimal) generator of a one parameter group of

diffeomorphisms t is the vector field given by X = t

t |t=0. .
Exercise 5d*: Let (x, y, z) denote affine coordinates on the affine space
A3 . Let
t : (x, y, z) (xe3t , ye2t , z 2ta )
be a one parameter family of maps of A3 .
(i) Verify that t is a one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms when the
number a equals one. Is this the unique value for a?

(ii) When a = 1 show that the vector field V = 3x x

+ 2y y
2 z
generates t .

(iii) Compute the Lie bracket [V, W ] of V and W , where W = y x

+ x y
.
(iv) Find the one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms generated by W .

Differential forms

Exterior pforms are totally anti-symmetric tensors of type (0, p). They
admit an (exterior) product of a pform and a qform, the result of which
22

is a(p + q)form. This product is, modulo conventional numerical factors,

the totally skew symmetric part of the tensor product of the forms. Unfortunately different authors choose different conventions (usually one of two
standard ones) for the numerical factor so care must be taken when reading
them. The resulting associative algebra is called the exterior algebra. All
this can be defined over just a vector space or pointwise over a manifold.
In the case of smooth manifolds and smooth tensor fields (say) there is also
a derivative, the exterior derivative) mapping differential pform fields to
differential (p + 1)form fields. In terms of components this is obtained (up
to conventional numerical factors) by taking the totally anti-symmetric part
of the partial derivative of the components. The exterior derivative and the
Lie derivative are two derivatives mapping tensors into tensors which exist,
without the imposition of extra structure, on a manifold. Differential forms
arise naturally in the theory of integration on a manifold as, for example, in
Stokes theorem and in gauge theories. They play a central role in the study
of topological properties of manifolds by cohomological techniques.
Definition: A (0, s) tensor is called anti- or skew-symmetric if
(XP (1) , ..., XP (s) ) = sgn(P )(X1 , ..., Xs ).
Such a tensor is called a sform and s is the degree of the form.
Here P is a permutation and sgn(P ) is its sign. The permutation is a
bijection P : (1...s) (1....s) and can always be written in terms of an even
(sgn(P ) = 1) or an odd (sgn(P ) = 1) number of interchanges (where 2
neighbouring integers are permuted). If an sform has components (with
respect to some basis), 1 .........s then 1 .........s = [1 .........s ] . Here the
square brackets indicate the totally anti-symmetric part of 1 .........s , that is
1X
[1 .........s ] =
(sgnP )P (1) .........P (s) .
s! P
Example: [] = 21 ( ) so = [] iff = .
Definition: A pform on a manifold M is a smooth anti-symmetric
(0, p) tensor on M with a 0form being a function in C M .
Since (X1 , ., Y, ...., Y, .., Xp ) = 0 for a differential form all forms with
p > n = dim M must vanish. Furthermore all nforms are proportional.
The space (module over the ring C (M )) of exterior forms on M is
denoted (M ) and
(M ) = 0 (M ) 1 (M ) ... n (M ).
23

The exterior algebra on (M ) is introduced by defining the exterior product.

Definition: If p (M ), q (M ) then their exterior, or wedge,
product is the (p + q)form
X
( )(X1 , ..., Xp+q ) =
sgn(P )( )(XP (1) , ..., XP (p+q) ).
P

Examples: Using a local coordinate system {x }

dx dx = dx dx dx dx ,
dx dx dx = dx dx dx + dx dx dx + dx dx dx
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx .
Theorem: If p (M ), q (M ) then = (1)pq .
Hence if either p or q is even or zero the wedge product is commutative; if
p and q are both odd it is anti-commutative. In particular, if is a pform,
with p odd then = 0; for instance the wedge product of a one form
with itself is zero, a useful calculational result, particularly in the light of:
Theorem: A basis for p (M ) at a point p M is
dx1 |p dx2 |p .... dxp |p .
and,
if dim M = n, the dimension Dp of the vector space p (M ) at p is
 
n
and the dimension of the vector space (M ) at p is 2n . p (M ) at p,
p
with the exterior product is an algebra.
In terms of a local coordinate basis we write a pform (field) a
=

1
.........p dx1 dx2 .... dxp ,
p! 1

where the numerical factor takes care of double counting and 1 .........p =
[1 .........p ] .
Example: When n = 3 and p = 2, = 2!1 dx dx = 12 dx1 dx2 +
23 dx2 dx3 + 31 dx3 dx1 .
Example: When n = 3; D0 = 1, D1 = 3, D2 = 3, D3 = 1. In E3 and
rectangular Cartesian coordinates let
= x dx + y dy + z dz,
= x dx + y dy + z dz. Then
= x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx dy,
24

where (x , y , z ) is the vector or cross product of the two vectors given by

(x , y , z ) and (x , y , z ). [cf Hodge duality in Euclidean three-space].
Theorem: If f : M N is a smooth map and and are smooth
forms on N then
f ( ) = f f .
Definition: When p > 0, the interior product of a tangent vector V and
a pform is the (p 1)form V , defined, pointwise, to be
(V )(X1 , ...., Xp1 ) = (V, X1 , ...., Xp1 )
for any (p 1)vectors X1 , ...., Xp1 . A standard alternative notation is iV ,
both will be used.
Theorem: The interior product is an anti-derivation (an example of a
graded derivation) and nilpotent, viz
iV ( ) = iV + (1)p iV where p (M );
i2V = 0.
Definition:
If p (M ) then the exterior derivative of , d
p+1 (M ) and is defined by
X
d(X1 , ...., Xp+1 ) =
(1)i+1 Xi ((X1 , .., Xi1 , Xi+1 , ..., Xp+1 ))
i

(1)i+j ([Xi , Xj ], X1 , .., Xi1 , Xi+1 , .., Xj1 , Xj+1 , .., Xp+1 ).

ij

If p = 0, and = f C (M )
df (X) = X(f ).
Theorem: If in a local coordinate system
=

1
.........p dx1 dx2 .... dxp ,
p! 1

then,
1
1 .........p dx dx1 dx2 .... dxp
p!
1
= [ 1 .........p] dx dx1 dx2 .... dxp .
p!

d =

25

Theorem:
(i) d2 = 0.
(ii) If p (M ), q (M ) then
d( ) = d + (1)p d,
that is d is nilpotent and an anti-derivation.
Definition: If p M then is said to be closed if d = 0 and exact
if = d for some p1 M .
Every exact form is closed, since d2 = 0, but closed forms may not be
(globally) exact, there may be topological obstructions. The Poincare lemma
says that if M is contractible any smooth closed pform, p positive, defined
on M is exact.
Theorem: Hamiltons equations of classical mechanics can be written in
the form
iV = dH,
where H is the Hamiltonian function on 2n dimensional phase space M, V is
a (Hamiltonian) vector field on M and , the (canonical) symplectic two form
on M, is non-degenerate (of maximal rank) and closed ( d = 0). Solutions
of Hamiltons equations correspond to integral curves of V .
By Darbouxs theorem local coordinates (q , p ), = 1..n, can be introduced such that = dp dq . In these canonical or symplectic coordinates
the above equations lead directly to the equations found in elementary texts
on analytical mechanics
d
H dp
H
q =
,
= .
dt
p dt
q
Theorem: If f : M N is a smooth map and is a smooth pform
on N then the pull-back of , f , is a smooth pform on M . Furthermore
the exterior derivative and the pullback commute
f d = d(f ).
Definition: If p (M ) and V is a vector field the Lie derivative of
with respect to V is denoted V p (M ) and is given by
p = 0 : V = V d,
p 0 : V = V d + d(V ).
26

Theorem: The Lie derivative is a derivation.

If p (M ), q (M ) then V ( ) = (V ) + (V ).
Furthermore it satisfies (see texts) the H. Cartan formulae
V = d iV + iV d, (as above), and
V iW iW V = i[V,W ]
V W W V = [V,W ]
V d = d V .
The Lie derivative is the covariant generalization of the directional
partial derivative which can be defined without adding extra structure to a
manifold. Let be a smooth one-form and V a smooth vector field. If in
local coordinates (x ), = dx and V = v x then
V = (v

+ v )dx .

x
x

Now it is always possible to choose particular local coordinates so that V =

, that is V is tangent to the x1 coordinate lines. This is sometimes called

x1
the straightening up lemma and, thinking geometrically, is obviously true
although it needs an analytic proof. Then in these particular coordinates
the Lie derivative takes the form of a simple directional derivative, V =
( x 1 )dx . But this is a coordinate dependent result. It is straightforward
to obtain similar formulae when p 1.
Exercise 1e: Let M be a three dimensional manifold and let (x, y, z) be
local coordinates for U M . On U let three differential forms be
= xzdy dz z 2 dx dy,
= 2zdx xydy + x3 dz,
= 3xdy 7yz 3 dz.
(i) Compute , and . Check, by explicit calculation, that
= but = .
(ii) Compute d, d and d. Check, by explicit calculation, that d2 = 0
and d( ) = d d.
27

(iii) Let V = y x
z y
+ x z
. Compute the interior product of V with
each of the three differential forms and with their exterior derivatives. Hence
compute the Lie derivative with respect to V of the three forms.
Exercise 2e*: Let (u, v, w) and (t, x, y, z) be affine coordinates for the
affine spaces A3 and A4 respectively. Let be a mapping from A3 to A4 by

: (u, v, w) (u, v 2w, v 2 , w + u3 ).

If is the 2-form on A4 ,
= xdt dy tdx dz
compute and d. Verify that d = d( ).
Let P be the vector field on A4 given by
P = t + x + y + xz .
Compute P and evaluate the Lie derivative of with respect to P.
Consider the 2-form, and the function f on A4 ,where
= dt dx + dy dz ; f = t2 + x2 y 2 2z 2 .
Find the vector field X which satisfies the equation X = df , and compute the Lie derivative of with repect to X.
Exercise 3e: Define the Lie derivative of a vector field X with respect
to (or in the direction of) a vector field V to be the vector field V X by
h, V Xi = V h, Xi hV , Xi,
for any one form 1 (M ).
(i) Compute a local coordinate expression for V X and hence verify that
V X = [V, X].
(ii) Verify that
V (X) = (V X) + X(V ).
(iii) Read about the Lie derivative of tensors of type (r, s), in particular
tensors of type (0, 2).
28

Definition: Let M be a (connected) manifold covered by charts (Ui , i ).

M is said to be orientable if for any charts (Ui , i ) and (Uj , j ) with Ui and
Uj overlapping there exist local coordinates, {x } for Ui and {y } for Uj such

that J = det( x
) is positive-definite.
y
If M is orientable and dim M = n, there exists a nowhere vanishing
nform, , called the volume element. Two volume elements and are
called equivalent if = h where h C (M ) and h is positive-definite on
M . If h is negative-definite and are inequivalent. An assignment of
a volume form to M (or more precisely an equivalence class of volume elements) is the assignment of an orientation to an orientable M . An orientable
manifold admits two inequivalent orientations, often called right-handed and
left-handed or positive and negative. Let M be orientable, as above, and let
= hi dx1 dx2 .... dxn on Ui ,with hi C (Ui ) positive-definite. Then
at any point p Ui Uj , = hi Jdy 1 dy 2 .... dy n and hi J is positive
definite. Hence can be extended as a volume element over M . Now let
f C (M ) and let M be oriented with volume element as above. Then
define
Z
Z
1
1
2
n
f =
f (1
i (x))hi (i (x))dx dx ...dx ,
Ui

i (Ui )

where the integral on the right-hand side is the elementary multiple integral
on i (Ui ) Rn . This definition can be extended, on an oriented paraRcompact manifold, to the atlas independent definition of a function over M ,
f , by summing the contributions from each chart domain, as above, and
M
making use of a technical device, called a partition of unity subordinate to
the covering, to avoid double or repeated counting from overlaps. Further
details can be found in the texts, for example on pages 166-167 at the end of
Nakaharas discussion of this topic which has been used here. More generally, a formulation of integration of pforms on manifolds is briefly sketched
in the next section.

Integration on oriented manifolds and Stokes

theorem

Integration on oriented manifolds intrinsically involves differential forms.

Definition: Let Ip = [0, 1]p = {{x1 , ...., xp } Rp | 0  x  1} be a unit
pcube in Rp . The 0cube is I0 = {0} R.
29

i) A pcell in M is a C map C : J M , where J is an open set in Rp

that contains Ip .
ii) A 0cell is a map from {0} M , that is it just a point.
iii) The support | C | of a pcell is the set C(Ip ) M .
Definition: A (cubical) pchain, p , in M is a finite formal linear combination of pcells on M with real coefficients
p = r1 C1 + ...rk Ck ,
where ri R and Ci are pcells.
The support of the pchain is | p |= | Ci |.
Clearly there is a vector space -and hence an abelian group - structure
on the space of pchains.
The boundary of a pcube is a (p 1)chain constructed as the sum of
all the (oriented) sides with a plus sign for front sides and a minus sign for
back sides.
Definition: Define the maps
()

i : Ip1 Ip by
()

i (t1 , ....., tp1 ) = (t1 , .., ti1 , , ti , ..., tp1 ),

where = 0 or 1.
These maps project a (p 1)-cube into a side of a pcube.
Definition: If C is a pcell in M then the boundary of C is denoted C
and defined to be the (p 1)chain
C =

p
X

(1)

(0)

(1)i+1 (C i C i ).

i=1

The boundary of a pchain p = r1 C1 + ...rk Ck is

p = r1 (C1 ) + ...rk (Ck ).
Boundaries have no boundaries, that is
Theorem:
2 = 0.
Definition: Let C be a pcell in M and a pform on M , then the
integral of over C is
Z
Z
=
C .
C

Ip

30

where if C = f (t1 , ..., tp )dt1 ... dtp , the right hand side is understood to
mean the usual integral of multi-variable calculus, i.e.
Z
Z 1 Z 1

C =
....
f (t1 , ..., tp )dt1 ...dtp ,
Ip

Let p = r1 C1 + ...rk Ck be a pchain then

Z

k
X
i=1

ri

Ci

A central theorem in differential geometry is Stokes theorem. It incorporates as special cases the Greens, Gausss and Stokes theorems of elementary
vector calculus.
Stokes Theorem: If p1 M and is a pchain then
Z
Z
d =
.

Recall that p M then is said to be closed if d = 0 and exact if

= d for some p1 M . Every exact form is closed, since d2 = 0, but
not every closed form is exact. On Rn every closed form is exact but for
topologically non-trivial manifolds this may not be the caseR and is the basis
of cohomology. From Stokes theorem if is closed then = 0. This
result, plus boundary conditions, gives rise to conservation laws in physical
field theories.
Exercise 1f: Suppose C is the spiral C : R R3 , t (sin t, cos t, t) and
and are the one forms on R3 with
= xdy ydx and = xydz + yzdx + zxdy,
R
R
Evaluate C and C when t [0, 1].
Exercise 2f: Construct particular examples of Stokes theorem to show
that it implies
(a) Greens theorem
(b) Stokes theorem for the integral of a one form along a closed curve in
3
R
(c) Gausss (i.e. the divergence) theorem.
Exercise 3f: (from the 2004 exam)
31

(a) State Stokes theorem for the integral of an exact (p + 1)form over
a (p + 1)chain on a manifold M .
(b) Suppose M is the subset of R3 consisting of points (x, y, z) such that
x2 + y 2 > 2.
Let be the one-chain on M defined by 0  t  1
(t) = (3 sin 2t, 3 cos 2t, sin 2t).
Also let , , be one forms and a two form on M with
= (x + y)dz + (x + z)dy,
= yzdx + xzdy + xydz,
1
= 2
(ydx xdy),
x + y2
= dx (dy + dz).
(i) Show that = 0.
(ii) Show thatRd =R and d
R = d = 0.
(iii) Evaluate , and .
(iv) Either find a function f such that df = or prove that no such
function exists. Repeat for and .

Affine connections (covariant derivative, parallelism, curvature)

Only affine connections are considered in this course and connection always
means affine connection.
In this section the covariant generalization of the partial derivative is
considered. The way in which any smooth tensor field of type (r, s) can be
differentiated to give another smooth (r, s) tensor field is exhibited. In order
to do this additional structure - called a connection - must be added to the
manifold structure. In general connections are not unique. Connections can
be introduced via vector fields or one-forms. The former will be the starting
point here but a differential form point of view will also be presented.
Up to this point bases used in applications and examples were usually
coordinate bases. From this point just as much emphasis will be placed
on general bases. In addition results are often presented from two points
32

of view, one which emphasises the role of vector fields and the other which
emphasises the dual differential form point of view. It is useful to keep in
mind the following technical result.
Theorem: Consider a basis of vector fields {ea } tangent to M and dual
basis of one form fields {a }, a = 1.. dim M = n.
(i) If f C (M ) then
df = ea (f )a .
(ii) If
d
[ea , eb ] = Cab
ed
d
d
where Cab
= Cba
are the structure functions for the basis, then dually

1 a b
da + Cbc
c = 0.
2
(iii) [ea , eb ] = 0 if and only if the basis is a coordinate basis for some local
coordinate system.
Comment: Since the C s are functions in general, the Jacobi identity
applied to the basis vector fields,
[[ea , eb ], ec ] + [[eb , ec ], ea ] + [[ec , ea ], eb ] = 0
implies that
f
f
f
f
f
d f
d
d
+ ea (Cbc
) + eb (Cca
) + ec (Cab
) = 0.
Cbd
Cab
Ccd
+ Cbc
Cad + Cca

This identity can also be obtained (a useful exercise) by taking the exterior
a b
derivative of the dual equation da + 12 Cbc
c = 0. In the special case

where the C s are constants (e.g. when they are the structure constants of a
Lie algebra) the Jacobi identity above reduces to
f
f
d
d f
d
Cab
Ccd
+ Cbc
Cad + Cca
Cbd
= 0.

Exercise 1g: (a) Prove parts (i)-(ii) of the theorem. Is the converse of
(ii) true?
(b) If = 2!1 ab a b is a smooth two-form field on M show that
1
abc a b c , where
3!
f
= 3(e[c ab] f [c Cab]
).

d =
abc

33

7.1

Affine connections and covariant derivatives

Definition: An (affine) connection D at a point p M is a differential

operator, D, which assigns to each vector field X on M a mapping DX :
T M T M such that for all Y, Z T M and f C M
i) DX (Y + Z) = DX Y + DX Z
ii) DX+Y Z = DX Z + DY Z
iii) Df X Y = f DX Y
iv) DX (f Y ) = X(f )Y + f DX Y, and by definition DX f = X(f ).
DX Y is called the covariant derivative of Y along X.
Definition: Da = Dea . In particular, for dual coordinate bases { x , dx }
with respect to local coordinates {x }, = 1...n, D = D .
x
DX can be specified completely by specifying its action on basis vector
fields and thus specifying the connection components or coefficients.
Definition: Let D be an affine connection on M . Then the components
of D with respect to a basis of tangent vector fields {ea }, as above, are
abc = ha , Dec eb i
so that
Dec eb = abc ea .
Theorem: Let X,Y T M and let X = X a ea and Y = Y a ea . Then
DX Y = [X c (ec Y a + abc Y b )]ea ,
Hence the connection and covariant derivative are defined by specifying the
connection coefficients (or components with respect to the basis) abc .
Definition: The covariant derivative of a vector field Y T M is defined
to be the (1, 1) tensor field DY where
DY (, X) = h, DX Y i,
for any one-form and vector field X.
It follows that
DY = Dc Y a ea c
where, using a standard notation the components of DY are written Dc Y a
and
Dc Y a = ec Y a + abc Y b .
34

Hence
DX Y = (X c Dc Y a )ea .
Caution: Many authors (including Neil Lambert in his notes) write acb
where I write abc . I prefer to put the differentiation subscript last.
Definition: The (n n matrix-valued) connection one forms are given
by ab = abc c .

Exercise 2g: Let bca = h a , Dec eb i be the connection components of a

connection D with respect to another set of dual bases {ea , a }, where

ea = Sab eb ; a = (S 1 )ab b ,
and (corresponding to multiplying a n n matrix-valued function by its
matrix inverse)
(S 1 )ab Scb = ca .

Let ba = bca c be the corresponding connection one-forms of D.

(a) Prove that

ba = (S 1 )ac dSbc + (S 1 )ac cd Sbd .

(b) Consider the special case of two local coordinate systems, and the
corresponding coordinate bases on M . Deduce the transformation law for
the connection components with respect to the coordinate bases.
Hence the connection components are not the components of a (1, 2)
tensor field on M but the difference of the connection components of two
connections are clearly the components of a (1, 2) tensor field on M . Hence
two affine connections differ by an tensor field of type (1, 2).
The torsion tensor of a connection is a geometrically important part of a
connection (see N. Lamberts notes).
Definition: The torsion tensor of a connection D is the (1, 2) tensor T
defined by
T (, X, Y ) = h, T (X, Y )i,
for any 1 (M ) and X, Y T (M ) where the vector field T (X, Y ) is
T (X, Y ) = DX Y DY X [X, Y ].
Note that the torsion of D is zero if and only if
DX Y DY X = [X, Y ].

35

Theorem: If {ea } and {a } are dual bases, as above, the the components
of T with respect to these bases, T (a , eb , ec ) are
a
Tbca = acb abc Cbc
,

so that
T = T abc ea b c .
Hence, if (x ) are local coordinates, then the components of T with respect to the local dual coordinate bases are

T
= .

Note that Tbca = Tcba .

Definition: An affine connection is called symmetric when its torsion is
zero (for then = in a coordinate basis).
Definition: Let {a } be a basis of one forms and ab a connection one
form as above. The the torsion two form of the connection, a , is
1
a = Tbca b c ,
2
a
where, as above, Tbca = acb abc Cbc
.
Just as the connection one form can be thought of as a matrix-valued one
form (a matrix with on forms as entries) the torsion two form can be thought
of as a vector valued (column matrix) two form.
The connection can be extended to define a covariant derivative on any
tensor field, essentially by linearity and by demanding that the covariant
derivative satisfies the Leibniz rule and commutes with contraction. First
consider one forms.
Definition: Let 1 (M ) and X T (M ). Then the covariant derivative of along X is the one form DX where

DX (Y ) = X((Y )) (DX Y )
for any Y T (M ).
In terms of components with respect to dual bases {ea } and {a } as above
this implies that
DX = X a (ea (b ) c cba )b , and hence
Dec (b ) = bac a .
36

Following the same lines as above the covariant derivative of a one-form can
be defined.
Definition: The covariant derivative of a one-form is defined to be the
(0, 2) tensor field D where
D(X, Y ) = hDX , Y i,
for any vector fields X and Y .
It follows that
D = Da b a b
where, using a standard notation the components of D are written Da b
and
Da b = ea b cba c .
Hence
DX = (X c Dc b )b .
The extension of all this to an (r, s) tensor field is straightforward and details
are left as a reading (e.g. N. Lamberts notes) exercise. It can be summarized
in the following definition which is calculationally useful.
Definition: The covariant derivative of a (r, s) tensor T is defined to be
the (r, s + 1) tensor field DT where
1... ar
DT = Dc Tba1......b
ea1 ... ear c b1 ... bs ; &
s

a1... ar
1... r1
2... ar
1... ar
1... ar
1... ar
Dc Tba1......b
= ec Tba1......b
+apc1 Tbpa
+ ... + apcr Tb1......b
pb1 c Tpb
... pbs c Tba1......b
1......bs
2......bs
s
s
s
p

s1 p

Exercise 3g: (i) Let D be a connection and let {ea , a } be the usual
dual bases. If f C M then (Da f )a and (Da Db f )a b are, respectively
a one-form and a tensor of type (0, 2). Show that Da Db f = Db Da f for any
f if and only if the torsion of D is zero.
(ii) Verify Cartans first structure equations for an affine connection D
a = da + ab b .
The terms on the right-hand side are often called the covariant exterior
derivative (or exterior covariant derivative) of the basis co-frame with respect to the affine connection. This formulation can be used an an alternative starting point for the theory of connections.

37

7.2

Parallelism and curvature

Given a connection vectors (and tensors) at different points can be compared

and hte notion of parallel objects at different points can be introduced.
Definition: Let C : I R M be a curve with tangent vector X. A
tensor T0 at p = C(0) is said to be parallely transported along the curve to
a parallel tensor field T along the curve if
DX T = 0,
Tp = T0 .
This is a system of first order ordinary differential equations, with given
initial conditions at t = 0, so it admits a unique local solution.
Definition: Let C : I R M be a curve with tangent vector X. The
C is called an auto-parallel (or affinely parametrized geodesic) if DX X = 0.
The parallel transport of a vector Y from a point p to a point q is usually
path (im C) dependent. When this is not the case the connection is said
to be integrable or flat. The curvature of a connection is a measure of the
extent to which it is not flat, and the curvature is is zero if and only if the
connection is flat. In components with respect to a basis of vector fields
{ea }, as above, the condition for D to be locally flat is that the differential
equations
Dc Y a = 0,
admit, locally, a unique solution with given initial condition Y a = Y0a at p
M. The integrability conditions for this equation impy that the quantities
f a
a
Rbcd
= ec (abd ) ed (abc ) + af c fbd af d fbc Ccd
bf
a
a
are zero. Note that Rbcd
= Rbdc
.
It turns out that these quantities are the components of a (1, 3) tensor
field on M , the curvature tensor of the connection, conventionally defined in
a two stage process as follows.
Definition: Let X, Y be smooth vector fields on M . Then R(X, Y ) :
T M T M is the linear map, Z R(X, Y )Z, where

R(X, Y )Z = DX DY Z DY DX Z D[X,Y ] Z.
A straightforward calculation using a basis, with and X = X c ec , Y = Y d ed ,
gives
R(X, Y ) = [R(X, Y )]ab ea b , where
a
[R(X, Y )]ab = Rbcd
X cY d.

38

a
By the linearity properties explicitly exhibited above the quantities Rbcd
can
be identified as the components of a (1, 3) tensor, the curvature tensor R of
D with
R(, X, Y, Z) = h, R(X, Y )Zi,

for any one form and vector fields X, Y, Z.

In terms of components with respect to the dual bases above the curvature
tensor of the connection D is given by
a
R(, X, Y, Z) = Rbcd
a Z b X c Y d ,
a
R=Rbcd
ea b c d .

Finally, exhibiting all this in terms of basis vectors and components, it follows
that
a
ea , and
R(ec , ed ) : T M T M by eb R(ec , ed )eb =Rbcd
a
Rbcd ea = R(ec , ed )eb = Dec Ded eb Ded Dec eb D[ec ,ed ] eb
f a
= {ec (abd ) ed (abc ) + af c fbd af d fbc Ccd
bf }ea .

Definition: A vector field X is called a parallel vector field, with respect

to a connection D, if DX = 0.
For a general connection there are no parallel vector fields.
Theorem: A connection D is flat if and only if there exists a basis of
parallel vector fields.
The result follows from the fact that a parallel basis, by definition, satisfies
Dea = 0.
Theorem: Let D be a flat connection with zero torsion. Then there
exists a coordinate system and corresponding coordinate basis relative to
which the components of the connection are zero.
The second theorem follows because a parallel basis for a flat connection
a
in the zero torsion case satisfies Tbca = acb = 0. Therefore Cbc
= [eb , ec ] = 0.
The latter condition is the necessary and sufficient condition for there to be
a local coordinate system with the basis vector fields as the coordinate basis
vector fields. (The proof of the latter, involving Frobenius theorem, is not
part of this course.)
Definition: The Ricci curvature of an affine connection is the (0, 2)
a
tensor with components Rbd = Rbad.
The curvature definition is neatly summed up in Cartans second structure equation for an affine connection.
39

ab

Definition: The curvature two-form of an (affine-) connection one form

is given by Cartans second structure equations for an affine connection

D,
ab = dab + ac cb .
A straightforward calculation shows that, expanded in the basis a , the curvature two form ab (a n n matrix-valued two form) is
1 a c
ab = Rbcd
d .
2
Theorem: The first Bianchi identity is given by
d a + ab b = ab b .
The second Bianchi identity is given by
dab + ac cb ac cb = 0.
These identities are computed by taking the exterior derivatives of the first
and second Cartan structure equations for D - a straightforward exercise.
Exercise 4g*: The Lie brackets of a basis of vector fields on a manifold
M are given by
c
[ea , eb ] = Cab
ec = (Jac kb Jbc ka )ec
where ka and Jba are constants and
ka Jba = kb and Jba Jab = Jaa .
A connection D on M is defined by
Deb ea = Jbc ka ec.
(a) Write down the definition of the torsion of a connection and verify
that the torsion of D is zero.
(b) Show that
Dec Ded eb = kb kd Jca ea .
(c) The components of the curvature tensor of D are given by
a
Rbcd
ea = Dec Ded eb Ded Dec eb D[ec ,ed ] eb .

Compute the Ricci tensor.

40

Exercise 5g: (i) Use Cartans second structure equations to show that
under the change of basis given in Exercise 2(g) ab a
b where
1 a c d
a
)c d Sb .
b = (S

(ii) Verify the first set of Bianchi identities above.

(iii) Verify the second set of Bianchi identities above.
(Optional: Read about the tensor calculus forms of these identities and
the Ricci identities for a general tensor field. The Ricci identities for a vector
a
field X = X a ea are (Dc Dd Dd Dc )X a = Rbcd
X b + Tcdf Df X a .

Metrics on manifolds

The second additional structure on a smooth manifold M that will be considered is a smooth metric g, a generalization of the familiar inner, scalar or
dot product on Euclidean three-space. We shall consider non-degenerate,
symmetric metric tensors of different signatures. Pure mathematicians most
commonly deal with Riemannian metrics but physicists are also interested in
metrics of other signatures - pseudo-Riemannian metrics, most notably the
relativistic metrics of Lorentzian signatures. A metric tensor provides an
isomorphism between the cotangent and tangent spaces which reflects itself
in the tensor calculus notion of raising and lowering of the indices of tensor
components. The covariant derivative of a metric is zero with respect to a
unique torsion free affine connection - the Levi-Civita connection and this is
the one that is always used (unless otherwise explicitly stated) when metric
differential geometry is considered.
Definition: A metric g on M is a smooth symmetric and non-degenerate
tensor field of type (0, 2).
Since g is symmetric g(X, Y ) = g(Y, X) for any X, Y T M ; since g is
non-degenerate g(Y, X) = 0 for any given vector field X and all vector fields
Y if and only if X = 0.
Definition: A metric g on M is called Riemannian when g(X, X) > 0
for all non-zero X T M , otherwise it is called pseudo-Riemannian.
In terms of the usual dual bases ea and a :
g = gab a b , gab = gba , a, b = 1.. dim M = n,
and the determinant of the matrix (gab ) is non-zero. As a consequence of nondegeneracy a metric also defines a symmetric (2, 0) tensor g 1 = g ab ea eb
41

where g ab = g ba and
g ab gbc = ca .
A metric defines an inner product on the tangent space at each point p M,
and similarly the metric inverse defines an inner product on the cotangent
space at each point. The metric defines an isomorphism between the tangent
space and cotangent space at each point given by X Tp M Tp M
where, for any Y Tp M
(Y ) = g(X, Y ),
and inversely Tp M X Tp M by
h, Xi = g 1 (, ),
for any Tp M . This corresponds to the lowering and raising of indices
with the metric and its inverse of tensor calculus; that is, if X = X a ea and
= a a then
gab X b = a and g ab a = X a .
Conventionally one writes gab X b = Xa etc. These isomorphisms, and index
raising and lowering, extend in the obvious way to tensors of general type.
Definition: Let g be a Riemannian metric on M, that is at each p M and
for any X Tp M , the quadratic form g(X, X) is positive definite.
Let X, Y Tp M , then
(a) The norm of X is [g(X, X)]1/2 . X is of unit length or norm if
g(X, X) = 1. A non-zero vector, X, can be normalized by rescaling X
X
.
[g(X,X)]1/2
)
The cosine of the angle between X and Y is [g(X,X)]g(X,Y
1/2 [g(Y,Y )]1/2 and X and
Y are orthogonal if and only if g(X, Y ) = 0.
Definition: A basis,ea , of vector fields is said to be an orthonormal basis
for a metric g if the corresponding metric components are

g(ea , eb ) = ab = diag(1, ...1, 1, ... 1).

The metric is said to have signature (p, q) when there are p plus ones and
q = np minus ones. The metric is Riemannian (or of Euclidean signature)
if p = n and pseudo-Riemannian otherwise, e.g it is called Lorentzian if p = 1,
q = n 1 (or p = n 1, q = 1), etc. An orthonormal frame or basis of vector
fields always exists locally, essentially by elementary linear algebra, and the
42

signature is an invariant. The dual basis (co-frame) to an orthonormal basis

satisfies
g 1 (a , b ) = ab = diag(1, ...1, 1, ... 1).
Every manifold admits a global Riemannian metric. A manifold M admits
a Lorentzian metric globally if and only if it admits a no-where vanishing
vector field.
Orthonormal bases are not unique.
Theorem: Let ea be an orthonormal frame for a metric g = ab a b .
Then ea = Lba eb is also an orthonormal basis if and only if the matrix-valued
functions L = (Lab ) take values in the group O(p, q)
Lab Lcd ac = bd .
The notions of the norm and the length given above (but not always
angle or normalizability) can be extended to pseudo-Riemannian manifolds
by replacing g(X, X) by | g(X, X) |. The notion of orthogonality extends
without change.
Definition: Let C : [t1 , t2 ] M be a curve with end points, and let
p = C(t1 ) and q = C(t2 ). Then the length of the path (ImC) from p to q is
s where
Z t2
| g(X, X) |1/2 dt,
s=
t1

where X = dC(t)
is the tangent vector to the curve at C(t). This motivates
dt
the often used expression of a metric in terms of its line-element:
ds2 = gab a b = gab a b ,
as, for example, in terms of a coordinate basis, ds2 = g (x)dx dx or in
terms of an orthonormal basis ds2 = ab a b .
Definition: Let g and D be, respectively, a metric and a connection on
M , then D is said to be a metric connection (for g) when Dg = 0.
When D is a metric connection for D and X and Y are two vector fields,
with X and Y parallely transported along a curve C, then the norm of these
vectors and, when defined, the angle between them are constant along C.
Theorem: (The fundamental theorem of metric differential geometry).
Let g be a metric on a manifold M , then there is a unique torsion-free, metric
connection, D, called the Levi-Civita connection.
43

If (x ) are local coordinates, then the components of the Lev-Civita connection, the Christoffel symbols, with respect to the corresponding coordinate
bases are
1
= g (g, + g, g, ).
2
The comma denotes partial differentiation e.g. g, = x g .
Killing vector fields (excluded from Manifolds exam): On a manifold
with metric g, a vector field V which satisfies the differential equations V g =
0 is called a Killing vector field. If D is the Levi-Civita connection then in
local coordinates, where V = V x and V = g V , Killings equations can
be written in the form D V + D V = 0, . On an ndimensional manifold
there are at most 21 n(n + 1) Killing vector fields, usually there are none.
Altogether they form a (representation of a) Lie algebra with commutator
the Lie bracket. Killing vector fields are the infinitesimal generators of the
(identity connected component) of the symmetry or isometry group of g. If
local coordinates are adapted to a particular Killing vector field V , so that
V = x 1 say, then in these adapted coordinates Killings equations take the
form x 1 g = 0, and hence are satisfied if and only if x1 is an ignorable
coordinate. If W is a second Killing vector field local coordinates can be
simultaneously adapted to both V and W if and only if their Lie bracket is
zero.
Definition: If the components, with respect to dual bases, as above, of
the curvature tensor of the Levi-Civita connection D of a metric g are given
a
by Rbcd
then the Riemann (curvature) tensor is the (0, 4) tensor Rabcd a
b
c
e
d where Rabcd = gae Rbcd
, and the Ricci scalar is R = g ab Rab , where
Rab are the components of the Ricci tensor of D.
When Rab = Rn gab the n dimensional manifold with metric is called an
Einstein space.
Theorem: The Levi-Civita connection of a metric is flat, and hence
has zero curvature tensor, if and only if there is a local coordinate system,
x , such that the coordinate basis of vector fields is orthonormal so that
ds2 = dx dx .
Theorem: The components of the Riemann tensor satisfy the following
algebraic symmetries
Rabcd = R[ab]cd = Rab[cd] = Rcdab ;
Ra[bcd] = 0,

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1 2
and consequently has 12
n (n2 1) algebraically independent components.
These results hold, of course, in any basis.
These tensor calculus results are often proven, using normal coordinates,
in relativity courses (not here). The following result is also included here
for completeness.
Theorem: The Ricci tensor of a Levi-Civita connection is symmetric
and the corresponding symmetric Einstein tensor G = Gab a b where

1
Gab = Rab gab R,
2
satisfies the contracted Bianchi identity
Da Gab = 0.
The basic metric connection equations above can be summed up in Cartans structure equations for a metric.
Theorem: Let a metric be given by ds2 = gab a b and let ab be the connection one-form of the Levi-Civita connection D. Then Cartans structure
equations are given by
da + ab b = 0,
dgab gcb ca gac cb = 0,
1 a c
d ,
dab + ab ab = Rbcd
2
e
Rabcd = gae Rbcd
, R = g ab Rab .
The first equation says that the torsion of D is zero. The second says that
D is metric and the third and fourth define the curvature tensors and their
contractions. In the special case of an orthonormal basis the second equation
reduces to
ab = ba .
A side comment for those doing Lie algebras: these connection one-forms
( and the curvature two-forms) take values in the Lie algebra of so(p, q).
Note that a connection can be metric and have non-zero torsion and a
connection can have zero torsion without being metric - but the only metric
connection which also has zero torsion is the Levi-Civita connection.

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Exercise 1h: Show that when an orthonormal basis is used, that is

a b
ds = ab a b , and da = 21 Cbc
c , then the Levi-Civita connection is
ab = abc c where
1
abc = (Ccab Cabc Cbca ).
2
Compare this result with the expression given earlier for the components
of the Levi-Civita connection with respect to a coordinate basis, dx ,
where
1
= g (g, + g, g, ).
2
Exercise 2h: A metric g, on a three dimensional manifold M is given
in local coordinates (x, y, z) by ds2 = 2e2y dx2 + 2dxdy dz 2 .
(i) Verify, by finding an orthonormal basis of one forms, or otherwise,
that the signature of g is (1, 2).
(ii) Let f C (M ) and suppose that the level set of this function, f = 1
defines a two dimensional manifold S (a sub-manifold of M ). Let X T M .
Explain (or read) why X is called tangent to S if and only if X(f ) = 0.
Let f be given by f (x, y, z) = 2xe2y . Find a non-trivial vector field
Y T M orthogonal to S (that is orthogonal to any tangent vector to S).
Exercise 3h: Let H be a two dimensional manifold and : H R3 be
given by (u, v) (t, x, y) where
2

t = sinh v
x = cos u cosh v,
y = sin u cosh v,
Show that the line element of the metric g induced on the sub-manifold
H from the Lorentzian three-metric g (with line element dx2 + dy 2 dt2 ) on
E3 is the Lorentzian two-metric
ds2 = (cosh2 v)du2 dv 2 .
Compute the Christoffel symbols of the Levi-Civita connection of this twometric. Use this connection to compute the covariant derivative of the one

form coshudu in the direction of the vector field u

.
Exercise 4h*: (a) Let a Riemannian metric on an n dimensional manifold be given by ds2 = ab a b . Write down the first and second Cartan

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structural equations satisfied by the the basis of one-forms a , the LeviCivita connection one forms ab and the curvature two forms. Explain why
ab = ba .
(b) When n = 2 show that there is only one independent Levi-Civita one
form and only one independent component of the curvature. Write out fully
the three Cartan structure equations for a Riemannian two-metric.
(c) Consider the metric g on R2 given in coordinates (x, y) by
ds2 = e2y dx2 + (1 + x2 )2 dy 2 .
Write down an orthonormal co-frame {1 , 2 } for g. Use Cartans structure
equations, and this co-frame, to compute the components of the Levi-Civita
connection.

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