Advanced Engineering Mathematics SI

Edition 8th Edition ONeil Solutions

Manual
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 Linear Transformations

Sometimes we want to consider functions between Rn and Rm . Such a

function associates with each vector in Rn a vector in Rm , according to a rule
defined by the function.
A function T that sends n - vectors to m - vectors is called a linear trans-
formation if the following two conditions are satisfied, for all n− vectors u and
v and all real numbers α:

(1)
T (u + v) = T (u) + (v)
and (2)
T (αu) = αT (u).

These two conditions can be rolled into the single requirement that

T (αu + βv) = αT (u) + βT (v).

A linear transformation T that sends n - vectors to m - vectors is also said

to map Rn to Rm , and we often refer to T as a linear mapping.
Example 1 Define T by

T (x, y) =< x + y, x − y, 2x > .

T maps vectors in R2 to vectors in R3 . For example,

T (2, −3) =< −1, 5, 4 > and T (1, 1) =< 2, 0, 2 > .

Note that we are writing T (x, y) instead of the more formal (and awkward)
T (< x, y >). It is understood that T (x, y) is the image of < x, y > under the
mapping T .
It is routine to verify that T is a linear transformation. 

By contrast, the function P defined by

P (a, b, c) =< a2 , 1, 1, sin(a) >

maps R2 to R4 , but is not linear. Generally a function is nonlinear (fails to

be linear) when it involves products or powers of the coordinates, or nonlin-
ear functions such as trigonometric functions and exponential functions, whose
graphs are not straight lines.
We will use the notation
T : Rn → Rm
to indicate that T is a linear transformation from Rn to Rm .

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 Every linear transformation T : Rn → Rm must map the zero vector On of
R to the zero vector Om of Rm . To see why this is true, use the linearity of T
n

to write
T (On ) = T (On + On ) = T (On ) + T (On ),
implying that
T (On ) = Om .
However, a linear transformation may also take nonzero vectors to the zero
vector. For example, the linear transformation defined by

T (x, y) = (x − y, 0),

from R2 to R2 , maps every vector < x, x > to < 0, 0 >.

We will define two important properties that a linear transformation T :
Rn → Rm may exhibit.
T is onto if every vector in Rm is the image of some vector in Rn under T .
This means that, if v is in Rm , then there must be some u in Rn such that
T (u) = v.
T is one-to-one, or 1 − 1, if the only way T (u1 ) can equal T (u2 ) is for
u1 = u2 . This means that distinct vectors in Rn cannot be mapped to the same
vector in Rm by T .
The notions of one-to-one and onto are independent. A linear transformation
may be one-to-one and onto, one-to-one and not onto, onto and not one-to-one,
or neither one-to-one nor onto.

Example 2 Let
T (x, y) =< x − y, 0, 0 > .
Then T is a linear transformation from R2 to R3 . T is not one-to-one. For
example,
T (1, 1) = T (2, 2) =< 0, 0, 0 > .
In fact, T (x, x) =< 0, 0, 0 > for every number x. T maps infinitely many vectors
to the origin in R3 .
T is also not onto R3 , because no vector in R3 with a nonzero second or
third component is the image of any vector in R2 under T . 
Example 3 Let S : R3 → R2 be defined by

S(x, y, z) =< x, y > .

S is onto because every vector in R2 is the image of a vector in R3 under S. In

fact, every vector in R2 √
is the image of infinitely many 3 - vectors.
For example,
√ < −3, 97 > is in R3 , and is the image under S of every 2 -
vector < −3, 97, z >:
√ √
S(−3, 97, z) =< −3, 97 > .

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 But S is not one-to-one, because we have just seen that many different 2 -
vectors can map to the same 3 - vector. 
There is an efficient test to tell whether a linear transformation is one-to-
one. We know that every linear transformation maps the zero vector to the zero
vector. The transformation is one-to-one exactly when this is the only vector
mapping to the zero vector.

Theorem 1 Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then T is one-

to-one if and only if On is the only vector that maps to the zero vector in Rm .


Proof Suppose first that T is one-to-one. If T (u) = Om , then

T (u) = Om

so the assumption that T is one-to-one requires that u = On .

Conversely, suppose T (u) = Om occurs only if u = On . To show that T is
one-to-one, suppose, for some u and v in Rn ,

T (u) = T (v).

Then, by the linearity of T ,

T (u) − T (v) = T (u − v) = Om .

By assumption, this implies that

u − v = On .

Then u = v, so T is one-to-one. 

Example 4 Let
T (x, y) =< x, y, 0, 0 > .
This mapping is one-to-one. If T (x, y) = T (a, b), then

< x, y, 0, 0 >=< a, b, 0, 0 >

so x = a and y = b, and then < x, y > = < a, b >. 

In Example 3, S is not one-to-one, because nonzero vectors < 0, 0, z > map

to the zero vector.

Example 5 Let T : R4 → R7 be defined by

T (x, y, z, w) =< x − y + 2z + 8w, y − z, x − w, y + 4w, 5x + 5y − z, 0, 0 > .

To see if T is one-to-one, determine which vectors map to the zero vector.

Suppose
T (x, y, z, w) = O7 =< 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 > .

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Then
< x+y+2z+8w, y−z, x−w, x−y+z−w, 5x+5y−z, 0, 0 >=< 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 > .
Then
x + y + 2z + 8w = 0,
y−z = 0,
x−w = 0,
x−y+z−w = 0,
5x + 5y − z = 0.
From the second and third equations,
y = z and x = w.
Then, from the first equation,
3z + 9w = 0,
so z = −3w, and then y = z = −3w also.
Now the fourth equation gives us w = 0. Then x = y = z = w = 0, and
< x, y, z, w >= O4 , so by Theorem 1, T is one-to-one. 

If T : Rn → Rm is a linear transformation, then the set N (T ) of all vectors

in Rn that map to the zero vector in RM is a subspace of Rn . To see this,
observe that, if u and v both map to Om , then so does their difference:
T (u − v) = T (u) − T (v) = Om .
This means that u − v is also in N (T ), and N (T ) is a subspace of Rn . N (T ) is
called the null space of T .
Theorem 1 therefore says that a linear T mapping is one-to-one if and only
if N (T ) is trivial subspace of Rn (consisting only of the zero vector).

Every linear transformation T : Rn → Rm can be associated with an m × n

real matrix AT that carries all of the information about the transformation.
Recall that the standard basis for Rn consists of the n orthogonal unit vectors
e1 =< 1, 0, · · · , 0 >, e2 =< 0, 1, 0, · · · , 0 >,
· · · ,en =< 0, 0, · · · , 0, 1 >
with a similar basis for Rm . Let AT be the matrix whose columns are the
images in Rm of T (e1 ), T (e2 ), · · · , T (en ), with coordinates written in terms of
the standard basis in Rm . Then AT is an m × n matrix that represents T in
the sense that  
x1
 x2 
T (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = AT  .  .
 
 .. 
xn

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In this way we can compute T (V) as the matrix product of AT with the column
matrix of the components of V.

Example 6 Let T (x, y) =< x − y, 0, 0 >, as in Example 2. Then, using the

standard bases,

T (1, 0) =< 1, 0, 0 > and T (0, 1) =< −1, 0, 0 >

so  
1 −1
AT =  0 0  .
0 0
Now observe that  
  x−y
x
AT =  0 ,
y
0
giving the coordinates of T (x, y) with respect to the standard basis for R3 . We
can therefore compute the coordinates of T (x, y) as a matrix product. 
Example 7 In Example 5 we had

T (x, y, z, w) =< x − y + 2z + 8w, y − z, x − w, y + 4w, 5x + 5y − z, 0, 0 > .

For the matrix of T , compute

T (1, 0, 0, 0) =< 1, 0, 1, 0, 5, 0, 0 >, T (0, 1, 0, 0) =< −1, 1, 0, 1, 5, 0, 0 >

T (0, 0, 1, 0) =< 2, −1, 0, 0, −1, 0, 0 >, T (0, 0, 0, 1) =< 8, 0, −1, 4, 0, 0, 0 > .

Then  
1 −1 2 8
0 1 −1 0 
 
1 0
 0 −1
0 1
AT =  0 4.
5 5 −1 0 
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
We obtain T (x, y, z, w) as the matrix product
 
x
y 
AT z  . 


AT depends on the basis chosen, because the matrix elements are coordinates
of the images of the standard basis vectors for Rn with respect to the standard
basis vectors for Rm . If we use different bases, we obtain a different matrix,
which would still represent the linear transformation, as long as all vectors are

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written in terms of the bases being used Different matrix representations formed
in this way for the same linear transformation are related in a special way, but
we will not pursue issue this here.
The matrix representation AT of T enables us to pose questions about T in
terms of linear systems of equations, about which we know a good deal.
First, T : Rn → Rm is one-to-one exactly when T (X) =< 0, 0, · · · , 0 > in
R implies that X =< 0, 0, · · · , 0 > in Rn . This is equivalent to the assertion
m

that the m × n system

AT X = O,
has only the trivial solution X = O. And this occurs if and only if the columns
of AT are linearly independent.

Theorem 2 Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then the

following conditions are equivalent:
(1) T is one-to-one.
(2) The null space of T is trivial.
(3) The columns of AT are linearly independent in Rm . 

This can be checked for T Example 5, with AT given in Example 7.

AT will also tell us if T is onto. In order to have T onto, for each B in Rm ,
there must be some X in Rn such that T (X) = B. This means that the m × n
system AT X = B must have a solution for each B, and this is equivalent to the
columns of AT forming a spanning set for Rm . We therefore have the following.
Theorem 3 Let T : Rn → Rm . Then the following are equivalent:
(1) T is onto.
(2) The system AT (X) = B has a solution for each B in Rm .
(3) The columns of AT span Rm . , 
We can also determine the null space of T from AT . In terms of matrix
multiplication, T (X) is computed as the matrix product AT X, in which X is
an n × 1 column matrix. Therefore X is in the null space of T exactly when

AT X = O.

The null space of T is exactly the solution space of the homogeneous linear
system AT (X) = O. This solution space has dimension

n − number of nonzero columns of AT .

Algebraists often refer to the null space of a linear transformation as its

kernel.
We have seen that every linear transformation from Rn to Rm has a matrix
representation. In the other direction, every m × n matrix A of real numbers
is the matrix of a linear transformation T : Rn → Rm , defined by T (X) = Y
if AX = Y. In this sense linear transformations and matrices are equivalent

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bodies of information. However, matrices are often better suited to computation,
particularly if a software package is being used.

Problems

In each of Problems 1 through 10, determine whether or not the given func-
tion is a linear transformation. If it is, write the matrix representation of T
(using the standard bases) and determine if T is onto and if T is one-to-one.
Also determine the null space of T and its dimension.

1. T (x, y, z) =< 3x, x − y, 2z >

2. T (x, y, z, w) =< x − y, z − w >
3. T (x, y) =< x − y, x + y, 2xy, 2y, x − 2y >
4. T (x, y, z, v, w) =< w, v, x − y, x − z, w − x − 3y >
5. T (x, y, z, u, v) =< x − u, y − z, u + v >
6. T (x, y, z, u) =< x + y + 4z − 8u, y − z − x >
7. T (x, y) =< x − y, sin(x − y) >
8. T (x, y, w) =< 4y − 2x, y + 3x, 0, 0 >
9. T (x, y, u, v, w) =< u − v − w, w + u, z, 0, 1 >
10. T (x, y, z, v) =< 3z + 8v − y, y − 4v >

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