Fixed Engine Sizing:

Either the mission range or the performance must be considered as second parameter, and
allowed to vary as the aircraft issized.

If the range is allowed to vary, the sizing problem is very simple. The required thrust to
weight (T/W) ratio is determined as in the last section toprovide all required performance
capabilities, using the known characteristics of the selected engine. Then the takeoff gross
weight is determined as the total engine takeoff thrust divided by the required takeoff
thrust-to-weight ratio.

where N is the number of engines.

With the takeoff weight known, the range capability can be determined from equation
below using a modified iteration technique. The known takeoff weight is used as “guess W0”
at the RHSand the range for one or more cruise legs is varied until the calculated W0 equals
the known W0.
The weight, frontal area and SFCof the available engine would
also have to be taken into account while arriving at the final
choice. A higher frontal area would result inincreased parasite
drag and a heavier engine would cause higher induced drag.

After choosing the engine, we obtain the variations of

thrust/power and TSFC/BSFCwith altitude and velocity. In the
case of airplanes with engine propeller combination, the variation
of propeller efficiency also needs to be calculated. These curves
are needed for subsequent performance analysis.
Engine Characteristics:
Engines commonly used on the airplanes are:
i) Piston engine.
ii) Turbo-prop
iii) Turbo-fan
iv) Turbo-jet

Remark:
Sometimes rockets are used as boosters during take off. Ramjet
in combination with jet engine (turbo ramjet) or a rocket engine
(ram rocket) are proposed for hypersonic airplane.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. D. Funda Kurtulus
Assoc. Prof. Dr. D. Funda Kurtulus
Power decreaseswith
altitude increase
Piston Engine Propeller Combination

In this case the output of the engine,

Brake horse power (BHP), is available
at the engine shaft and is converted
into thrust by thepropeller.

In a piston engine a certain amount

for fuel-air mixture is taken-in, it is
compressed, then the ignition takes
place which is followed by the power ignition
stroke and the exhaust stroke.

Four stroke cycle

Piston Engine Propeller Combination

The volume of the air-fuel mixture taken in, is almost equal to the swept
volume i.e., product of the area of cross-section of the engine cylinder and the
length of the pistonstroke.

The mass of fuel taken in per power stroke is thus equal to (swept volume) x
(density of air) /(air-fuelratio).

For proper combustion of fuel, the air-fuel ratio has a definite value (around
15). Actual air-fuel ratiois around this value.

BHP(brake horse power) vary with flight speed andaltitude.

Effect of flight speed on output of piston engine:
For a given altitude and r.p.m. (N) the power output changes only slightly with
flight speed. This is because the piston engines are generally used at low speeds
(M < 0.3) and at these low Mach numbers, the increase in manifold pressure
due to the deceleration of air is very slight. Hence power output increases only
slightly with flight speed. This increase is generallyignored.

Effect of altitude on output of pistonengine:

As the flight altitude increases the density of air decreases. Hence for a given
r.p.m., the mass of fuel taken-in decreases with altitude and consequently the
power output decreases . The change in power output (P) is roughly given by:

(P/P0) = 1.13 σ - 0.13

where P0 is the power out-put at sea level and σ is the density ratio.

The variation of specific fuel consumption depends on r.p.m. and the output
power. But power output depends on r.p.m. and manifold pressure. Hence
S.F.C.or fuel consumption is plotted as function of (a) r.p.m. and B.H.P or(b) r.p.m.
and manifold air pressure(M.A.P.).
Typical Piston engine performance

Assoc. Prof. Dr. D. Funda Kurtulus

Propeller:
The output of the engine is converted in to thrust by the propeller. Typical engine with
three bladed propeller is shown in figure. For engines with larger power output, four
bladed propellers may be used.

Typical engine- propeller combination

Propeller efficiency:
If the propeller produces a thrust Twhen the airplane moves with a
speed V∞ , then the power output, called thrust horse power (THP)
and denoted by

THP= (TV∞/ 1000) in kW.

The efficiency of the propeller (ηp)is

ηp =THP/BHP

Note:
Tis in Newtons, V∞ is in m/s and THPand BHPare in kW. The units
used in previous figure , reproduced from manufacturer’s charts,are
in fps, English unit system.
The propeller efficiency depends on the pitch of the propeller (β) and advance ratio J=V/nD
where V is flight speed, n is the propeller rpm. and D is the diameter of propeller.

Typical propeller chart

(variation of ηp)

(Speed power coefficient)

The efficiency is zero when V∞ is zero. It increases with V∞, reaches a maximum and then
decreases.
For a single pitch propeller the efficiency is high (80 to 85%) only over a narrow range of flight
speeds. For commercial airplanes the variable pitch propellers are used which give high
efficiency over a wide range of speeds.
Propellers with variable pitch are expensive and heavy. Hence airplanes like personal
airplanes, where cost of the airplane is an important consideration, have fixed pitch
propeller.

THP= ηp BHP.

Thus variation of THP(Thrust horse power) with V depends on variations of ηp and BHP
(Brake horse power) . Note that BHPdepends on r.p.m and altitude. Typical variations of THP,
for a chosen engine rpm and with variable pitch propeller, are shown in figure below.

Variation of THPwith flight speed

for a chosen engine rpm
Selection of propeller and its performance:

The propeller performance is expressed in terms of the

following coefficients:

Advance ratio : J= V/nd

Power coefficient : Cp= P/ρn3d5 = 550BHP/ρn3d5
Thrust coefficient : CT= T/ ρn3d4
Speed power coefficient : Cs= V(ρ/Pn2)1/5
Propeller efficiency : ηp = TV/P = TV/(550xBHP)= J(CT/CP)

Thrust = T= (550BHP/V), ηp =CT/CP(550BHP/nd)

T= Thrust(lbs); P=Power(ft lbs/s) = 550BHP

V=flight velocity (ft/s), BHP= break horse power
n= rotational speed(rev/s), d= diameter of propeller
 / 60

Vtip in meters/minute
Selection of propeller diameter:

The steps are as follows

a)Choose flight conditions say hcr and Vcr.
b) Obtain THPrequired from THP=0.5ρV3crSCDcr
c) Assume ηp =0.8
d)BHP= THP/0.8. Then RPM (N) which will give this
power output at hcr is known from Typical Piston
engine performance curves;n=N/60.
e) Calculate Cs= V (ρ/Pn2)1/5
f)For this Cs obtain, from ηp vs. Cscurves of
propeller charts, the value of β which gives
maximum efficiency
g) For these values of β & CsobtainJ, which lies on
dotted curve corresponding to ηpmax.
h) Then d =V/nJ.
i) If ηpmax obtained in step (g) is significantly
different from ηp assumed in step (c), then
iterate by using new ηp value. Finally round off
the propeller diameter to nearby standard value.
Obtaining ηp for chosen h,V,n & P:
A propeller absorbs the power developed by theengine
(BHP) and delivers THP.The efficiency of the propeller
(THP/BHP) depends on BHP,V, n and β.
For calculation of airplane performance, we need to
know THPat different speeds and altitudes which calls
for information on ηp at different speeds andaltitudes.

The steps to obtain ηp for chosen BHP,n and V are as

follows.
a) Obtain Cpfrom Cp=P/ρn3d5
b) Calculate J=V/nd
c) Read β from Cp vs Jcurve.
d) For these β & Jvalues obtain ηp.
e) Calculate THP= ηpBHP
T= (THP x 1000) /V when THPis in kW.
Calculate ηp for various velocities at a chosen altitude.
Then vary altitude and get curves of variation of THP
with flight speed
c)-Read β from Cpvs Jcurve.
d)-For these β & Jvalues obtainηp.
The efficiency of the propeller decreases as Mach number at the propeller tip
approaches the critical Mach number for the blade used on the propeller.

This loss of efficiency can be delayed by use of advanced propellers. These propellers
can be used on turboprop airplanes up to flight Mach number of 0.7

Advance turboprop design

Gas TurbineEngines
A gas turbine engine consists of a diffuser to decelerate theair-stream entering
the engine, a compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine, a jet pipe and a
nozzle.
The hot gases after the combustion chamber, expand partly in turbine and
partly in the nozzle.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. D. Funda Kurtulus

Propulsive efficiency:
In a gas turbine engine, the velocity of the air stream (V∞) is augmented to Vj,the
velocity of the jet stream, thereby imparting kinetic energy of

where is the mass flow rate.

The engine develops a thrust Tand hence results in a useful work of TV∞.
Note that
Thus the propulsive efficiency (ηpropulsive) is
 A) Turboprop Engine
ηpropulsive will be low if a pure-jet engine is used at low speeds (below say 250m/s).

For having adequate thrust and high propulsive efficiency at low flight speeds, a small
increment in velocity should be given to a large mass of air.
This is effectively done by a propeller. Thus for airplanes with flight Mach number less
than about 0.5, a turbo-prop engine is used.

Turboprop engine
 A) Turboprop Engine
In this case, the turbine drives the compressor and the propeller through agearbox.
The gearbox is needed because the turbine r.p.m. would be around 15000 – 20000
whereas the propeller rotates at about 3000r.p.m.
The expansion of the gases coming out of the combustion chamber is not allowed
completely in the turbine and part of the expansion is carried out in the nozzle. About
80 to 90% of the total output is produced through the propeller and the rest 20
to 10% as output from the jet coming out of the nozzle.
 B) Turbofan Engine
As the flight Mach number increases beyond about 0.7, the propeller efficiency
decreases rapidly due to formation of shock waves on the tip ofthe
propeller blade.
Hence for airplanes flying near Mach number unity, a turbo-fan engine is used.
In this engine major portion of the power output (about 60%) is obtained as jet thrust
and the rest as thrust from a fan. A fan has a smaller diameter as compared to the
propeller and it is generally placed inside a duct. A ducted fan has a higher
efficiency than a propeller.

Turbofan engines
rof. Dr. D. FundaKurtulus
 B) Turbofan Engine
It is seen that all the air taken in by the fan does not go through the turbine.
Incidentally the part of the engine consisting of the compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine and nozzle is called gas generator. The ratio by mass of the air
that passes through the fan to the air that passes through the gas generator is
called the bypass ratio. Early turbofan engines had bypass ratios of1:1.
Currently it is around 6.5:1 and is likely to increase in the future.
 C) Turbojet Engine
For supersonic Mach numbers, up to three, a turbo-jet engine is used. In this engine
entire power output is through the jet thrust.
One
atachment
at the top
rear
Characteristics of gasturbine engines

Turboprop engine:
As noted earlier, in this engine, major part of the output is
available at the propeller shaft and a small fraction through the jet
thrust. Hence the output is representedas:

where SHP= shaft horse power available at propeller shaft

ηp = propeller efficiency
Tj = Jet thrust

The total output of a turbo-prop engine, also calledequivalent

shaft horse power (ESHP), is defined as:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. D. Funda Kurtulus

Characteristics of a typical turbo-prop engine are shown in Figuresbelow.
It is seen that the power output increases with flight Mach number. The reason for
this is that in a gas turbine engine the mass flow rate through the engine
and the pressure rise due to the deceleration of the air in the diffuser, increase with
Mach number. Figure also shows the influence of ambient temperature on power
output. It is seen that there is a significant decrease in ESHPas the ambient
temperature rises.

Turboprop engine characteristics(PT6A-25) (Based on company brochure).

 Turboprop engine characteristics(PT6A-25) (Based on
company brochure).
From the curves regarding fuel flow rate, we canobtain
BSFCat various speeds and altitudes. Note that:
Turbofan engine:

In the older type of turbo-fan engines

the thrust output used to remain fairly
constant with flight speed.

In modern turbo fan engines the

performance at low speeds and low
altitudes (up to about 5 km) has been
improved so that the ratio of sea level
static thrust to that in high speed high
altitude flight, is much higher. Higher
sea level static thrust helps in reducing
the distance required fortake-off.

Typical Turbo fan engine characteristics

 Turbojet engine:
The characteristics of a supersonic turbo-jet engine are shown in Figures below.
It is seen that at subsonic speeds the thrust is fairly constant, but it increases considerably at
supersonic speeds. This rise is due to increased pressure in the intake obtained by deceleration
of the supersonic flow.
The Mach number at which the peak value of thrust occurs, depends on the design of the
engine.

Performance of supersonic turbojet

engine at sea level (JT4A)
performance of supersonic turbojet
engine at h = 15000 ft
performance of supersonic turbojet
engine at h = 30000 ft
General Remarks:

The detailed information about engine performance i.e. variation

with altitude and flight velocity of the thrust/power and TSFC/BSFC,
is available only in a limited number ofcases.
Toget the performance characteristics of the engine chosen for the
airplane being designed, we carry out scaling of the available data.
For this purpose we multiply the thrust/power values of the
available engine by a suitable factor which will make it equal to
the rating of the chosen engine . It is assumed that the SFCvalue will
be the same for the two engines. This kind of scaling is generally
applicable when the outputs of the available engine and the chosen
engine or within ±25% of eachother.