AEROSPACE ENGINEERING DESIGN LECTURE NOTES

Review of the previous lecture

and additional notes

Prof. Dr. D. Funda Kurtulus

 Design Requirements

 Mission Requirements
Purpose
Crew size and payload weight
Performance: speed/range/duration/etc.

 Cost Requirements
Life Cycle Cost (LCC)

 Maintenance and Support Requirements

Maintenance man-hours per flight hour (MMH/FH)
Ground support equipment andpersonnel

 Scheduling Requirements
When will the product be ready for deployment?
 Regulations, Specifications, and Standards
 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
http://www.airweb.faa.gov

 Sample CFRs:

 Part 23 - AIRWORTHINESSSTANDARDS: NORMAL, UTILITY,ACROBATIC,AND

COMMUTER CATEGORYAIRPLANES
 Part 25 - AIRWORTHINESSSTANDARDS:TRANSPORTCATEGORYAIRPLANES
 Part 27 - AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS:NORMAL CATEGORYROTORCRAFT
 Part 49 - RECORDINGOFAIRCRAFT TITLESAND SECURITY DOCUMENTS
 Part 101 - MOORED BALLOONS,KITES,UNMANNED ROCKETSAND
UNMANNED FREEBALLOONS

 Department of Defense (DoD) and NASASpecifications

http://www.everyspec.com/
Sizing from a Conceptual
Sketch
Sizing is the most important calculation in aircraft design,
more so than drag, or stress, or even cost (well, maybe not
cost) .
Sizing literally determines the size of the aircraft, specifically
the weight that the aircraft must be designed to so that it
can perform its intended mission carrying its intended
payload.

There are many levels of aircraft sizing procedure. The

simplest level just adopts past history. For example, if you
want to replace F-15 aircraft fighter, use 44500 lb, which is
the design weight of F-15 aircraft (a good number to start
initial calculations)
 Takeoff Weight Estimation
Takeoff-Weight Buildup
“Design takeoff gross weight (W0)” is the total weight of the
aircraft as it begins the mission for which it was designed.

This is not necessarily the same as the maximum takeoff weight of

the aircraft. Many military aircraft can be overloaded beyond design
weight but will suffer a reduced maneuverability.

Design takeoff gross weight can be broken into crew weight,

payload (or passenger) weight, fuel weight and the remaining
(empty) weight.
The empty weight (We) includes the structure, engines, landing
gear, fixed equipment, avionics and anything else not considered
a part of crew, payload and fuel.
 Takeoff Weight Estimation
Takeoff-Weight Buildup

The crew and payload weights are both known because

they are given in the design requirements.

The only unknowns are the fuel weight and empty

weight. However, they are both dependent on the total
aircraft weight. Thus, an iterative process must be used for
aircraft sizing.
The weight estimation is carried out by calculating the weight of the fuel
required for the mission(Wf) and using the formulae for empty weight
(We) based on analysis of similar airplanes. The stages involved are given
below.

Wcrew & Wpayload are known as they are given in the design
specifications.

Wf & Wedepend on gross weight(W0).

 Empty-Weightestimation
Figure 3.1 in Raymer gives the trends of We/W0 fordifferent
types of airplanes. Note the log scale onabscissa.

These curves can be approximated by an equation of the type:

where W0 = Take- off gross weight in pounds orkg

A and c depend on the type of airplanes (Table3.1).

Empty weight fractions vary from about 0.3 to 0.7, and

decreases with increasing total aircraftweight.
 Aircraft can be categorized by several aspects.

• homebuilt
• single engine propeller driven airplane
• twin engine propeller driven airplane
• agricultural airplane
• business jet
• regional turboprop
• jet transport
• supersonic civil transport, SCT
• seaplane

In addition there are several categories of military aircraft.

Ref: http://www.fzt.haw-
hamburg.de/pers/Scholz/HOOU/AircraftDesign_4_AircraftConfigurations.pdf
Empty-Weight estimation:
Empty-Weight estimation:
While Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1 can be used for initial
estimation of the fraction (We/Wo), it's always better to develop
your own trendline.

Obtain We and Wo data for aircraft similar to your project, plot the
data onto Figure 3.1, and draw a reasonable trendline with slope.

Hint:
If using curve-fit software be careful-it may return a positive
exponent depending upon the exact data you've fed it. Don't use
that result-it isn't "real world" and the sizing equation will not
converge. Instead force the software to use a negative number 'C'
term like those in Table 3.1 and find the constant term with the
lowest square error. This was actually the case for several of the
classes of aircraft in Table 3.1 .
Remarks:
i)A variable sweep airplane is heavier.
Hence multiply thevalue
of We/W0 by 1.04 in thiscase.

An airplane wing, or set of wings, that may

be swept back and then returned to its
original straight position during flight. It allows
the aircraft's shape to be modified in flight,
and is therefore an example of a variable-
geometry aircraft. Model of a conceptual variable-
sweep aircraft with the wing in
three different sweep
positions. [NASA]

Bell X-5 research aircraft equipped with

variable-sweep wings. [NASA]
Remarks:

ii)Use of composites: A reduction in weight by 20% can be expected

when composites are used in place of aluminum in a particular
component . However there are other components with metallic
materials. Hence , an overall reduction of 5% is reasonable and multiply
the values of We/W0 given in theabove table by 0.95.
 Fuel Fraction estimation:

Fuel weight consists of the following:

I. Fuel required for mission .
II. Fuel required as reserve.
III. Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.

Mission fuel depends on the following factors.

a) Mission to be flown.
b) Aerodynamics of the airplane - (L/D) ratio.
c) SFC of the engine.
For safety you would be wise to carry extra fuel in case your intended
airport is closed, so a loiter of typically 20-30 min [at 10,000 ft {3048 m}]
is added.

Alternatively, additional range could be included, representing

the distance to the nearest other airport or some fixed number of
minutes of flight at cruise speed.

[The FAA requires:

- 30 min of additional cruise fuel for daytime flights under visual flight
rules (VFR),
- and 45 min of fuel at night or under instrument conditions (IFR) .]

Under commercial IFR regulations, you also need fuel to fly to an

alternate airport after loitering and attempting to land at your intended
destination.
 Typical Mission Profiles
Simple mission: It consists of
take off, climb, cruise, descent,
loiter and landing.
Typical mission profiles for sizing
The low-level strike mission includes "dash" segments that must
be flown at just a few hundred feet off the ground.
Low level strikes deliver weapons accurately in ground attack
missions.

Unfortunately, the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft, expressed

as lift-to-drag ratio (L/ D), is greatly reduced during low-level, high-
speed flight, as is the engine efficiency.

The aircraft may burn almost as much fuel during the low-level
dash segment as it burns in the much-longer cruise segment.
A high speed dash is performed at constant altitude and at either a specified throttle
setting or a specified Mach number.
Any flight mission may be broken down
into component legs, each comprising a
specific manoeuvre , such as take off,
climb , cruise etc., and these can be
separately analyzed employing the
appropriate criteria for optimisation.

A convenient graphical procedure can

then be utilized to arrive at the total
operational range or duration eliminating
the need for a complex analytical
treatment.

The total mass of the aircraft is plotted

against distance flown, outward flight
from base considered positive and return
as negative.

https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a073218.pdf
If you are interested you can read below dissertation on low level air strike capabilities (bombing skills) of F-
15E and F-16C aircrafts:

https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/rgs_dissertations/RGSD147/RGSD147.chap5.pdf

Low Angle Low Drag and High Drag (LALD/HD) and Loft deliveries are performed by pilots of both F-15E and
F-16C aircraft.

The loft delivery is a low altitude climbing

When performing a LALD/HD delivery pilots acquire
and track a target visually. They then attempt to
delivery that maximizes weapon range, and
stabilize the aircraft in wings level one-G flight and minimizes aircraft exposure to target area
release the bomb(s). All of this takes place while the defenses. Loft deliveries are generally less
aircraft is diving toward the target at an angle of not accurate than LALD/HD deliveries.
more than 30 degrees. The aircraft then over-flies
the target and leaves the area.
 An air superiority fighter is a fighter aircraft designed to obtain control of an enemy
airspace by establishing tactical dominance (air superiority) over the opposing air force.
The typical air superiority mission includes a
cruise out, a combat consisting of either a
certain number of turns or a certain number
of minutes at maximum power, a weapons
drop, a cruise back, and a loiter.

The weapons drop refers to the firing of gun

and missiles and is often left out of the sizing
analysis to ensure that the aircraft has enough
fuel to return safely if the weapons are not
used. Note that the second cruise segment is
identical to the first, indicating that the aircraft
must return to its base at the end of the
mission.

The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is a single-seat,

twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter
aircraft developed for the United States Air Force
(USAF). The result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical
Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed
primarily as an air superiority fighter, but also has
ground attack, electronic warfare, and signal
intelligence capabilities.
F-22 Raptor schematic

The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built

most of the F-22's airframe and weapons
systems and conducted final assembly, while
Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage,
avionics integration, and training systems.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fighter_aircraft
National Combat Aircraft (Milli Muharip Uçak/MMU) ; TF-X (Turkish Fighter – Experimental)
will be a single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather air superiority fighter aircraft.
General characteristics
Crew: One pilot
Length: 21 m (68 ft 11 in)
Wingspan: 14 m (45 ft 11 in)
Height: 6 m (19 ft 8 in)
Wing area: 60 m2 (670 sq ft)
Max. takeoff weight: 27,215 kg (60,000 lb)
Powerplant: 2 × General Electric F110 (until
indigenous ones are manufactured by TR Motor) ,
130 kN (29,000 lbf) thrust each

Performance
Maximum speed: 2,222 km/h (1,381 mph, 1,200 kn)
Maximum speed: Mach 1.8
Combat range: 1,100 km (690 mi, 600 nmi)
Service ceiling: 17,000 m (55,000 ft)
g limits: +9.0 g & -3.5 g

Ref:
https://www.tusas.com/en/product/milli-muharip-ucak
https://www.defenceturkey.com/en/content/5th-generation-fighters-and-the-tf-x-program-2988
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAI_TF-X
For analysis, the various mission segments, or "legs," are numbered, with zero
denoting the start of the mission.

Mission leg one is usually engine warm-up and takeoff for first-order sizing
estimation. The remaining legs are sequentially numbered.

For example, in the simple cruise mission the legs could be numbered as
1) warm-up and takeoff,
2) Climb,
3) cruise,
4) loiter, and
5) land
In a similar fashion, the aircraft weight at each part of the mission can be
numbered. Thus, W0 is the beginning weight (takeoff gross weight) .
3
2

5
0 1
 Weight fractions for various segments of mission:
The fuel required in a particular phase of the mission depends on the weight
of the airplane at the start of that phase and the distance covered or the
duration of time for the phase.
Let the mission consists of ‘n’ phases.

For the phase ‘i’:

The mission segment weight fraction is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.

Let:
W0 be the weight at the start of the flight (warm up)
Wn be the weight at the end of last phase (say landing)

Total mission
weight
fraction:
The aircraft weight at each part of the mission can be numbered.
During each mission segment, the aircraft loses weight by burning fuel.

For the simple cruise mission:

 W0 is the beginning weight (takeoff gross weight) .

 W1 is the weight at the end of the first mission-segment, which is the warm-
up and takeoff.
 W2 is the aircraft weight at the end of the climb.
 W3 is the weight after cruise.
 W4 is the weight after loiter.
 W5 is the weight at the end of the landing segment, which is also the end of
the total mission.
3
2

5
0 1
The warm up and take off, climb and landing weight fractions can be
estimated historically. Table 3.2 gives typical historical values for initial
sizing.

Values can vary somewhat depending on aircraft type, but the averages
value given in the table are reasonable for initial sizing.

In the current sizing method, descent is ignored, assuming that the

cruise ends with a descent and that the distance traveled during descent
is part of the cruise range.
 Cruise segment weight fraction
Cruise-segment mission weight fractions can be found using the Breguet
range equation:

or

where Also note that C and L/ D vary with speed

R = range (ft or m) and altitude.
C = specific fuel consumption Furthermore, C varies with throttle setting,
V = velocity (ft/s or m/s) and L/D varies with aircraft weight.
L/ D = lift-to-drag ratio
 Cruise segment weight fraction
The range of an aircraft is its velocity multiplied by the amount of time it can remain in
the air. Time in the air equals the amount of fuel carried divided by the rate at which
the fuel is burned. This in turn is the required thrust multiplied by the specific fuel
consumption.

Unfortunately, the simple equation implied by the last paragraph is complicated by the
fact that the aircraft weight drops as fuel is burned. This changes the drag, which then
changes the thrust required.

The "instantaneous range" derivative can be calculated as:

𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑉𝑑𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑊 −𝑑𝑊𝑓 −𝐶𝑇𝑑𝑡
This describes the additional distance the aircraft will travel with the next incremental
amount of fuel burned.
𝐿=𝑊
𝐷=𝑇
 Cruise segment weight fraction
Integrating the instantaneous range with respect to the change in aircraft weight
yields the Breguet range equation.

𝐿
𝑉( )
𝑊𝑖
𝑉𝐿 𝑊𝑖−1
𝑅= 𝐷 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑊𝑖−1 −𝐶𝑊 𝐶𝐷 𝑊𝑖
This integration assumes that the velocity, specific fuel consumption, and L/ D are
approximately constant.
These assumptions require that the aircraft hold lift coefficient constant.
To hold the lift coefficient constant as the aircraft becomes lighter requires reducing
the dynamic pressure.
Because velocity is also being held constant the only way to reduce dynamic
pressure is to reduce air density by climbing. This results in a flight path known as
the cruise-climb, which has been found to offer maximum range.
1 2 Climbing is
Lift: 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 required for
2
maximum range
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1 2
𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Dynamic pressure : 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜌 ℎ
2
Cruise segment weight fraction

𝑉𝐿 𝑊𝑖−1
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
𝐶𝐷 𝑊𝑖

𝑊𝑖 −𝑅𝐶
=𝑒 𝑉 𝐿 𝐷
𝑊𝑖−1
 Loiter segment weight fraction
Loiter weight fractions can be found from the endurance equation.

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑊 −𝑑𝑊𝑓 −𝐶𝑇𝑑𝑡

𝐿=𝑊
𝐷=𝑇

Integrating:
𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖−1
1 1 𝐿 𝐿 1 𝑊𝑖−1
𝐸= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑊𝑖−1 −𝐶𝑇 𝑊𝑖 𝐶𝑊 𝐷 𝐷 𝐶 𝑊𝑖

where Also note that C and L/ D vary with speed

E = endurance or loiter time (s) and altitude.
C = specific fuel consumption C varies with throttle setting, and L/D
L/ D = lift-to-drag ratio varies with aircraft weight.
 Loiter segment weight fraction
Loiter weight fractions can be found from the endurance equation.

𝐿 1 𝑊𝑖−1
𝐸= 𝑙𝑛
𝐷 𝐶 𝑊𝑖
or

𝑊𝑖 −𝐸𝐶
=𝑒 𝐿 𝐷
𝑊𝑖−1

where Also note that C and L/ D vary with speed

E = endurance or loiter time (s) and altitude.
C = specific fuel consumption Furthermore, C varies with throttle setting,
L/ D = lift-to-drag ratio and L/D varies with aircraft weight.
Specific fuel consumption (C) :

The fuel burned during a duration of d at a given thrust T

and specific fuel consumption C is determined:

For jet engines “SFC” or simply “C” is the rate of fuel

consumption (dWf/dt) divided by the resulting thrust.

C= (fuel consumed per hour in N)/(thrust in N) or 1/hr

or [(lb/hr)/ lb or 1/hr

In SI units, mg/Ns is also mostly used.

Specific fuel consumption (C) :

0.9
0.8
0.5
0.4

SFC vs Mach number (M) for various engines.

Specific Fuel Consumption get worst for high velocities (see for turbo prop,
piston prop)
Specific fuel consumption (C) :

Propeller engine SFC is normally given as Cbhp, the pounds of fuel per
hour to produce one horsepower at the propeller shaft
(or one brake horsepower: bhp = 550 ft-lb/s).

In metric, power SFC is given in mg/W-s (mg/J, or in μg/J to make "nice"

numbers)

A propeller thrust SFC equivalent to the jet-engine SFC can be

calculated.
The engine produces thrust via the propeller, which has an efficiency
p defined as thrust power produced by the propeller (thrust times
velocity) divided by the engine power provided to the propeller.

The 550 term converts horsepower to power in British units and

assumes that V is in feet per second.
Specific fuel consumption (C) :

Equation below shows the derivation of the equivalent-thrust SFC for a

propeller-driven aircraft.

where Cpower is mg/s/Watt of power and Cbhp is lbs /hr/ BHP

Note that for a propeller aircraft, the thrust and the SFC are a function of
the flight velocity.

For a typical aircraft with a propeller efficiency of about p=0.8, 1 hp

equals one pound of thrust at about 0.8x550=440 ft/s, or about 260 kt
{484 km/h}.
Specific fuel consumption (C) :

Table 3.3 provides typical SFC values for jet engines

Specific fuel consumption (C) :

Table 3.4 provides typical Cbhp values for propeller engines.

Typically, one can assume p=0.8

- except for a fixed-pitch propeller during loiter, where p=0.7.

These can be used for rough initial sizing.

In later chapters more detailed procedures for calculating these values, which
change as a function of altitude, velocity, and power setting, will be presented.
Estimation of (L/D)max:
The drag polar of an airplane can be approximated as:
CD= CD0 + KCL2
zero lift drag induced drag
parasite drag drag caused by the generation of lift
drag due to skin friction

Then it can be shows that (L/D)max = 1/{2(CD0K)1/2}

Thus (L/D)max depends on CD0 and K . Further CD0

depends primarily on the wetted area of the airplane
(Swet) and K depends primarily on the aspect ratio of
the wing (AR=b2/S).

b: span of the wing

S: wing referencearea
Only for rectangular wings
Estimation of (L/D)max:

A parameter called wetted aspect ratio (Awet) defined as:

Awet = A/(Swet / Sref)

where Sref is wing referece area.

When (L/D)max is plotted vs Awet it is found that the values, for

various airplanes of a category, fall on a single curve .

The guidelines for choice of Swet / Sref, are given in figure.

Maximum lift todrag ratio
The linearity of the data makes a useful equation for
predicting L/Dmax rather using Fig. 3.5.

𝐿
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Wetted area ratios
Thus for a preliminary estimate of (L/D)max the steps
are as follows:

1.Choose wing aspect ratio from data collection

(competitor study).

2.Choose (Swet / Sref) from figure of “wetted area ratios” and

calculate Awet from Equation Awet = A/(Swet / Sref)

3.Corresponding to this Awet and for the chosen type

of airplane , choose (L/D)max from the figure of “Maximum lift
to drag ratio”
Drag varies with altitude and velocity. For any altitude there is a velocity that
maximizes L/D. To maximize cruise or loiter efficiency, the aircraft should fly at
approximately the velocity for maximum L/D.

For reasons that will be derived later (in performance chapter), the most efficient
loiter for a jet aircraft occurs exactly at the velocity for maximum L/D, but the most
efficient loiter speed for a propeller aircraft occurs at a slower velocity that yields an
L/D of 86.6% of the maximum L/D.

Similarly, the most efficient cruise velocity for a propeller aircraft occurs at the
velocity yielding maximum L / D, whereas the most efficient cruise for a jet aircraft
occurs at a slightly, higher velocity yielding an L/D of 86.6% of the maximum L/D:

These percentages can be multiplied times the maximum L/D as estimated using
Fig. 3.5 to determine the L/D for cruise and loiter.

The values of (L/D) which maximize range and endurance can be

approximated for an initial sizing as:
 Fuel Fraction Estimation:
After calculating the weight fractions in various phases of the
mission, the weight of the airplane at the end of the mission is
given by:

Total Weigth
Fraction:

𝑊𝑛
Consequently the mission fuel fraction is: 1−
𝑊0
If you assume, typically, a 6% allowance for reserve and trapped fuel, the total
fuel fraction can be estimated as

Total Fuel
𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑛
Fraction: = 1.06 1 −
𝑊0 𝑊0
Take-off weight calculation:
Having obtained (Wf/W0) and (We/W0), the take-off
weight W0 can be calculated.

However, the expression for (We/W0) involves W0 and an

iterative procedure is needed (guess an initial value for
W0 and iterate)
 Exercise: Class work
A military Cargo bomber under design has the following
features (all data is given in SI units)
Weight of payload + crew = 26000 N
Estimated fuel fraction (Wf / W0 ) =0.387
Empty weight fraction (We / W0)= 0.88 W0 -0.07;

Obtain the take-off gross weight (W0) of the airplane

Mission profile example:

Anti-submarine warfare(ASW) airplane :

The mission of such an airplane to consist of warm up,
take-off, climb, cruise,reconnaissance (certain number of
turns, or certain minutes of maximum power), weapons
drop, cruise back, descent, loiter and landing.
Most of the Aircrafts in this range cruise at0.6 Mach number
Conceptual Sketches

Concept one is the conventional approach, looking much like the Lockheed S-3A
that currently performs a similar mission. The low horizontal tail position shown in
solid line would offer the lightest structure, but may place the tail in the exhaust
stream of the engines, so other positions for the horizontal tail are shown
in dotted lines.

Lockheed S-3A
 Conceptual Sketches

The second concept is much like the first except for the engine location.
Here the engines are shown mounted over the wing. This provides extra lift
due to the exhaust over the wings and also provides greater ground clearance
for the engines, which reduces the tendency of the jet engines to suck up
debris.
The disadvantage of this concept is the difficulty in reaching the engines for
maintenance work. Also, wing top engines often suffer from interference drag.

Interference drag:
Parasitic drag is
increased by the
mutual interference
between components.
This is a catch-all
phrase for the various
ways that two
components, brought
together, will have more
drag than the sum of
their separate drags.
 Conceptual Sketches
Concepts three and four explore the canarded approach. Canards offer the potential
for reduced trim drag and may provide a wider allowable range for the center of
gravity. However, it is often difficult to put large flaps on the wing, so the wing must be
oversized.

In concept three, the wing is low and the engines are mounted over the wing as in
concept two. This would allow the main landing gear to be stowed in the wing root,
probably saving some weight and drag. In concept four, the wing is high with the
engines mounted below. This last approach offers better access to the engines.
The three-surface aircraft theoretically offers minimum trim drag.

A canard or aft tail, when generating lift for trim purposes, will change the aircraft
total lift distribution, which increases total induced drag.

On a three surface configuration the canard and aft tail can act in opposite
directions, thus cancelling out each other's effect upon the total lift distribution. For
example, to generate a nose-up trim the canard can generate an upward lift force
while the tail generates an equal downward lift force. The combined effect upon
total lift distribution would then be zero.

However, this reduction in trim drag is a theoretical effect and might not be fully
realized in an actual design. The drawback of the three surface arrangement is
the additional weight, complexity, and interference drag associated with the extra
surfaces.
For initial sizing of the fourth concept, a wing aspect ratio of 10 was selected. With
the area of the wing and canard both included, this is equivalent to a combined aspect
ratio of about 7.
This yields a wetted aspect ratio of 1 .27 (i.e., Awet=A/(Swet/Sref) = 7 /5.5).
For a wetted aspect ratio of 1 .27, Fig. 3.5 indicates that a maximum
lift-to-drag ratio of about 16 would be expected.

Because this is a jet aircraft, the maximum L/D is used for loiter calculations.
For cruise, a value of 0.866 times the maximum L/D, or about 13.9, is used.

5.5
This yields a wetted aspect ratio of 1 .27 (i.e., 7 /5.5).
For a wetted aspect ratio of 1 .27, Fig. 3.5 indicates that a maximum
lift-to-drag ratio of about 16 would be expected.

16

1.27
The calculations in Box 3.1 indicate a takeoff gross weight of 56,702 lb {25,720 kg}.
Although these calculations are based upon crude estimates of aerodynamics,
weights, and propulsion parameters, the actual takeoff gross weight of the Lockheed
S-3A,is 52,539 lb {23,831 kg}.
 y=x line

Graphical method: A 45-deg line from the origin represents where the guess equals
the calculated value, so that the intersection of this line with the line of the answers
is the solution.
Trade studies
Range Trade:
An important part of conceptual design is the evaluation and refinement, with the
customer, of the design requirements. In the ASW design example, the required range of
1 500 n miles.
This is done by recalculating the weight fractions for the cruise mission segments, using
other selected ranges for example 1000 n miles and 2000 n miles.
1000 n miles Range: 2000 n miles Range:
 Put also the symbols to show the location
Range Trade:
where you have done calculations in
[lb] addition to the trend line.

[nm]

Do not forget to write the units of x and y axis in any graph !

Payload Trade:
 Put also the symbols to show the location
Payload Trade:
where you have done calculations in
[lb] addition to the trend line.

[lb]

Do not forget to write the units of x and y axis in any graph !